Lesson 1.

1: Introduction to Electronic Systems and Design

1.1.1 Introduction

Electrical power is needed for continuous operation of many circuits and devices
in a system. The moment electrical power is applied, the electronic devices and
circuits inside a machine synthesize into a functioning system to serve a desired
purpose. Hence a power supply unit of some kind is a compulsion to energize
electronic systems. The function of an electronic power supply unit is to convert
the ac or dc line power into the required dc voltages according to the current
demands of a particular system. Some typical line voltages are rated at (i) 230 V,
50 Hz, single phase, (ii) 400 V, 50 Hz, three phase, and (iii) 5 V or 12 V dc.
Though low dc line voltages can operate solid-state electronic systems, some may
require regulated dc voltages while the analog circuits in the same machine
would need intermediate values of dc voltages. An example is that of the radio
frequency (rf) section or video circuits in a television which require low or
moderate dc voltages but the picture tube requires a high dc voltage of the order
of 30,000 V. Regardless of the type of voltages involved, the base of an electronic
power supply is its rectifier circuit.

Power Supply

The function of the rectifier circuit in an electronic power supply is to convert ac

voltage to dc voltage. The functional blocks required for conversion of ac input
to dc output voltage in an electronic power supply unit are shown in Fig. 1.1 and
are as follows: (i) power transformer, (ii) diode rectifier circuit, (iii) filter circuit,
and (iv) regulator.

Figure. 1.1.1 Block diagram showing conversion of ac input to dc output voltage

in an electronic power supply.

The function of the power transformer in an ac-to-dc power supply is to step

down the ac line voltage (230 V, 50 Hz) to about the desired voltage. The rectifier
circuit converts the ac voltage from the transformer secondary into a pulsating
dc voltage. The filter smooths out the pulsating dc voltage. Finally, the regulator
maintains a constant output voltage regardless of variations in ac line voltage or
the current required by the load or both. The load comprises electronic devices
and circuits which require dc power. Hence the name ‘electronic power supply’.
It is somewhat a misnomer as the circuit described does not supply the power,
but rather converts it from one form (ac) to another (dc). However, the name is
widely used in electronics.

1.1.2 Rectifier

A rectifier circuit converts the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage. Rectifiers

are classified as (i) half-wave and (ii) full-wave.

Half-wave Rectifier

The sinusoidal voltage output of the transformer secondary vS is applied to a load

RL in series with a diode D as shown in Fig. 1.1.2. During the positive half-cycle
of vS, the diode D is forward biased and thus it conducts, allowing a load current
iL to pass through the load RL. During the negative half-cycle, the diode D, being
reverse biased, does not conduct and, therefore, no current can flow through RL.
Thus, the current iL always flows in one direction only through the load RL. The
output voltage Vout developed across the load RL is, therefore, a pulsating wave
of one polarity only as shown in Fig. 1.1.3 and is called pulsating dc. The output
voltage Vout pulsates once for every input cycle. The pulses cause the dc output
voltage to be rippled once for each input cycle, producing a 50 Hz ripple
frequency.

Figure 1.1.2 Circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier.

The current iL in the diode or load RL is given by

Assuming that the open circuit voltage from the secondary of the transformer is
given by
𝑣 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 1.2

where Vm is the peak value of the secondary voltage, the peak value of load
current is given by
 (1.3)

where Rf is the dynamic resistance of the diode.

Figure 1.1.3 Input and output waveforms of a half-wave rectifier.

