Electrical Measurements

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS
SachchidaNand Shukla
ARCLER
P r e s s
www.arclerpress.com
Introduction to Electrical Measurements
SachchidaNand Shukla
Arcler Press
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
SachchidaNand Shukla, is presently working as Professor, Department of Physics

& Electronics, Dr. RamManohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya, UP, India. He
did his Masters in Physics (Electronics) in 1988 and Ph.D. in 1992 from the same
university. Dr. Shukla holds 27 years experience of teaching M.Sc. (Physics) and M.Sc.
(Electronics) students and 3 years experience of teaching B.Tech., MCA and B.Sc.
(Electronics) students. He has published 85 research papers in peer-reviewed/ indexed
journals of International/National repute & conference proceedings and 02 books. In
his supervision 14 research scholars have been awarded Ph.D. degree. In addition
to it he is the recipient of Best Scientist National Award (2018) of IRDP Group of
Journals, Chennai and Maatee Ratan Samman (2017). He has also been selected as
Fellow of IACSIT (International Association of Computer Science and Information
Technology, Singapore) and Associate Fellow of IAPS (International Academy of
Physical Sciences) in 2018. In view of Dr. Shukla’s academic achievements his
employer institution, Dr. RamManohar Lohia Avadh University, has conferred upon
him the ‘Certificate of Appreciation’ in 2018. Besides having a wide exposure to various
key positions of University administration like Pro Vice Chancellor, Registrar, Director
College Development Council (CDC), Coordinator UGC and RUSA, Head of Physics
Department etc, Dr. Shukla has membership of 08 academic bodies of international
repute. To name a few are ISCA (The Indian Science Congress Association, Kolkata,
India), IETE (The Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers, New
Delhi, India), NASI (The National Academy of Sciences, India, Allahabad, India), IAPS
(International Academy of Physical Sciences, Allahabad, India) and SCIEI (Science
and Engineering Institute, Hong Kong, SAR of China). In addition, he is also gracing
the Editorial Boards of 04 international journals IJAREEIE (International Journal of
Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering), APM
(Applied Physics & Mathematics), JUSPS (Journal of Ultra Scientist of Physical
Sciences) and IRJ (International Researcher’s Journal) and the board of reviewer of
IRJECE (International Journal of Electronics & Communication Engineering). ”
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ........................................................................................................xi

List of Abbreviations and Symbols........................................................................xv
Preface........................................................................ ......................................xvii
Chapter 1 The Concept of Measurement Systems ..................................................... 1

1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................ 2
1.2. Units of Measurement......................................................................... 5
1.3. Data Levels of Measurement ............................................................... 6
1.4. Understanding The Difference Between Measurement
and Inspection ............................................................................... 11
1.5. Importance of Measurement Systems Analysis .................................. 15
Review Questions: ................................................................................... 17
References ............................................................................................... 18
Chapter 2 Principles Of Electrical Measurements .................................................... 21

2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 22
2.2. Types of Measuring Instruments ........................................................ 24
2.3. Types of Electrical Measurements And Their Principle ....................... 26
References ............................................................................................... 43
Chapter 3 Instrumentation....................................................................................... 45
3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 46
3.2. History And Development Of Instrumentation .................................. 46
3.3. Measured Parameters ........................................................................ 51
3.4. Elements Of Measurement Instruments ............................................. 55
3.5. Classification Of Instruments (Figure 3.4) .......................................... 57
3.6. Basic Terminology............................................................................. 59
3.7. Application Of Instrumentation ......................................................... 60
References ............................................................................................... 67
Chapter 4 Electronic Circuits ................................................................................... 69

4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 70
4.2. Electricity And Circuits...................................................................... 70
4.3. Components Of Electric Circuits ....................................................... 74
4.4. Materials Required For Making A Simple Circuit ............................... 79
4.5. Circuit Theory And Semiconductor Physics ....................................... 80
References ............................................................................................... 84
Chapter 5 Instrument Transformers ......................................................................... 85

5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 86
5.2. Importance Of Instrument Transformers ............................................ 88
5.3. Types Of Ins trument Transformers ..................................................... 90
5.4. Applications For Instrument Transformers .......................................... 93
5.5. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Instrument Transformer ............... 96
5.6. Instrument Transformer Testing .......................................................... 98
Review Questions: ................................................................................. 104
References ............................................................................................. 105
Chapter 6 AC Bridges ............................................................................................ 107

6.1. Introduction .................................................................................... 108
6.2. What Are AC Bridges And General Form Of AC Bridges .................. 108
6.3. Types Of AC Bridges ....................................................................... 112
6.4. Ac Versus DC: The Truth .................................................................. 115
6.5. Construction Of AC Bridges ............................................................ 120
6.6. Why It Is Important To Use Bridge Circuit........................................ 121
6.7. General Properties Of Ac Bridge Circuits ........................................ 121
6.8. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 123
References ............................................................................................. 125
viii
Chapter 7 Power Measurement ............................................................................. 127
7.1. Introduction .................................................................................... 128
7.2. History Of Electric Meter ................................................................ 130
7.3. Efficiency, Power, And Measurement............................................... 134
7.4. Advantages Of Two Wattmeter Method ........................................... 135
7.5. Methods For Power Measurement ................................................... 136
7.6. Challenges And Trends In Analyses Of Electric Power ..................... 138
References ............................................................................................. 144
Chapter 8 Energy And Its Measurements ............................................................... 145

8.1. Introduction .................................................................................... 146
8.2. Basic Concept Of Renewable And Non-Renewable
Energy Sources ............................................................................. 148
8.3. Renewable Energy .......................................................................... 150
8.4. Non-Renewable Energy .................................................................. 155
8.5. Measurement Of Energy ................................................................. 161
References ............................................................................................. 165
Chapter 9 Magnetic Force ..................................................................................... 167

9.1. Introduction .................................................................................... 168
9.2. Essential Quantities Required In The System Of Magnetic Field ...... 169
9.3. Magnetic Field Instruments Information .......................................... 174
9.4. Connection Between Electric Field And Magnetic Field .................. 182
9.5 Health Effects of Electric And Magnetic Fields.................................. 184
References ............................................................................................. 188
Chapter 10 Analog Recorders And Digital Recorders .............................................. 191

10.1. Introduction .................................................................................. 192
10.2. Digital Recording.......................................................................... 197
10.3. Analog Recording Of Sound ......................................................... 198
10.4. Digital Recording.......................................................................... 203
ix
References ............................................................................................. 209
Index ..................................................................................................... 211

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. The concept of measuring system

