A Plan for Teaching Listening

Comprehension: Adaptation of an
Instructional Reading Model

Eileen K Glisan
Indiana University of Pennsylvania

ABSTRACTMany studies inforeign language learn- which seeks to develop global language proficiency.
ing over the past several years have explored thepro- Although the processes which underlie listening and
cesses involved in listening and reading as well as the reading have been the focus of research, the develop-
benefits of receptive skill development. Empirical in- ment of instructional guidelines are areas ripe for
vestigationscontinue to identifv the positive effects of investigation.
extensive practice in listening and reading early in The purpose of this paper is to offer a strategy for
language study. Thepurpose of this article is to pre- teaching listening comprehension by adapting an ef-
sent a strategy for teaching listening comprehension fective reading model. The processes involved in listen-
by adapting several aspects of an effective reading ing and reading willbe compared, and pedagogical im-
model. Thepaper explores the processes underlying plications of current research into the receptive skills
listening and reading as well as pedagogical implica- will be examined. Finally, specific guidelines for in-
tions of current research in the receptive skills. Speci3c tegrating listening skills will be outlined.
guidelinesfor integrating listening skills arepresented.
Listening and Reading in the Foreign Language
Current research in foreign language learning con-
At present we view listening and reading as complex,
tinues to stress the importance of focusing on listen-
active processes which involve factors such as linguistic
ing and reading in the early stages of language study.
knowledge, conceptual awareness, cognitive process-
Lending support to receptive skill development are
ing skills, and expectations of discourse structures
studies showing that adults spend 40 to 50 percent of
(Omaggio, 23). Meaning is assigned to language input
their time listening and 11 to 16 percent of their time
through the generation of “images:’ or, as Stevick
reading (Rivers, 27). Empirical investigations in first
describes, pictures in the mind‘s eye (31). According-
language acquisition have shown that infants com-
ly, the listener or reader may comprehend a message
prehend before producing language, and further, that
by means of the pictures triggered by image-evoking
aural and reading comprehension are affected by the
items in the input. The effects of prior knowledge and
innate ability to adapt to the environment by means
context also seem to be instrumental in both listening
of listening and looking (Sticht, et al., 32). In the area
and reading comprehension tasks. Listeners and
of foreign language study, a wealth of experimentation
readers construct meaning by reorganizing their
has also verified the positive results of exposing
previously acquired knowledge to accommodate new
students to an initial comprehension phase prior to
information and concepts! Smith maintains that ef-
language production (Asher, 1; Postovsky, 25; Winitz
ficient comprehenders arrive at meaning by maximiz-
and Reeds, 35). It seems apparent that listening and
ing their knowledge of the world and their understand-
reading must be addressed directly in the curriculum
ing of discoursestructure (30).According to Goodman,
Eileen W Glisan (Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh) is Assistant Pro- the comprehension process is an ongoing verification
fessor of Spanish at Indiana Universityof Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA. of hypothesesand anticipation of meaning as discourse