Average or dc value of the load current

The average value Iav or the dc value Idc of current through the load RL is given
by

(1.4)

The average value or dc value of output voltage is given by

 (1.5)

RMS value of the load current

The rms value of current flowing through the load RL in a half-wave rectifier is
given by

(1.6)

The pulsating load current iL is the combination of dc and ripple (ac) components.
In Fig. 1.1.3, the instantaneous value of the ripple (ac) component i is the
difference between the instantaneous value of iL and the dc value of current Idc.
Therefore, the instantaneous value of the ripple components is given by
𝑖 𝑖 𝐼 1.7

Therefore, the rms value of the ripple (ac) components is given by

(1.8)

(1.9)
Full-wave Rectifier Using Centre-tap Transformer

A full-wave rectifier as shown in Fig. 1.1.4 contains a center-tap transformer

(center-tapped secondary) and two diodes D1 and D2. In this circuit, the
transformer secondary has two sources of equal and opposite voltages, vA and
vB. During the positive half-cycle of vA, diode D1 conducts as it is forward biased,
but diode D2 remains cut-off due to reverse voltage vB. Load current (iL = iD1)
flows through the load resistor RL in the downward direction 0 < ωt < π as shown
in the figure. Beyond ωt = π, vB is positive and vA negative. Therefore, for π < ωt
< 2π, the diode D2 will take over the load current. Diode D1 does not conduct
as it is reverse biased during this interval. Again, the load current (iL = iD2) flows
through the load RL in the downward direction. So, the pulsating voltages
developed across RL during both positive and negative half-cycles are
unidirectional. Figure 1.1.5 shows the input and output waveforms of the circuit.
The output voltage, Vout, thus contains two pulses for each input cycle, producing
a 100 Hz ripple frequency for 50 Hz input frequency.

Fig. 1.1.4 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier using center-tap transformer.

 Fig. 1.1.5 Input and output waveforms of Center-tapped FW rectifier.
Average or dc value of the load current

The average or dc value of output voltage is given by

(1.10)

(1.11)

(1.12)

which is seen to be double that of a half-wave rectifier. Therefore, a full-wave

rectifier is twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.

RMS value of the load current

The rms value of current iL flowing through the load R in a full-wave rectifier is
given by

(1.13)

The rms value of output voltage vout is given by

(1.14)

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

The bridge rectifier is a common circuit used for supplying large amounts of dc
power. Figure 1.1.6 shows a bridge rectifier using four diodes. During the positive
half-cycle of the secondary voltage vS, diodes D1 and D4 conduct being forward
biased. The load current iL = iD1-D4 flows through the load in the downward
direction, developing the output voltage across RL as shown in Fig. 1.1.6.
During the negative half-cycle of vS, diodes D2 and D3 conduct. Again, the load
current iL = iD2-D3 flows through the load in the downward direction, resulting in
a full-wave rectified output which is a pulsating dc. The input and output
waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.1.7. The dc and rms values of the load current
are the same as in a full-wave rectifier using center-tap transformer.

Reasons for the ripple component in the rectified output

If a ripple voltage Vripple, rms is superimposed on to a steady state dc voltage Vdc,

the resultant component will be like a pulsating dc as shown in Fig. 1.1.8.
Therefore, a pulsating dc voltage from a rectifier contains a steady state dc along
with a ripple component.

Fig. 1.1.6 Circuit diagram of a full-wave bridge rectifier.

Fig. 1.1.7 Input and output waveforms of a full-wave bridge rectifier.

Fig. 1.1.8 Superimposition of a ripple voltage on a steady state voltage.

1.1.3 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF POWER SUPPLIES

Rectifier Efficiency or Ratio of Rectification

It is defined as the ratio of the useful output power (dc power) to the ac input
power. The useful power output of a rectifier is given by

(1.15)

The power input to the rectifier is given by

(1.16)

where

Rf is the dynamic resistance of the diode

RL is the load resistance
Irms is the effective or rms value of the alternating current flowing through
the load.
Hence the rectifier efficiency is given by
 (1.17)

For a half-wave rectifier, the dc value and rms value of current flowing through
the load are, respectively, given by
𝑰𝑫𝑪 𝑰𝒎 /𝝅
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒎 /𝟐

(1.18)
Or

(1.19)

In practice, RL is much greater than Rf. Therefore, the rectifier efficiency of a half-
wave rectifier is 40.6%. This means that 40.6% of the ac input is converted into
dc power in the load, under the conditions where there is no diode loss, and the
rest exists as ac power in the load.