Figure 1.2. Units of measurement in field of measurement system
Figure 1.3. The fundamental SI units and the combinations that lead to more
complex units of measurement
Figure 1.4. Data levels of measurement
Figure 1.5. Difference between the measurement and investigation
Figure 1.6. Significance of six sigma in the field of measurement system
Figure 2.1. Bourdon pressure gauge
Figure 2.2. DC voltmeter
Figure 2.3. Electronic watt-hour meter
Figure 2.4. Ediswan recording ammeter and voltmeter
Figure 2.5. Circuit of Wheatstone bridge
Figure 2.6. Potentiometer
Figure 3.1. Ancient water clock used in ancient Egypt
Figure 3.2. Two-stage amplifier
Figure 3.3. Series modulator for AM transmitter
Figure 3.4. Hierarchy showing classification of instruments
Figure 3.5. Speedometer and other indications
Figure 3.6. Home security system camera
Figure 3.7. The T-6 Texan II simulator instrument panel uses a single flat panel
monitor
Figure 3.8. Piezoelectric accelerometer
Figure 4.1. Power resistor
Figure 4.2. Microcontroller trainer
Figure 4.3. Usage of battery
Figure 5.1. Instrument transformer is the device used for monitoring the voltage
or current in a given circuit
xi
Figure 5.2. The concept of instrument transformer focuses on maintaining the
linearity of the systems during the faults
Figure 5.3. Current transformers are usually linked in series with each other
Figure 5.4. Voltage transformers are used to produce an auxiliary voltage for
the maintenance of the system
Figure 5.5. Instrument transformer finds most of its usage in the industrial
application
Figure 5.6. Most of the renewable sources of energy are going to use the
instrument transformer as the core component of the mechanism
Figure 5.7. There are many disadvantages and advantages in the usage of the
instrument transformer
Figure 6.1. Wheatstone bridge electric
Figure 6.2. Inductance measuring bridges
Figure 6.3. AC to DC power supply
Figure 6.4. Operational amplifier applications
Figure 8.1. Energy is the ability to do work
Figure 8.2. Renewable energy can be replenished again
Figure 8.3. Solar panels are used to generate electricity
Figure 8.4. Hydroelectricity is produced by the use of hydroelectric energy
Figure 8.5. Geothermal power
Figure 8.6. Methane is the main natural gas
Figure 9.1. Magnetic force occurs among the particles that are electrically
charged because of the movements
Figure 9.2. Solenoid: An example of magnetomotive force
Figure 9.3. Magnetic insulator
Figure 9.4. There are many rules to know the direction of the magnetic field
Figure 9.5. There are many studies which show the direction of the lines of
magnetic field
Figure 9.6. Basic magnetic mirror machine
Figure 9.7. The picture depicting the flow of magnetism in an electromagnet
Figure 10.1. Sound recorders when they first became popular
Figure 10.2. Mixer and digital recorder
Figure 10.3. Analog recorder
xii
Figure 10.4. Analog cassette tape
Figure 10.5. Digital recording equipment
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A ampere
AM amplitude modulation
cd candela
CT current transformer
DPCM differential pulse code modulation
FM frequency modulation
GPIB general-purpose interface bus
K Kelvin
kg kilogram
m meter
mol mole
NIEHS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
PCM pulse-code modulation
PT potential transformers
s second
SCHEER Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental, and
Emerging Risks
SI system of units
SQUID superconducting quantum interference device
TTL transistor-transistor logic
WHO World Health Organization
PREFACE
Electrical energy is a vital component of the whole energy circuit and the energy
supply. The electrical energy can be used in several ways and across a wide
range of devices and products. It has high relevance in daily lives of the people
and finds its importance in many applications related to everyday activity.
Electrical energy can be used best only when it is in a controlled form. If the
energy is not in control, it becomes too much to handle and even dangerous at
times. This control of energy can only be possible when the people know the
amount of energy that is available and the amount that is to be removed. The
knowledge of the amount of energy can be gained only through the process of
measurement.
Measurement holds a great significance in all the fields that involve quantity.
The electrical field also depends heavily on the measurement of the energy in
accurate form, so that it is exactly known that how much energy is required to
be used in a device or an appliance.
Some Salient Features of This Book Are:
• This book brings the focus of the readers to the measurement techniques
involved in the electrical circuits and electrical sector, or the fields that
involve generation of electricity.
• The book begins by explaining the concept of measurement system to the
readers. It explains them the need for a measurement system in various
fields and the definition and standards of measurement that are followed
according to the predefined norms. The book also explains the relevance
of measurement systems in the day-to-day lives of people and the use of
these systems in designing appliances and having new inventions.
• The book moves forward to include various principles of electrical
measurement. It explains the readers the basic terms of measurement
technique. It lays down some basic methods of measurement in
the electrical systems. It introduces the topic of uncertainty in the
measurements, such as errors and deviations.
• The book also introduces the subject of instrumentation to the readers
and explains its role in the electrical measurements. It enlists various
instruments that are used for standard measurement for gauging correct
readings from the devices and the experiments. It also emphasizes on the
fact that these instruments cannot be 100% error-free and explains how
to use these instruments properly.
• The book explains the topic of electronic circuits to the readers. It
elaborates on the various kinds of circuits and their significance in the
several devices. The book also explains the methods of measurement
of various components in an electrical circuit like current, voltage,
resistance, conductance, and so forth.
• The book discusses the topic of power measurement and the importance
of it in the electrical circuits and devices. It explains the significance of
measuring power in high-intensity motors and generators that reused to
supply or generate electricity at various places.
• The readers are informed about the importance of measurement of
electrical energy and also the various forms of energy that are eventually
used to produce the electrical energy. Energy is a form that keeps the
various components of the electronic world running. The book lays down
the standards for the measurement of energy forms and also explains
the processes for its measurement at various places and under various
conditions.
• The book dwells on the magnetic forces and explains the readers about
them in a brief description. It relates their importance in the electrical
circuits and states various laws that govern its flow and production. The
magnetic forces also need to be measured accurately for the correct
generation of electricity as these forces are highly sensitive and reactive.
The book elaborates on such measurement as well.
• The book explains the use of different kinds of recording systems such
as the analog and the digital ones. It explains the relevance of each of the
systems in different kinds of situations and conditions and points out the
accuracy they hold within themselves. It differentiates between them in
a detailed manner and explains their various applications across various
fields.
xviii
1
THE CONCEPT OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
In this chapter, you will learn about:

• Basic concept of measurement system.
• Units of measurement.
• Units of the SI system.
• Data levels of Measurement.
• Difference between measurement and inspection.
• Different methods of measuring.
• Importance of measurement system.
• Nominal level of measurement.
• Ordinal level of measurement.
• The interval level of measurement.
• Ratio level of measurement.
KEY TERMS:
• Continuous data • Nominal level

• Data levels • Ordinal level
• Discrete data • Ratio level
• Interval level • Sic sigma
• Measurement • Units
2 Introduction to Electrical Measurements
1.1. INTRODUCTION
The procedure or the methods of measurement which is used to finding
or attaining a numerical or calculable evaluation between a Standard
which are already defined and Measurand.
The word Measurand is used to appoint the specific physical
limiting factors which are being evaluated and measured or calculated;
that is to say, the involved amount to the process of measuring (a
physical quantity, property or condition to be measured).
A Measurement is a process or an approach of designate a
particular value to a physical variable. That physical variable becomes
the Measured Variable.
The aspects or parameters of evaluation must be of the same units
as compared to the Measurand, and they are usually prearranged
and well-defined with the help of a legal or known agency or an
organization (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: The concept of measuring system.
Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2016/06/24/09/18/measure-
ment-1476913_960_720.jpg
Measurement system, any of the systems used in the procedure
of linking the numbers with existing measurables and occurrence or
event. Even though the idea of masses and measures in the present time
The Concept of Measurement Systems 3
consist of these types of aspects or parameters

like electric current, temperature, pressure, Electric current is
and luminosity, it once be made up of only four the rate of flow of
basic measurements which are mass (weight), electric charge past a
distance or length, area, and volume (liquid or point or region.
grain measure). The last three are, of course,
closely related.
Elementary to the entire concept of masses
and measures are the ideas of consistency or
regularity, units, and parameters or aspects.
Consistency, the fundamental property of
any system of masses as well as measures,
necessitates the accuracy, reliable parameters or
aspects of mass and length and agreed-on units.
A unit is the term which is used for a quantity,
for example, kilogram or pound. A standard is
the physical embodiment of a unit, for example,
the platinum-iridium cylinder which is kept with
the help of the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures at Paris as the standard kilogram.
There are two categories of measurement
systems are described in the history of
measurement system, which are an evolutionary
system, for example, the British Imperial,
which cultivated more or less randomly out of
tradition, and a planned system, for example, the
International system of units (SI), in worldwide
practice by the world’s scientific community and
through several numbers of countries as well.
Measurement is the procedure of the
allocating the numbers with the help of a
proper system of approach to objects and their
qualities, to make it more simplified or easy
the application of mathematics in learning and
explaining the objects and their relations or
associations. Several kinds of measurement are
impartially actual, for example, measuring the

weight of a person in pounds or kilograms, or
the height of the person in feet and inches or in
meters.
Notably, the more specific system of
measurement which is utilized is not as crucial
or significant as a consistent set of instructions:
it can convert measurement in kilograms to
pounds with no trouble, for example. Even
though, any SI may give the impression of
arbitrary, as long as the system has a reliable
connection with the quality, which is being
measured, these outcomes can be used in the
process of calculation or evaluation.
Measurement is not restricted to the physical
attributes or aspect such as height and weight.
Tests to amount the concepts or ideas such as
intellect and educational ability are very common
which is used in teaching and psychology, for
example, in the area of psychological science is
mostly worried or anxious with the development
and modification of the approaches for the
assessment just such intellectual properties.
Developing that a specific dimension is
expressive is very tough when it cannot be
detecting or discover directly. In the other hand,
they can be used to test the accurateness of a
scale with the help of associating the outcomes
with these type of attained from additional
scale known to be precise or exact, there is no
modest methods or mode to know if a test of
intellect is much precise and exact because there
is no generally agreed-upon approach for the
evaluation of the concept of “intelligence.”
1.2. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Each and every field of science which take in the
process of measurements, considerate them, and
communicating with them to others. In simpler
form of words, all have to speak the same basic Energy is the
language. quantitative
property that must
Whether if you are a chemist, a biologist, a be transferred to an
physicist, an engineer, or more even a medical object in order to
doctor, people want a reliable or a constant perform work on, or
method of approach of communicating size, to heat, the object.
shape, mass, temperature, amount, time, energy,
speed, energy, and power (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Units of measurement in field of mea-

surement system.
Source: https://cdn.pixabay.com/pho-
to/2017/02/23/15/39/plan-2092499_960_720.jpg
1.2.1. Units of the SI System

There are seven base units in the SI system
(Figure 1.3):
• The kilogram (kg), for mass;
• The second (s), for time;
• The Kelvin (K), for temperature;
• The ampere (A), for electric current;
• The mole (mol), for the amount of a

substance;
• The candela (cd), for luminous in-
tensity; and
• The meter (m), for distance.
Figure 1.3: The fundamental SI units and the com-

binations that lead to more complex units of mea-
surement.
1.3. DATA LEVELS OF

MEASUREMENT
A variable has one of four various levels for the
process of measurement: these different types of
data levels for measurement are Nominal level,
Ordinal level, Interval level, or Ratio level.
(Interval and Ratio levels of measurement are
sometimes called as Continuous level or Scale
level).
It is very crucial for the researcher to
appreciate the several numbers of levels of
measurement, as these levels of measurement,
collected within which way the research question
is expressed, describe which type of numerical
examination or evaluation is suitable
First of all, determining the level of

measurement supports the person to choose how
to understand the statistics or information from
that variable. When the researcher already know
that the evaluation is of nominal types (such as
the one just described), then the researcher has Measurement is
the assignment
the potential to distinguish that the numerical
of a number to a
values are just shortcodes for the longer names. characteristic of an
Secondly, determining the level of object or event, which
measurement aids the researcher to choose can be compared
with other objects or
what numerical evaluation or examination is events.
more suitable on the values that were allocated.
If the process of measure is of nominal level in
nature, then the researcher know that he would
never find out the mean of the data values or do
a t-test on the data (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Data levels of measurement.