Foreign LanguageAnnols, 21, No.1, 1988 9

10
is processed (9). In both listening and m d h g the abii-
ty to predict forthcoming input, or the “grammar of
expectancy;’ is a very effective strategy, one
characteristicof native listener and reader processing
skills (Oller, 21).
The key role of context in comprehending oral and
written texts has been identified through various
studies done by Bransford and Johnson (3) in listen-
ing, and Omaggio (22) in reading, among others
(Mueller, 19; Lee, 16). These investigations have shown
that language users provided with prior contextual
support, such as pictures or scripts, understand mean-
ing with a higher degree of accuracy thanif they &ve
no initial information. Thus, background knowledge
and an organizational framework for the oral or writ-
ten passage facilitate the comprehension task by
limiting the number of possible interpretations.
The processes involved in the receptive skills share
many characteristics,since, according to Sticht, et al.,
“...they are both receptivecommunication acts that ~ e
quire a central language and conceptualizing base”
(32, p. 70). Studies in first language acquisition have
demonstrated that infants are endowed with innate
sensory, perceptual, motor, and cognitive capacities
for adapting to the environment (Sticht, et al., 32).
Accordingly, prior to acquiring the ability to com-
prehend the spoken and written message, the child ex-
periences an initial stage of listening to aural stimuli
and looking at visualmaterial.Thus, these preliminary
reactive modes of listening and looking prepare the
child for the receptive processes of auding and reading,
respectively, and for the productive skills of speaking
and writing.* Further, experimental atidence in-
dicates that training in listening comprehension may
transfer to readiig skill and that listeningcomprehen-
sion skill may also be predictive of the ability to read
(Hill, 12; Cooper, 6).3
Both the listener and reader generate images,
whenever possible, in constructingmeaning. In listen-
ing, there is an interplay between various types of
knowledge -phonological, lsrical. grammatical, and
semantic - all of which convey meaning in different
ways, depending on the linguisticlevel of the listener
and the task. Similarly, readers utilize “process
strategies:’ which as Coady describes, include
grapheme-morphophoneme correspondences;
syllable-morpheme information; syntactic informa-
tion (deep and surface); lexical meaning and contex-
tual meaning; cognitive strategies; and affective
mobilizers (5, p. 7). As readers (and also listeners)
achieve higher levels of language sophistication, they
rely less on strategies involving letter and word
correspondences.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS
Various models, largely based on native-language
processing, have been proposed to account for the
specific processes involved in listening and reading in
the foreign language While a comprehensive review
of these models is beyond the scope of this paper, a
comparison of two models will serve to compare fur-
ther the receptive skills.’ Richards’ model of the
listening process includes the following steps:
(1) The type of speech act is determined.
(2) The relevant schemata are retrieved from
long-term memory.
(3) The speaker’s goals are inferred through
references to the context and script.
(4) A literal meaning is determined.
(5) An intended meaning is assigned.
(6) The information is retained and utilized for
some purpose (26, p. 223).
- These procedures are similar to those involved in
Munby‘s intensive reading model:
(1) The surface meanings in the text are under-
stood.
(2) Meaning is inferred, with tone and figurative
language being taken into account.
(3) The relationship of ideas in the passage is
understood.
(4) The reading is related to one‘s own knowledge
and experience (20, p. 144).
These models clearly illustrate that both the listener
and reader determine the nature of the task at hand,
activate background knowledge, arrive at literal and
implied meaning, and utilize the new information in
some way.
Other factors which play an important role in
understanding the oral or written message are the com-
prehender’s level of inmest in the message, the anxiety
level concerning the task involved,attention and con-
centration, and memory storage capacity. Inability to
store information efficiently slows processing and
limits the time for anticipation and interpretation. In
discussing the effect of memory on the receptive skills,
Loweindicates: “Reading reseacch revealsthat a failure
to reorganize and shift material from short- to long-
term memory leads to a loss or distortion of meaning.
Presumably, similar constraints affect listening com-
prehension; that is, if the listener pauses too long over
one word or phrase, the meaning of the whole may be
lost or misinterpreted” (17, p. 378).
The listener and mder make use of similar subskills