For a full-wave rectifier, the dc value and rms value of current flowing through
the load are, respectively, given by
𝑰𝑫𝑪 𝟐𝑰𝒎 /𝝅
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒎 /√𝟐
Therefore, the rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is given by

(1.20)
Or

(1.21)

In practice, RL is much greater than Rf. Therefore, the rectifier efficiency of a full-
wave rectifier is 81.2% which is twice that of a half-wave rectifier.

Utilization Factor of a Transformer

This is defined as the ratio of dc load power to the ac rating of the transformer
secondary. It may seem to be the same as rectifier efficiency. In a half-wave
rectifier, the actual rms value of current flowing through the secondary winding
is only Im/2. The utilization factor (UF) is thus given by
 (1.22)

Or

(1.23)

Practically, RL >> Rf, the utilization factor of a half-wave rectifier is, therefore,
𝟐√𝟐
𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟕
𝝅𝟐

In a full-wave bridge rectifier, the rms value of the current flowing through the
secondary winding is Im/√2. The utilization factor (UF) is thus given by

(1.24)

Or

(1.25)

In practice, the utilization factor of a full-wave rectifier is equal to 0.81.

Peak Inverse Voltage (P.I.V.) or Peak Reverse Voltage (P.R.V.)

This is the maximum allowable voltage that the diode can safely withstand
without breakdown. It is the maximum instantaneous voltage that occurs during
the negative half-cycle. Hence the name peak inverse voltage or peak reverse
voltage. The P.I.V. for a diode in a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave bridge rectifier
is equal to the peak voltage Vm of the transformer secondary voltage. In a full-
wave rectifier circuit with a center-tap transformer, the P.I.V. for the diode is
2Vm.

Importance of peak inverse voltage in a rectifier

The value of P.I.V. is extremely important when a diode is used as a rectifier.
This is an important factor considered when selecting a diode for a power supply.
If the reverse voltage across a P-N junction diode exceeds its P.I.V., the reverse
current increases sharply and breaks down the junction because of excessive
heat generated.
Voltage Regulation

The change in dc output voltage caused by the change in load current is a

measure of the voltage regulation of the power supply. In other words, if
VNL is the no load dc output voltage, i.e. with zero load current
VFL is the full load dc output voltage, i.e. with full load current

The percentage voltage regulation (VR) is mathematically given by

(1.26)

In an ideal power supply, the output voltage is independent of load current, i.e.
the full load voltage equals the no load voltage. The percentage regulation for an
ideal power supply is, therefore, zero. The percentage regulation in a well-
designed power supply can be made to approach zero if the full load voltage is
only slightly less than the no load voltage. Hence a lower regulation means a
better power supply. For a good quality power supply, the internal resistance
should not be more than a fraction of an ohm. Poor voltage regulation means
that the load voltage changes appreciably with the change in load current.

Line Regulation or Source Regulation

This is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in the input voltage.
The measurement is made under conditions of low dissipation or by using pulse
techniques such that the average chip temperature is not significantly affected.

Therefore, the percentage line regulation (LR) is given by

(1.27)

where
ΔVout is the change in output voltage
ΔVin is the change in input voltage.

Load Regulation
It is defined as the change in the output voltage for a change in the load current
at a constant chip temperature. Therefore, the percentage load regulation (LR) is
given by

(1.28)

where
ΔVout is the change in output voltage
ΔIL is the change in load current.

Thermal Regulation
It is the percentage change in the output voltage for a given change in power
dissipation over a specified time period.

Temperature Stability
It is the percentage change in input for a thermal variation from room
temperature to either temperature extreme.

Maximum Power Dissipation

It is the maximum total power dissipation in the device for which the regulator
will operate within its specifications.