In descending order with respect to the
accuracy, the four several levels of measurement
are:
• Interval: Equal intervals among
levels (1 dollar to 2 dollars is the same
interval as 88 dollars to 89 dollars);
• Nominal: Latin for name only
(Republican, Democrat, Green,
Libertarian);
• Ratio: Let the “o” in ratio remind you

of a zero in the scale (Day 0, day 1,
day 2, day 3,…); and
• Ordinal: Think ordered levels or
ranks (small–8oz, medium–12oz,
large–32oz).
1.3.1. Nominal Level

The first level of measurement is the nominal
level of measurement. In this type of level of
measurement, the information in the variable is
utilized only to categorize or organize the data.
In this level of measurement, words, and alpha-
numeric symbols, and letters can be used.
Supposing there are data available about the
people which are be in the right place to three
several number of categories of gender. In this
case, the person which is be in the right place to
the female gender could be categorized as the
symbol F, the person which is be in the right
place to the male gender could be categorized
as the symbol M, and transgendered will be
categorized as the symbol T. This type of
providing designation classification is nominal
level of measurement.
1.3.2. Ordinal Level of Measurement

The second level of measurement is known as
the ordinal level of measurement. In this level
of measurement portrays some well-ordered or
well-organized bond between the observations
of the variable.
Supposing a student gets the score of the
highest grade of 100 in the class. In this case, the
student would be allocated at the first rank. At

that time, another classmate who has the scores
of the second highest grade of 92, she would be
allocated by the second rank. A third number of
students who scores a number 81 and he would
be allocated as the third rank, and so on. The
ordinal level of measurement shows a well-
organized or collection of the measurements.
1.3.3. The Interval Level of Measurement

The third level of measurement is known as
the interval level of measurement. The interval
level of measurement not only categorizes and
instructions for the process of measurements,
but it also requires that the distances between
the each and every break, interval, intermission
on the scale are equal to each other side by side
with the scale from the low interval to the high
interval.
For instance, an interval level of measurement
could be the process of measurement of worry or
concern in a student who is ranging between the
score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same as
that of a student who scores between the range
of 40 and 41. A common instance of this level of
measurement is the temperature in centigrade,
where, for instance, the distance between 94°C
and 96°C is very much identical as compared to
the distance between the 100°C and 102°C.
1.3.4. Ratio Level of Measurement

The fourth level of measurement is known as the
ratio level of measurement. In this type of level
of measurement, the explanations, in addition to
having equal number of breaks or intervals, can

have an amount which is equal to zero as well.
The zero in the gauge makes this type of
measurement very much dissimilar to the other
types of measurement which are used in the
measurement systems, even though the qualities
are very much identical to that of the break
or interval level of measurement. In the ratio
level of measurement, the separations among
the points on the scale have a corresponding or
equal distance along with them.
The researcher should note that between
these types of levels of measurement, the
nominal level is much simpler and used to
categorize the data, which is available, on the
other hand, the levels of measurement which is
explained with the help of the interval level as
well as the ratio level are much more very much
similar to other.
1.3.5. Continuous and Discrete Data

Another type of difference sometimes made is
Continuous data are among the continuous data and discrete data.
not restricted to Continuous data can take any type of value, or
defined separate any type of value within a range. Majority of the
values, but can
data which is measured with the help of interval
occupy any value
over a continuous and ratio scales, as compared to that based on
range. counting is known as continuous: for example,
height, weight, distance, and income are other
types all continuous.
During the course of analysis and model
building, researchers often recode continuous
data in groupings or larger units. For example,
weight can be verified in unit of pounds but
investigated by the increment of 10-pound, or
age recorded in years but evaluated in terms of

the categories 0–17, 18–65, and over 65.
From a statistical point of view, there is
no absolute point when data turn out to be
continuous or discrete for the determinations
by means of more specific techniques for
evaluation. If researchers record age in term
or units of years, researcher are still daunting
distinct groupings on a continuous variable.
Several numbers of rules of thumb have
been anticipated. For example, several number
of researchers say that when a variable has10 or
more 10 groups (or interchangeably, 16 or more
than 16 groups), it can be analyzed or evaluated
with safety as continuous level. This is another
type of decision to be made on the basis case-by-
case, well-versed with the help of the universal
standards, parameters or aspects and applies of
the specific correction and the type of evaluation
is anticipated.
1.4. UNDERSTANDING THE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEAS-
UREMENT AND INSPECTION
Inspection is an orientation to the values which
are obtained with the help of measurement with
the references which are available on hand
during the course of determination even though
a product is adequate. Measurement mentions
to the number of outcomes which will found
with the help of the use of instruments of the
measurement. In several numbers of cases,
there is no necessity to use the definitions of
measurement and inspection on the basis of one
by one.
Never the less, it is still a good concept to

comprehend or appreciate that there is certainly
an alteration among the two of them. Let’s
assume an instance. During the time of using
a ruler as a device to evaluate the length of a
sample, people can make the declaration that
“the measurement is too long or too short.”
Another type of approach is to state this same
declaration or announcement would be “based
on the value found from the use of a ruler (the
tool of measurement), it can be said that this
value is either longer or shorter than the length
of interest.”
As previously specified, in several numbers
of cases there is no necessity to individualize
the definitions of measurement and inspection.
In simple words, acknowledging the variation
is more than enough for the majority of the
situations (Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5: Difference between the measurement

and investigation.
Source: https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/pic-
tures/270000/nahled/income-measurement.jpg
1.4.1. Measuring Methods

There are two types of measurement systems
which are known as the direct measurement and
indirect measurement.
1.4.1.1. Direct Measurement

Direct measurements are determined with the
help of applying a system or device which have
the ability to directly read the height, length or
any other parameters of an object as well, to
evaluate or find the measurement of the sample
or object.
The basic idea of the direct measurement Direct measurement
permits a measurement to be known as it is, refers to measuring
never the less, faults or mistakes can follow exactly the thing
that you’re looking
according to the potential as well as the ability
to measure,
of the person who is performing the process of while ‘indirect
measurement. measurement’ means
Some instances of direct measurements that you’re measuring
something by
consist of measuring the height of a person with measuring something
the help of using a measuring tape, evaluating else.
the temperature of the oven with the help of the
use of a thermometer, and measuring the length
of the morning exercise with the help of the use
of a stopwatch.
In the world of physics, one of the more
general instances of the direct measurement
is current. During the course of attempting to
measure the flow of the current inside of a wire,
researcher uses an ammeter which is linked to
the circuit to measure it directly.
This type of method is well thought-out as
a direct measurement due to the device, which
is being utilized, the ammeter, measures the
amount of the current in the wire without the
requirement to know any type of information

which is prior to the process of measurement.
Measurement mentions to the quantification
of the outcomes which are found with the help
of the using tools of the measurement. In the
same way, inspection denotes to the comparison
of the values which are found with the help
of measurement with available references to
evaluate even though a product is acceptable
or not. During the course of measuring a length
with the help of a ruler, it is possible to make
some sort of choice on the base of the value, for
example, “The measurement is a little too long/
short.” This type of evaluation is another way
of saying, “Based on the value obtained using
a ruler (measurement), it has been determined
that this value is slightly longer (or shorter)
than the length of interest.” Even though,
there is sometimes no requirement to use these
definitions individually, it is a good concept to at
least distinguish the variation between the two.
1.4.1.2. Indirect Measurement