in the comprehension process, such as:
FEBRUARY 1988
Discriminating different sounds or letters
Recognizing suprasegmental patterns or
sentence structure
Recognizing word-order patterns
Recognizing vocabulary
Recognizing parts of speech
Identifying key words and ideas
Recognizing connecting elements
Guessing meaning from context
Understanding relationships between the
parts of the oral or written text
(10) Understanding explicitly stated information
(11) Understanding the implications
(12) Understanding the function of the text
(13) Listening/Reading for different purposes
(14) Retaining the main ideas of text
(15) Reacting to the text through expression of
opinions, attitude formation, etc.
In view of the differences between the spoken and
written message, there are several distinct processes in-
volved in listening and reading. First, written discourse
is organized by sentences, whereas the clause is the ma-
jor unit in speech. Thus while the reader can visually
follow the text sentence by sentence, the listener must
recognize and process each clause aurally. Second,
spoken language is characterized by more ungram-
matical, shortened forms, and by omissions of sub-
jects, verbs, articles, or other parts of speech. This
means that, while the reader can rely on grammatical
clues, the listener must recognize informal speech and
rely more on content words and context. Third, while
written texts are highly organized, speech is filled with
pauses, hesitations, false starts, and connectors. Ac-
cordingly, inasmuch as the reader can utilize organiza-
tional clues for meaning, the listener must be attentive
to rapid changes in the organizational plan of the
speaker. Fourth, since conversations are interactive, the
listener can negotiate meaning with the speaker and
can rely on nonverbal signals, neither of which can be
done by the reader. On the other hand, the reader is
able to reread the written script and refer to previous
information, while, in contrast, the listener may find
himself changing topics frequently, with no oppor-
tunity to replay the conversation (Richards, 26). Figure
1 on the next page summarizes the similarities and dif-
ferences between listening and reading.
Classroom Implications of Research
into the Receptive Skills
The onset of audiolingualism in the 1960’s brought
an emphasis on the development of speaking but a
11
superficial treatment, at best, of listening and reading
skills. In recent years, however, the move toward more
communicative, or proficiency-based, teaching has
resurrected a renewed concern for attending to the
receptive skills. Research in both first and second
language acquisition has shown that the ability to pro-
duce language is facilitated if language is “acquired”
subconsciously through the process of attending to
comprehensible input (Krashen, el, al., IS). That is,
speaking skill develops as a result of listening to
speech, just as effective writing abilities are aided by
exposure to reading. For us as teachers, this implies
that we must provide early opportunities for our
students to receive linguistic input in both oral and
written forms. In order to trigger acquisition, input
should contain some grammar and vocabulary which
are slightly beyond t h e student’s level (i +1)
(Krashen, 13.)
Further, since learners progress through various
stages in their ability to comprehend and speak the
language, researchers have suggested an initial “com-
prehension’’ period, in which students concentrate on
developing listening comprehension before speaking.
Terrell maintains that during this stage learners “bind”
or mentally associate new words with meaning by react-
ing meaningfully with physical responses or brief oral
answers (33). Much experimentation exists to support
such an initial “silent period:’ during which time, like
children exposed to their native language, students re-
spond without being required to speak the target
language. This stage is characterized by massive
amounts of oral input which, embedded in mean-
ingful, interesting contexts, is understandable to
learners.
Extensive documentation exists to support the ef-
fectiveness of the Total Physical Response technique,
which helps students “bind” speech utterances
through physical responses to commands (Asher, 1;
Glisan, 8). The experimentation, which has been done
with Spanish, French, German, Japanese, and English
as a Second Language, has even suggested that the
listening skill developed through TPR practice has a
positive transfer to reading and speaking ability
(Asher, l).5
These findings (Krashen et al., 15; Krashen, 13; Ter-
rell, 33; Asher, 1; Glisan 8) imply that we must provide
extensive amounts of target language speech in natural
communicative contexts. If we expect our students to
develop language proficiency, then we must give them
practice with natural listening tasks; this means
avoiding exclusive use of question-answer formats to
 FIGURE 1