Ripple Rejection
It is the line regulation for ac input signals at or above a given frequency with a
specified value of the bypass capacitor on the reference bypass terminal. A filter
circuit in a power supply attenuates the ripple that comes in with the pulsating
dc voltage from the rectifier circuit. The percentage ripple rejection (RR) of a
power supply is, therefore, given by

(1.29)

where
Vout,ripple is the output ripple voltage
Vin,ripple is the input ripple voltage.

The unit of ripple rejection is dB. For example, a ripple rejection of 80 dB means
that the output ripple is 80 dB less than the input ripple, i.e. the output ripple
is 10,000 times smaller than the input ripple.

Stabilization Factor
The degree of stabilization against output voltage variation offered by a constant
voltage regulated power supply is given by the stabilization factor, S. Thus,

(1.30)

The measurement is made with a constant value of load current. In practice,

other quantities such as load resistance, the transistor parameters, etc. may also
change, but they are taken to be constant. In a simple regulator, stabilization
factor may have a value of 0.005 (a change of 5 mV/V), while sophisticated
supplies provide the value of stabilization factor which can be smaller than
0.0002 (i.e. < 0.2 mV/V).

Ripple Factor
The function of a rectifier is to convert ac to dc. A measure of how successful a
circuit is in doing this is the ripple factor. Mathematically, the ripple factor is
defined as

(1.31)

Let Vrms be the rms value of the secondary voltage v of the transformer. From ac
circuit theory:

(1.32)
Or

(1.33)

From Eq. (1.31),

(1.34)

Similarly, it can be derived

(1.35)

For a half-wave rectifier, the rms value and the average (dc) value of vS are given,
respectively, by
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 ; 𝑉
2 𝜋
Thus,

For a full-wave rectifier, the rms value and the average (dc) value of vS are given,
respectively, by
𝑉 2𝑉
𝑉 ; 𝑉
√2 𝜋
Therefore,
COMPARISON OF RECTIFIER CIRCUITS (WITH RESISTIVE LOAD)

Example 1.1.1
The forward resistance of each diode of a full-wave rectifier using center-tap
transformer is 15 Ω. The voltage across half the secondary winding is 141.4 sin
ωt. The load resistance is 1.5 kΩ. Calculate (a) the average value of load current,
(b) the ripple factor, (c) the dc output power, (d) the ac input power, and (e) the
rectifier efficiency.

Solution 1.1.1
The peak value of the current is given by

The average value of the load current is given by

The rms value of the load current is given by

The rms value of the ripple current is given by

Therefore,

Now, the dc output power and ac input power are given, respectively, by

Hence, the rectifier efficiency is given by

1.1.4 FILTERING

The output of a single-phase rectifier contains large ripple components, as

quantified by its ripple factor. A filter is a circuit which is used to remove the
unwanted ripple in the rectified output. In other words, a filter circuit will
smoothen the pulsating waveform and make it more like pure direct current (a
straight line). A filter circuit is used between the rectifier output and the load. A
low-pass filter is designed to pass direct current (0 Hz) and to block the ac ripple
(some multiples of the line frequency). The filtering of the unwanted ac
components in the rectified output is done in four different ways:
1. Capacitor filter or Shunt capacitor filter
2. Inductor filter or Series inductor filter
3. Choke input filter
4. Pi (π) filter

Capacitor Filter (Shunt Capacitor Filter)

The full-wave rectifier in Fig. 1.1.9 has a single capacitor filter C in parallel with
the load RL. The capacitor C charges to the peak value Vm of a rectified dc
(pulsating dc) Vdc, R during the time that diode D1 conducts, delivering current
pulses iC to the capacitor filter C and load RL [Fig. 1.1.10]. When the rectifier
output begins to drop from its maximum value Vm, the capacitor voltage keeps
both the diodes reverse biased and discharges (id = iL) through the load. The
capacitor voltage falls off slowly and during the next rectified pulse, the diode D2
will be forward biased at point A as shown in Fig. 1.1.10, recharging the
capacitor. The cycle is repeated. If the capacitor C is large enough, it will hold
the output voltage Vout close to the peak value Vm over the period of the half-cycle
until the next rectified pulse comes along.