Direct measurements can be explained what you
are most familiar with, but indirect measurements
have their usages. Indirect measurements happen
when you find out or evaluate the measurement
of one unit or an object and convert it so that it
matches the features of something else.
The idea of indirect measurement may be a
quite hard or tough for some of the people to
clutch because of several numbers of people do
not have a use for it in their everyday lives. Let’s
look at an instance. If you have to take a dial
instrument to evaluate or measure the height
variation between a measurement target and a
gauge block researcher would then, with the

help of the indirect measuring system, use the
calculation to indirectly guesstimate or evaluate
the height of the target.
1.5. IMPORTANCE OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS
Measurement Systems analysis is an essential
part of the Six Sigma project. No matter what
type of project is being directed under the
methodology of Six Sigma, this portion of the
process can at no time be misplaced out and the Six Sigma is
positive outcomes can still be found. Below is a disciplined,
a clarification about what makes measurement statistical-based,
systems analysis such an important or essential data-driven approach
and continuous
part of the process of the Six Sigma. improvement
• Six-Sigma is Data Driven: The methodology for
complete idea of the Six Sigma is driven eliminating defects in
a product, process or
on the basis of data. As a replacement
service.
for of basing choices on individual
views which can be dissimilar in case
of several management executives, the
idea of Six Sigma suggests outcomes
which are based on measurable facts.
This is the essential code of Six Sigma
that makes it the controlling instrument
it is (Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6: Significance of six sigma in the field of

measurement system.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/6/67/Six_sigma-2.svg/2000px-
Six_sigma-2.svg.png
• Measurements Forms the Core

of This Data: The facts that are
sometimes used to get to the final
results and accept variations are
measurements. There is a well-known
management saying which says, “That
which gets measured gets managed.”
The measurements which portray the
levels of dynamic or essential inputs,
anticipated outputs and behavior of
the process are apprehended with the
help of measurements.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the significance of the basic concept of measurement
system?
2. Explain the units of measurement and what are the units of the
SI system?
3. Describe the various data levels which are used in the field of
measurement.
4. What is the difference between the measurement and the
inspection?
5. What are the various methods for measuring in the field of
measurement systems?
6. Explain the importance of the measurement system analysis.
7. What is the nominal level in data level of measurement?
8. Describe the role of continuous and discrete data in
measurement system.
9. Explain the ordinal level of measurement in data levels of
measurement.
10. What do you understand by the interval level of measurement
and ratio level of measurement in measurement systems?
REFERENCES
1. Boslaugh, S., & Andrew, W. P., (2019).Statistics in a Nutshell.
[online] O’Reilly | Safari. Available at: https://www.oreilly.com/
library/view/statistics-in-a/9780596510497/ch01.html (Accessed
on 24 June 2019).
2. Boundless Chemistry, (n.d.). Units of Measurement | Boundless
Chemistry. [online] Courses.lumenlearning.com. Available at:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-chemistry/chapter/
units-of-measurement/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. Juneja, P., (2019).Importance of Measurement Systems Analysis.
[online] Managementstudyguide.com. Available at: https://
www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-measurement-
systems-analysis.htm (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. Keyence Corporation, (2019). What is Measurement? | Measurement
Library | KEYENCE America. [online] Keyence.com. Available
at: https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/measure/measurement_
library/basic/measurement/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
5. Lani, J., (2019). Data Levels of Measurement - Statistics
Solutions. [online] Statistics solutions. Available at: https://www.
statisticssolutions.com/data-levels-of-measurement/ (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
6. Mathworksheetscenter.com. (n.d.). 10 Everyday Reasons Why
Measurement is Important in your Life? [online] Available at: http://
www.mathworksheetscenter.com/mathtips/whymeasurement.html
(Accessed on 24 June 2019).
7. Measurement and Instrumentation: Basic Concepts of Measurement
Methods, (2019). [eBook] Available at: http://pioneer.netserv.chula.
ac.th/~tarporn/2141375/HandOut/MMethod.pdf (Accessed on 24
June 2019).
8. Mechanical Measurement Systems, (n.d.). [eBook] Available at:
https://web.mst.edu/~cottrell/ME240/Resources/Measurement%20
systems/Measurment%20systems.pdf (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
9. MTI Sales, (n.d.). Everything You Need to Know About Measurement
| MTI Instruments. [online] MTI instruments. Available at:
https://www.mtiinstruments.com/knowledge-center/what-is-
measurement-measurement-definition-all-you-need-to-know/
10. MTI Sales, (n.d.). The History of Measurements | 14th Century to

21st Century | MTI Instruments. [online] MTI Instruments. Available
at: https://www.mtiinstruments.com/knowledge-center/history-of-
measurements/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
11. Perelman, L., (2018). The Importance of Measurement
Systems. [online] Riffyn. Available at: https://riffyn.com/
riffyn-blog/2018/4/27/the-importance-of-measurement-systems
12. Raymond, P. G., (2006). The Importance of Measurements--and
Measurement Expertise. [online] Sensors magazine. Available
at: https://www.sensorsmag.com/components/importance-
measurements-and-measurement-expertise (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
13. Skills You Need, (2019). Systems of Measurement | Skills You
Need. [online] Skillsyouneed.com. Available at: https://www.
skillsyouneed.com/num/measurement-systems.html (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
14. Slide Player, (2019). Why is a Standard Measurement System
Important? - Ppt Video Online Download. [online] Slideplayer.com.
Available at: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4635720/ (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
15. Sushmaindustries.com. (2017).Basic Concepts of Measurement
| Sushma Industries. [online] Available at: https://www.
sushmaindustries.com/blog/basic-concepts-measurement
16. TheFreeDictionary.com. (2019).Measuring System. [online]
Available at: https://www.thefreedictionary.com/measuring+system
17. Trochim, W. M. K., (2006).Social Research Methods - Knowledge
Base - Levels of Measurement. [online] Socialresearchmethods.net.
Available at: https://socialresearchmethods.net/kb/measlevl.php
18. Zupko, R., & James, C. L., (2019). Measurement System | Types &
Definition. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://
www.britannica.com/science/measurement-system (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
2
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENTS
In this chapter, we will learn about:

• Electrical Measurements.
• AC and DC Voltage.
• Types of Electrical Measurement.
• Principle of Electrical Measurement.
KEY TERMS:
• AC voltage • Electronic watt-hour meter