A Comparison of Listening and Reading Processes

LISTENING AND READING

Active Processes
Images Generated
Guessing Strategies Employed
“Expectancy Grammar” Activated
Background Knowledge/Context Important
Memory Capacity Vital
Inference Ability Necessary
Relating Meaning to One‘s Own Knowledge
Understanding Function of Text
Recognizing Parts of Speech, Word Order,
Relationships Between Parts of Text
Attention: Level of Interest/Anxiety

SPOKEN DISCOURSE W

I ~

Organized by Clauses Organized by

Features More Ungrammatical, Features Corre
Shortened Forms
Recognition of Suprasegmental Recognition of Stylistic
Patterns Important
Listener May Hear Message Only Once Reader Can Review Te
Listener Can Negotiate Meaning Reader Can’t Neg
Listener Can Use Paralinguistic Reader Can Use Writte
Clues for Meaning or Other Parts of Text
FEBRUARY 1988
follow listening passages or conversations. How many
times in our native language has someone asked us five
questions about the incident they just related to us? If
our answer is “probably nevec then we must construct
listening tasks such as: listening for specific pieces of
information (airline flight announcements, weather
reports, advertisements, times, dates, news items, etc.);
listening for main ideas; listening to news items, or
stories for the who, what, when, where, and why;
listening for instructions or directions; listening to
talks in order to understand opinions, attitudes, tones;
among many other possibilities.
Accordingly, we must also guide students through
listening activities, particularly at lower levels, and
grade task difficulty gradually to avoid student frustra-
tion in attending to the entirety of new input. Dunkel
suggests that listeners be guided through four steps, as
outlined by Rixon’s cognitive strategy hierarchy, to: (1)
anticipate content of message; (2) monitor for
discrepancies in message while listening; (3) select rele-
vant and nonrelevant information while listening; and
(4) check accuracy of comprehension through post-
listening activity (7, pp. 100-101).
Like listening comprehension, reading should begin
very early since it also provides input for development
of language proficiency. In addition, a number of
studies have shown that reading can serve to illustrate
structural and stylistic features of the language and
thus facilitate development of writing style (Krashen,
14). As in creating listening comprehension oppor-
tunities, teachers need to provide authentic reading
tasks which go beyond the factual question-answer
format. Grellet has classified four types of reading as
(1) skimming for the gist, (2) scanning for specific in-
formation, (3) extensive reading for pleasure, and (4)
intensive reading for detail (11, p. 4). Students must be
guided through these different types of reading and
understand the purpose of each in “natural” reading
tasks. In her discussion of reading purposes, Phillips
reminds us that we “... should keep in mind the pur-
pose of the reading and design questions to check
comprehension relevant to the task and not geared to
a depth rarely required in real life” (24, p. 289).
Phillips has developed for classroom use a five-stage
reading plan which integrates individual reading skills
so that global reading proficiency may be attained.
The five stages are as follows:
(I) Preteaching/Preparation Stage: Students
anticipate reading material by examining such
contextual information as visuals, titles, and
headlines and by highlighting ideas which are
likely to appear throughout the text.
13
Skimming a,nd Scanning Stages: Students
skim the passage for main gist, to fill in charts,
match subtitles to paragraphs, select para-
phrases, and scan for specific pieces of
information.
Decoding/ZntensiveReading Stage: Students
read for meaning of the text, guess from con-
text, and decode in order to expand
vocabulary, recognize role of structures, or
identify cohesive elements.
ComprehensionStage: Students check com-
prehension through graded questions/acti-
vities.
Bansferable/Integrating Skills: Students
practice reading exercises which take them
beyond the confines of the passage and help
them enhance effective reading skills (24, pp.
289-95).
A Plan for Teaching Listening Comprehension
In view of the similarities between the listening and
reading processes, Phillips’ reading plan described
above could be adapted to listening. In fact, Omaggio
suggests the development of such a listening plan for
achieving proficiency goals more easily (23). The
strategy to be outlined will integrate various listening
and cognitive skills, guide the student through sequen-
tial linguistic processing and help the listener work
toward gaining global listening proficiency. Existing
empirical research to support each stage of the plan
will be cited.
I. Preteaching/Preparation Stage: We reviewed
earlier the empirical evidence to support the positive
effect of utilizing background knowledge and context
in the comprehension task (Bransford and Johnson,
3; Omaggio, 22; Mueller, 19; Lee, 16) Accordingly, as
a first step in the listening activity, the teacher should
use students’ knowledge brought to the task as a basis