Fig. 1.1.9 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

Fig. 1.1.10 Waveforms of a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

At the time of switching ON, the rectifier supplies charging current iC to the
capacitor and some current iL to the load RL, and the capacitor charges in step
with the applied voltage until the rectifier voltage reaches its peak value. When
the diode rectifier is non-conducting, the peak voltage Vm on the capacitor is in
series with the peak voltage Vm of the pulsating dc and this results in a peak
inverse voltage 2Vm across each diode. The ripple component in the filtered
output will be low if the discharging time constant is more. The waveform of the
filtered output is shown in Fig. 1.1.10. However, as RL decreases, the discharge
of the capacitor will be faster, resulting in more ripple, and a lower dc output
voltage. A capacitor filter circuit is, therefore, used with rectifiers that need to
supply low values of load current.

The rms value of the ripple voltage is given by

(1.36)

where f is the line frequency.

Hence the ripple factor of a capacitor filter power supply is given by

(1.37)

Thus, the ripple may be decreased by increasing C or RL or both.

Inductor Filter (Series Inductor Filter)

The property of an inductor is to oppose any change in the current flowing

through it. When the current tends to increase, an induced e.m.f (back e.m.f) in
the inductor L prevents the current from increasing (according to the Lenz’s law).
The induced e.m.f in L also prevents the current from decreasing if it tries to
decrease. Hence by placing an inductor in series with the rectifier and the load
as shown in Fig. 1.1.11, the changes in the rectifier output current iL and,
therefore, those in output voltage Vout are minimized.

An alternative way to explain this filtering action is that an inductor offers

negligible opposition to dc. The opposition to ac is directly proportional to the
frequency of supply, because XL = 2πfL. Since the frequency of dc supply is 0 Hz,
an inductor passes the dc component entirely. At the same time, the same
inductor offers a high opposition to ac.

The filtered voltage Vout lags behind the rectified output voltage Vdc, R by an angle
90° and never reaches the peak value Vm as shown in Fig. 1.1.12. The inductor
filter circuit requires a full-wave rectifier as current flows through the rectifier
all the time. The filtering action will be better if the load current iL is more. The
positive peak value of the filtered output V is always less than that of the rectifier
output since a part of the rectifier output is absorbed in inductance L. An
inductor filter is usually used with rectifiers that need to supply large values of
load current.

The rms value of the ripple voltage is given by

(1.38a)

Hence the ripple factor of an inductor filter power supply is given by

(1.38b)

Fig. 1.1.11 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with inductor filter.

Fig. 1.1.12 Waveforms of a full-wave rectifier with inductor filter.

Choke Input Filter (LC Filter)

Figure 1.1.13 shows the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with choke input
filter. When the load RL draws no current, the dc output voltage Vout of the choke
input filter is nearly equal to the peak value of the rectified dc voltage. This is so
because, in the absence of a load current iL, no voltage drop is developed across
the choke coil L. Now the output capacitor C charges up to the peak value Vm of
the rectified dc output voltage, Vdc, R. Even if a small load current is drawn, there
is a fast drop in the dc output voltage. Though the drop is of some low value, it
retains its constancy over a wide range of load currents. The initial drop is sharp
because the series inductor prevents the capacitor from charging to the peak
voltage when the load current is drawn. After this initial drop, the voltage
regulation provided by the choke input filter is good.

Fig. 1.1.13 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with choke input filter.

The dc output voltage across the capacitor C and the load RL is fairly constant
as shown in Fig. 1.1.14. Its value is less than the peak value of the rectified dc
output voltage, depending upon the load current drawn. The ripple in the dc load
current through the choke can be reduced considerably by increasing the value
of the inductance. This filter is used with rectifiers that need to supply large
values of load current.