• Bridge circuits • Mechanical measuring
• Comparator • Potentiometers
• DC voltage • Wheatstone bridge
• DC voltmeter
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The techniques, calculations, and devices that are used in order to
measure electrical quantities are known as Electrical Measurements.
These measurements can be done by measuring the electrical
parameters of a system. For example, transducers, this device can
convert physical properties such as temperature, pressure, flow, etc.
into electrical signals. After conversion, the measurement can easily
be done and hence recorded.
The International system of units (SI) that is SI is universally used
for all the electrical measurements. National Institute of Standards
and Technology in US and the national standards laboratories of many
other countries maintain these standards.
2.1.1. DC Voltage
The voltage that induces DC, that is Direct Current is known as DC
Voltage. The magnitude of the voltage remains constant, and hence
in the V-I characteristic, it shows wave in one direction only. The
generation of DC Voltage is easy and simple.
This voltage is generated by rotating coil in the field of magnet. The
coil consists of the split ring and commutator, and hence it converts
the alternating current voltage into the direct current voltage.
2.1.2. AC Voltage
AC or Alternating Current Voltage is caused by the alternating current.
When the current carrying conductor rotates in the magnetic field,
the alternating current is generated. While rotating, the conductor cuts
the magnetic flux. Hence, the variation of the flux is generating the
alternating current voltage in the conductor.
Principles of Electrical Measurements 23
2.1.2.1. Effective Value

Conductor is an
Effective value is the value of alternating object or type of
current or voltage, which is equal to the square material that allows
root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the the flow of charge
(electrical current)
instantaneous values, which is taken throughout in one or more
the whole one competes cycle. directions.
2.1.2.2. Peak Value

During one cycle, the maximum value achieved
by an alternating quantity is known as peak
value. It is also referred to as the maximum
value or crest value or amplitude. At 90 degrees
of the sinusoidal alternating quantity, the peak
is obtained.
2.1.2.3. RMS Value

RMS that is Root Mean Square value of AC
current can be defined as when a stead or DC
current flows through a circuit for given period
of time, it produces the same heat as produced
by the AC current flowing through the same
circuit for the same time period. RMS or Root
Mean Square value is also referred to as effective
value or virtual value of AC current.
2.1.2.4. Average Value
As the two halves of a whole sinusoidal
waveform cancels out each other, the average
value is zero. So, the average is taken over half
a cycle. The average value of a sine wave of
voltage or current is 0.637 times the peak value.
2.2. TYPES OF MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS
There are three types of measuring instruments:
• Electrical measuring instruments;
• Electronic measuring instruments;
and
• Mechanical measuring instruments.
2.2.1. Electrical Measuring Instruments

The measurements used for measuring electrical
quantities are known as electrical instrument.
Electrical quantities like current, voltage, power,
etc. Examples of electrical measurements are
ammeter, voltmeter, and watt meter. Ammeter
measures current in Amperes, voltmeter
measures voltage in Volts, and wattmeter
measures power in Watt. The classification is
done on the basis of methods of representing
output readings.
Advantages of Electrical Measurements:
• These measurements consume less
power;
• More reliable to use as these are
compact in size;
• Non-contact measurements are
possible in these measurements;
• These have greater flexibility;
• Good frequency and transient
response;
• Remote recording and indication can
be done;
• Amplification produced is greater.
Disadvantages of Electrical Measurements:

• Due to some inertia produced by
the mechanical movement, these
measurements can show poor
frequency response.
2.2.2. Electronics Measuring Instruments

The measurements that use semiconductor
devices are referred to as electronic
measurements. They give fast responses. Since
in the electronic devices, the only movement
involved is of electrons, the response time is
very small as a response to very small inertia
of the electrons. By using pre-amplifiers and
amplifiers, a very weak signal can be detected.
Advantages of Electronic Measurements:
• Many measurements can be carried
out simultaneously;
• These measurements have low power
consumption;
• They have high sensitivity;
• They are reliable;
• These have quick response time;
• The electronic signals can be filtered,
amplified, sampled, measured, and
multiplexed.
2.2.3. Mechanical Measuring Instruments

The mechanical measurements are very reliable
for static as well as stable conditions. As
mechanical parts are used, these measurements
cannot completely follow the rapid changes that
occur. They are durable and inexpensive.
Advantages of Mechanical Measurements:

• They are cheaper in cost;
• Because of the rugged construction,
they are durable;
• They have simple design and are easy
to use;
• They do not require external power
supply for working;
• These measurements are accurate
for measurement of stable and time-
invariant quantity.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Measurements:
• These give poor frequency response to
transient and dynamic measurements;
• They require large force to overcome
mechanical friction;
• When remote indication and control
is needed, they become incompatible;
• These mechanical measurements
cause noise pollution.
2.3. TYPES OF ELECTRICAL

MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR
PRINCIPLE
Galvanometer is an 2.3.1. Absolute Measuring Instruments

electromechanical
instrument used Absolute measuring instruments give output in
for detecting and terms of physical constant of the instruments. For
indicating an electric example, Tangent galvanometer and Rayleigh’s
current.
current balance are absolute instruments.
• Tangent Galvanometer: It is an
example of the absolute instruments.
In tangent galvanometer, the tangent

of the angle of deflection of their
coil, radius, and the number of turns
of wire used and the horizontal
component of the earth magnetic field
determines the magnitude of current
passes through the coil.
Working Principle: The tangent
galvanometer works on the principle of tangent
law. The magnetic needle is kept in between
two magnetic fields which are perpendicular to
each other. In the magnetic fields, one is due to
the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field, and the other magnetic field is developed
by passing the current through the coil of the
tangent galvanometer.
2.3.2. Secondary Measuring Instruments