for preparing them to listen. The teacher gives a brief
introduction to the message or passage by presenting
the title, first sentence, or several phrases and then
eliciting student expectations of possible content to
follow. Students discuss possible organization, con-
tent, vocabulary and structures which might follow in
the text. “Setting the stage” is a crucial step in introduc-
ing a listening activity, for our expectations often
determine how we will reconstruct our existing
knowledge, or schemata, to internalize new informa-
tion. In real life situations we are usually “prepared”
for listening tasks (e.g., we wait for our flight number
to be called; we listen for the weather report; we listen
to travel directions, etc.), and yet in the classroom we
14
often expect our students to understand oral messages
without the benefit of contextual information.
Examples of prelistening activities are:
(1) Students review vocabulary for clothing and
prices in anticipation of a radio commercial an-
nouncing a clothing sale.
(2) Studentspredict vocabularythey are likely to hear
in a news bulletin about a cocaine bust in Central
America, as well as discuss the names of coun-
tries and cities which might be mentioned.
(3) In preparation for listening to a conversation in
which two youngsters are discussing last night’s
party, students relate the details of the last party
they attended (in past tense) and anticipatepossi-
ble happenings to be mentioned such as the
music, food, games, how guests were dressed,
who’s dating whom, etc
II. Skimming/Scanning Stages: Research into
reading in the second language has revealed that effec-
tive native reading strategies are not always
automatically transferred to the reading task in the se-
cond language (Clarke, 4). Further, ‘!...limited control
over the language ‘short circuits’ the good reader’s
system, causing him/her to revert to poor reader
strategieswhen confronted with a diffficult or confus-
ing task in the second language” (Clark, 4, p. 206). In
addition, as the reader (and by analogy, the listener)
processes a written (or spoken) text, comprehension
is influenced by the student’s ability to use different
processing strategies (Goodman and Burke, 10).Two
such strategies which are utilized in everyday reading
and listening tasks are skimmingfor the gist and scan-
ning for specific information.
We often aurally “skim” or listen for the gist of
messages such as news items, announcements, inter-
views, and commercials in order to ascertain the main
ideas without attending to all the details. Similarly,
listeners often “scan” or extract specific pieces of
information from oral stimuli (eg., tonight’s predicted
temperature, the location of the big furniture sale, the
names of people involved in the shootingincident, and
the address for more information on dieting).
Although skimming and scanning are often done
simultaneouslyby native-speakerlisteners, we should
familiarizestudents with these strategiesby providing
practice in developing each skill separately.
Inclusion of these two stages facilitates the listen-
ing task by allowing students to focus on a limited
amount of oral input, thus avoiding frustration often
experienced by students in attending to the entire
message before they are ready. Through early stages
of skimming and scanning, students progressively
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS
acquire a global view of the oral message while acquir-
ing listening skills which they can apply to other listen-
ing situations.
Examples of skimming exercises are:
(1) Students listen once to a news announcement and
are asked to select the main idea or topic from a
list of possible alternatives.
(2) Studentshear a dialog and tell where it takes place
(eg., in a store, school, gymnasium, theater, train
station, etc).
(3) Students listen to a conversation and identify the
mood of the speakers (happy, sad, angry, indif-
ferent, concerned).
Examples of scanning exercises include:
(1) Students listen to an airline announcement in
order to ascertain flight numbers and ar-
rival/departure times.
(2) Students hear a weather report and listen
specifically for the temperatures forecast for the
surrounding towns.
(3) Students listen to a radio commercial and report
the name, price, and use of the product being
advertised.
IIL ComprehensionStage:6 At this stage, students
receive feedback with respect to their comprehension
of the oral message. Exercises to check understanding
can be of various types, contingent on the purpose of
the task, and can be done in concert with other
language skills. Depending on the level of the students,
however, the case can be made for utilizing “pure”
comprehension checks which elicit answers in the
students’ native language, thereby avoiding the mix-
ing of skills.
Examples of comprehension exercises are:
(1) Students write native language summaries.
(2) Students choose an appropriate title or main
idea.
(3) Students select appropriate pictures to sum-
marize passages.
(4) Students completea diagram or chart with infor-
mation from the passage.
Other kinds of integrative comprehension checks