Fig. 1.1.14 Waveforms of a full-wave rectifier with choke input filter.

The rms value of the ripple voltage is given by

(1.39)

where f is the line frequency.

The ripple factor of a choke input filter power supply is given by

(1.40)

Pi (π) Filter or CLC Filter

Figure 1.1.15 shows a typical capacitor input filter, i.e. π filter. A capacitor can
short the ripple to ground but block the dc. Therefore, the capacitor C1 bypasses
an appreciable amount of ripple components of the rectified output voltage, while
the dc component is blocked. An inductor prevents the passage of the ripple
current because of its high inductive reactance to ac, but offers almost zero
reactance to the dc component. So the inductor L allows the dc component to
pass through it. The capacitor C2 bypasses the remaining ripple components
which the inductor L might have failed to block. Hence the desired dc component
appears across the load RL. This filter circuit is commonly used in power
supplies.

Fig. 1.1.15 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with p filter or CLC filter.

The ripple factor of a p filter power supply is given by

(1.41)
FUNCTION OF A BLEEDER RESISTOR IN FILTER CIRCUITS

The output voltage of a power supply is often developed across a bleeder

resistor RB as shown in Fig. 1.1.16. The idea is to achieve a better voltage
regulation, that is, to prevent any changes in load current iL on account of the
changes in the output voltage. The bleeder current iB is a steady continuous
drain which provides the minimum current through the inductor L in absence
of the load RL. So, the bleeder resistor maintains filtering even in absence of the
load. (For optimum functioning, the inductor L should always have a minimum
current flowing through it.)

Fig. 1.1.16 Circuit diagram of a filter circuit using a bleeder.

The bleeder also acts as a safeguard by dissipating the charge stored in the filter
capacitor C when the load is disconnected. This reduces the hazard of electrical
shock when the load is connected to the output terminals next time. The bleeder
can also be used as a voltage divider by tapping the combination of resistors RB
and RL at different points to provide voltages of different values.

1.1.5 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

A dc power supply which maintains a constant output voltage irrespective of the

changing ac line supply or varying load current is known as a regulated power
supply. The output dc voltage is usually required to be maintained within about
± 1% of the desired value, depending on the specific application. In other words,
an ideal regulated power supply is an electronic circuit designed to provide a
predetermined dc voltage as output, which is independent of
a. the current drawn by the load,
b. any variations in the input ac line voltage, and
c. any changes in the temperature of its parts.

The degree to which a power supply provides a constant output voltage under
the above conditions is termed the figure of merit of the power supply.
Classification of power supplies

Power supplies can be divided into three types:

a. Zener diode voltage regulator
b. Linear (dissipative) regulator
c. Switching (non-dissipative) regulator

The linear voltage regulator is further divided into (i) shunt regulator, and (ii)
series regulator. Switching regulators are classified into (i) PWM switch mode
(square mode), and (ii) resonant switch mode (sine wave). Further, the PWM
switch mode voltage regulators are of four types: (i) buck type voltage regulator,
(ii) boost type voltage regulator, (iii) buck-boost type voltage regulator, and (iv)
cuk voltage regulator.

Factors that improve regulation

If the output dc voltage Vout depends on the input unregulated dc voltage Vin,
load current IL, and temperature T, then the output voltage change ΔVout of a
power supply can be expressed as follows:

(1.42)

or
∆𝑉 𝑆 ∆𝑉 𝑅 ∆𝑖 𝑆 ∆𝑇 1.43
where the three coefficients are defined as

Input regulation factor

(1.44)

Output resistance

(1.45)

Temperature coefficient

(1.46)
The smaller the value of the three coefficients, the better the regulation of the
power supply. The input voltage change ΔVin may be due to variations in ac line
voltage or presence of ripple on account of inadequate filtering.