which combine several modalities include:
(1) Students answer questionsin the target language
(2) Students createa series of “SAAD’s” (simple, ac-
tive, affirmative, declarative sentences) in oral or
written form.
(3) Students fill in blanks to complete a written sum-
mary of the passage.
(4) Students complete statements about the passage
in oral or written form.
( 5 ) Students provide the who, what, when, where
FEBRUARY 1988
and how to explain the key details.
In addition to checking comprehension of stated
ideas, we must be sure to provide opportunities for
students to discuss subtleties contained in the speaker’s
message, such as the implied meaning, tone, and at-
titude of the speaker, wherever possible.
I K Pansferable/Integrating Skills Stage: Resear-
chers have found that new information will be inter-
nalized and understood better if it can be linked in a
meaningful way to existing schemata or cognitive
structures (Rumelhart, 29; Minsky, 18). Further, con-
cepts are bound or internalized through meaningful
activities (Krashen, et. al., 15).
Accordingly, a final stage in listening comprehen-
sion provides opportunities for students to: (1) inter-
nalize new information; (2) develop ideas, attitudes,
and evaluative judgments while integrating listening
with speaking and writing skills; and (3) receive addi-
tional practice in applying their listening strategies to
other similar kinds of spoken messages.
Certain types of passages, such as conversations, in-
terviews, news items, and documentaries lend
themselves to post-listening activitiesin which students
utilize the target language to express their own feelings
or attitudes orally or in written form. We, as teachers,
often overlook the importance of providing oppor-
tunities for our students to conceptualize and exercise
their creative processes, yet real-life experiences con-
stantly demand these tasks. Many listening com-
prehension passages offer the context for students to
practice speaking and writing by means of the follow-
ing types of creative activities:
(1) debating orally in groups
(2) class/group discussions
(3) group consensus/problem-solving
(4) interviewing in pairs/groups
( 5 ) hypothesizing in given situations
(6) acting out role plays/spontaneous dialogs
(7) manipulating the oral passage (changing begin-
ning or ending, expanding, adapting characters,
etc.)
(8) writing character sketches
(9) writing results of oral interviews
(10) writing esssays to express opinions of oral
passage.
These speaking and writing tasks serve to develop
more sophisticated conceptual abilities while enabling
students to practice using higher-level language.
This last stage could also focus on transferring the
listening strategies utilized throughout the initial stages
to other oral contexts. By attending to the strategies,
such as skimming, scanning, guessing in context, etc.,
15
rather than the context itself, students are likely to
understand how such techniques can be applied in the
attempt to interpret all oral messages. Thus, additional
oral input at this stage would provide further oppor-
tunities to apply such processing strategies within a
different context.
Conclusion
This paper has proposed a plan for teaching listen-
ing comprehension through adaptation of an existing
reading model. The four stages integrate the various
listening processing strategies to facilitate understand-
ing of the text in light of the function of the message.
In addition, this model provides for practice of global
strategies which can be transferred to other listening
tasks and includes focus on conceptualization and
higher-level language use in speaking and writing.
While this paper has attempted to deal with the issue
of teaching listening comprehension in the classroom,
a great deal of research is needed to explain further the
complex processes involved in foreign language aural
processing. In addition, the implications of the
ACTFL/ETS proficiency guidelines for receptive skill
development remain to be clearly articulated by subse-
quent investigation. Finally, innovative strategies for
teaching effective listening skills and for integrating
listening with other linguistic and cognitive abilities
must be disseminated in an effort to encourage
teachers to provide active classroom practice for
listening.
NOTES
I This background knowledge has been termed “schemata”
or “frames!’ For further discussion, see Rumelhart (29) and
Minsky (18.)
Sticht, et a). (32) refer to auding as listening to speech for
comprehension. In their developmental model of languag-
ing, listeningprepares one for auding while looking prepares
one for reading.
For a detailed description of these studies, see Sticht, Beck,
Haucke, Kleiman, and James (32).
+Fora comprehensivediscussion of listening and reading
models, the reader is advised to refer to Wing (34).
Detailed descriptions of these experiments can be found
in Asher (2).
6The “decoding/intensive reading stage” is not being
adapted to the listening plan since it would be of little value
to the listener to examine the structure of ephemeral segments
of discourse.
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