Secondary measuring instruments are made
with the help of absolute instruments. They
are calibrated by comparing them with
absolute instruments. Since, working with
absolute instrument is time-consuming; these
measurements are more frequently used in
measuring the quantities as compared to absolute
instruments.
In secondary instruments, by observing the
output of the instrument, the quantity under
measurement can be measured. By comparing the
secondary instrument with absolute instrument
or another secondary instrument which has been
already calibrated with an absolute instrument,
it can be calibrated. For example, Voltmeter,
pressure gauge.
• Pressure Gauge: An instrument is

used for measuring the condition
a fluid (liquid or gas) which will be
specified by the force per unit area
that is exerted by the fluid when it is
at rest (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Bourdon pressure gauge.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Bourdon_pressure_gauge,_Train_pressure_me-
ter,_recife_train_museum,_Pernambuco_State,_
Brazil.jpg
Working Principle: The pressure gauge
uses the principle when a flattened tube is
pressurized; it tends to regain its circular form in
cross- section. In spite of the fact that this change
in cross-section is nearly negligible. Therefore,
involving moderate stresses within the elastic
range of easily workable materials, the strain of
the material of the tube is magnified by forming
the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that
the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil,
elastically, as it is pressurized.
The secondary instruments are classified

into two categories:
• Analogue instruments; and
• Null type instruments.
1. Analogue Instrument: The instru-
ment whose output is the continuous
function of time and has a constant
relation to the input is known as ana-
log instrument. Analog instruments
are used to measure physical quan-
tities like voltage, current, power,
and energy. Pointer or dial are used
in analog instrument in order to indi-
cate the magnitude of the measured
quantity.
2. Null-Type Instrument: The null or
zero type electrical measuring instru-
ments tend to maintain the stationary
position of the pointer. By produc-
ing opposing effect, they maintain
the stationary position of the pointer.
Hence, the following steps are re-
quired for the operation of the null
type instruments:
• In order to calculate the value of un-
known quantity, the value of oppo-
site effect should be known.
• The detector shows the balance and
unbalanced conditions accurately.
• The detector should also have the
means for restoring force.
2.3.3. Deflection Type Instruments

Pointer of this deflection type electrical
measuring instrument deflects to measure the
quantity. By measuring the net deflection of
the pointer from its initial position, the value of

the quantity can be measured. One example of
deflection type instruments is permanent magnet
moving coil instrument.
Magnetic coil is • Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
an electromagnetic Instrument: The permanent moving
device which is magnetic coil that is PMMC is an
used in electrical instrument which contains permanent
engineering for
magnet winded with copper wire.
giving strength to the
magnetic field where Hence, the permanent moving
it interacts with elec- magnetic coil is a low-level dc
tric current. ammeter mostly used in labs in order
to perform experiments.
Working Principle: PMMC works on
the principle of Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. In
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule, the thumb shows its
motion, forefinger shows the current direction
and middle finger shows its field.
When either current is flowing or not, forces
applied are:
• Deflection Forces: The deflecting
force is created when current passes
through the coil and this deflection
force causes the pointer to move from
its initial position. In order to pass
maximum field to pass through, the
distance between magnetic poles and
light-weighted coils should be very
less. As the coil rotates, the pointer
fixed to the coil starts moving over the
scale. The deflection force becomes
magnetic when the current passes
through.
• Controlling Forces: The pointer is

at zero, when no current is passed
through the coil, the pointer is at
zero position, and the main element
for controlling force is spiral spring.
But when the current passes the
coil rotates and the pointer wind up.
When the deflecting and controlling
force become equal to each other
or magnetic force become equal to
each other, the coil and pointer stops
rotating.
• Damping Forces: Torque is the
turning effect of force. In PMMC
electric and magnetic force becomes
equal to each other, the damping
effect on the pointer can be seen and
damping force is required in order
to minimize the oscillations. The
damping force is provided by eddy
currents.
The deflecting electrical measuring
instruments can be classified as:
• Indicating Instruments: These
directly indicate the value of the
electrical quantity while it is being
measured. In these instruments, the
pointer directly gives the value of the
electrical quantity being measured
by moving over a graduated scale.
For example, voltmeter, ammeter,
wattmeter (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: DC voltmeter.
File:Voltmeter_from_Physics_Department.jpg
• Working Principle of Voltmeter:
Ohm’s law states that the voltage
across a resistance is directly
proportional to the current passing
through it. Voltmeter works on the
principle of Ohm’s Law. Thus, the
construction of galvanometer is made
in order to implement it in real time
Magnetic field is the so that a coil is suspended in the
area around a mag- magnetic field.
net in which there
is magnetic force.
• Integrating Instruments: The total
quantity of electricity or electrical
energy is measured by the instrument
in a given time are called as integrating
instruments. This instrument has a set
of dials and pointers which is used to
record the total quantity of electrical
energy or electricity which is being
supplied to the load. For example,
Ampere hour meter, Watt-hour meter
(Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Electronic watt-hour meter.
File:2010_Chunghsin_kV2c_electronic_watthour_
meter.jpg
• Working Principle of Watt Hour
Meter: The instrument used for
measuring energy is known as Watt-
hour Meter. Both of the factors Watt-hour meter is
power, as well as time, must be taken in fact a measuring
device which can
into consideration by the watt-hour evaluate and records
meter, since energy is the product the electrical power
of both power and factor. Watt- passing through a
hour meter is a small motor whose circuit in a certain
instantaneous speed is proportional time.
to the power passing through it. In
a given time, the total revolutions
are directly proportional to the total
energy consumed all along that time.
• Recording Instruments: The
instrument which gives a continuous
record of the variations of the electrical
quantity that is to be measured is
known as recording instruments. In
this type of instrument, an indicating

instrument with a pen is attached to
its pointer.
A chart is wrapped over a drum moving
with slow uniform speed. The pen rests lightly
on that drum. The drum moving with slow
uniform speed does its motion in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the pointer.
The pen traces out a path which indicates the
manner in which the quantity is being measured
and varies during the time of the record. For
example, recording voltmeters, recording
ammeters in supply stations (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Ediswan recording ammeter and volt-

meter.
File:Ediswan_recording_ammeter_and_voltmeter_
(Rankin_Kennedy,_Electrical_Installations,_Vol_
II,_1909).jpg
2.3.4. Bridge Circuits

The instrument used to measure impedances
like resistor, capacitor, inductor, and also alters
signals from transducers with associated current
or voltage signals is known as the bridge circuits. Bridge circuit is
a topology of
electrical circuitry
2.3.4.1. Types Bridges Circuits in which two cir-
• Wheatstone Bridge Circuit: By cuit branches
balancing two legs of a circuit, the (usually in parallel
with each other) are
Wheatstone bridge circuit calculates «bridged» by a third
the unknown electrical resistance. branch connected
This type of bridge circuit contains between the first two
four resistances which are arranged branches at some
in a diamond-like structure consisting intermediate point
along them.
one resistance in each of the edges.
The two conjunctions of the edges are
connected to the supply voltage and in order to
detect the presence of electric current between
the two points, the midpoint of the two edges
opposite to each other are connected to any
current flow detecting device like multimeter or
galvanometer (Figure 2.5).
Components of Wheatstone Bridge:

• Two resistors with known value;
• Resistor with unknown value of
resistance;
• Variable resistor like rheostat;
• Voltage/power source;
• Galvanometer;
• Connecting wires.
Figure 2.5: Circuit of Wheatstone bridge.
Source: https://pixabay.com/vectors/wheatstone-
bridge-electric-circuit-40465/
Working Principle: The Wheatstone bridge
uses the principle that if the ratio of the two
resistances on the one edge is equal to the ratio
of the two resistances at the other edge then
between the midpoints, there will be no flow of
current.
• Wien Bridge Circuit: This kind
of circuit is used for measuring
Inductance is capacitance accurately in terms of
the name given to frequency and resistance.
the property of a • Maxwell Bridge Circuit: This type
component that
of bridge circuit is used to calculate
opposes the change
of current flowing an inductance which is not known in
through it and even a terms of standardized capacitance and
straight piece of wire resistance.
will have some in-
Working Principle: Maxwell Bridge is
ductance.
used for the measurement of self-inductance of
the circuit. It is advanced form of Wheat Stone
Bridge. This bridge works on the principle of

the comparison. In Maxwell bridge circuit, the
value of unknown inductance can be determined
by comparing the same with the known value.
• H-Bridge Circuit: This is a bridge Polarity is a
circuit which is used to allow DC separation of electric
motors in robots in order to move charge leading to
forward and backward by enabling a a molecule or its
chemical groups
voltage across a load. having an electric
• Diode Bridge Circuit: This is used dipole moment, with
to provide the same polarity of output a negatively charged
for each polarity of the input. end and a positively
charged end.
As per the model of current flow, current
is defined to be positive, when it flows from
positive to the negative pole through electrical
conductors. But practically, free electrons
always flow from negative to the positive pole.
• Fontana Bridge Circuit: This is a
bridge circuit is used to implement
an ample frequency band voltage to
current converter.
• Carey Foster Bridge Circuit: In
order to measure tiny differences
between two large resistances or to
calculate low resistances, this bridge
circuit is used.
Working Principle: The principle on which
Carey Foster Bridgeworks is very much similar
to the Wheatstone bridge. The decrease in
potential is directly proportional to the length of
wire. This decrease in potential is approximately
equal to the potential decrease across the
resistance connected in parallel to the battery.
• Kelvin Bridge Circuit: This type
of bridge circuit is used to measure
unknown resistors underneath 1 Ω.
It specifically measures the resistors

that are arranged as four terminal
resistors. It is modification of
Wheatstone bridge. The resistance
of leading connecting the unknown
resistance to the terminal of the bridge
circuit in low resistance measurement
can affect the measurement.
2.3.5. Potentiometers
An electrical instrument which is used to measure
the electromotive force that is EMF of a given
battery is known as potentiometer. Comparison
can also be done of EMFs of different batteries.
Variable resistor can be used in most of the
applications. While manufacturing electronics
equipment that provides a way to adjust
electronic circuits so that the correct outputs are
obtained, these potentiometers are used in huge
quantities. In order to control volume on radios
and other electronic equipment used for audio,
these instruments are used (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Potentiometer.
File:Potentiometer.jpg
Working Principle: This instrument is based

on the basic working principle that the decrease
in the potential across any portion of the wire
is directly proportional to the length of the
wire. The wire has uniform cross-sectional area
and the current flowing through it is constant.
The electric current will flow when there is no
potential difference between any two nodes.
The potentiometer wire is a wire that has
high resistivity with uniform cross-sectional
area. So, the resistance is uniform throughout
the wire. The cell of high EMF called as driver
cell or the voltage source is connected with the
potentiometer terminal.
There are two main types of potentiometers:
• Rotary Potentiometers: For
Potentiometer is
obtaining supply voltage to a part of
a three-terminal
electrical circuit or electronic circuit, resistor with a
which will be adjustable, this type of sliding or rotating
potentiometer is used. An example of contact that forms an
rotary potentiometer will be volume adjustable voltage
divider.
controller of a radio transistor in which
the rotary knob of the potentiometer
controls the supply to the amplifier.
• Linear Potentiometers: The linear
potentiometer is mostly the same as
the rotary potentiometer. The only
difference is the sliding contact is
used instead of the rotary movement.
The two ends of the straight resistor
are connected to the source voltage.
Using a track attached to the resistor,
the sliding contact can be slide. One of
the terminals of the sliding contact is
connected to the one end of the output
circuit and the other terminal of the
resistor is connected to the other end

of the output circuit.
2.3.6. Comparator
Working Principle: According to the working
principle of the electrical comparator, conversion
of the linear displacements into an electric output
is done. In this instrument, Wheatstone bridge
circuit is used. By using the step up and step-
down transformer, working of this comparator
can be done.
The inductance of both coils is equal and
opposite in direction with different signs. The
armature is placed at the center in between
the coils. The meter will read zero and the
bridge stone circuit is balanced. But this is not
practically possible. In practical, the armature
will be lifted up and lowered down using the
plunger when the measurement is done.
Hence, because of this, the unbalancing
of Wheatstone bridge circuit takes place.
Variations in current or potential will be
generated correspondingly due to this effect. At
this moment, the meter will give some values
as a displacement and the indicated value can
be small or large component. And if the induced
current is very small, then before displaying in
the meter, it should be amplified.
An electrical comparator consists of the
following three major parts such as
1. Transducer;
2. Display device as meter; and
3. Amplifier.
• Transducer: In this part, an iron ar-
mature is provided in between two
coils which are held by a lea spring at

one end. The other end is supported
against a plunger for moving up and
down. The two coils act as two arms
of an AC Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• Amplifier: The amplifier is a device
which is used to amplify the given
input signals frequency into magni-
fied output.
• Display Device or Meter: Using
some terminal stage instruments, the
amplified input signals can be dis-
played. The terminal instrument is
used meter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are electrical measurements?
2. Define effective value, peak value, RMS value and average
value.
3. Describe the three measuring instruments.
4. Give the advantages and disadvantages of electrical
measurements.
5. Name the types of electrical measuring instruments.
6. What is PMMC? Describe its working principle.
7. Name the types of bridge circuit.
8. What are the components of Wheatstone bridge? Define the
working principle of Wheatstone bridge.
9. Define potentiometer. Give the names of its types.
10. What is an electrical comparator? Give the names of its major
parts.
REFERENCES
1. Agarwal, T., (2017).Different Types of Comparators and its
Applications. [online] Buy electronics & electrical projects in the
United States. Available at: https://www.efxkits.us/different-types-
comparators-applications/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Ahmad, F., (2018).Wheatstone Bridge Circuit: Principle and
Application Explained. [online] EEE projects. Available at: https://
eeeproject.com/wheatstone-bridge/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. BrainKart. (2018). Electrical Comparator. [online] Available at:
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Electrical-comparator_5828/
4. Circuit Globe, (2019). Difference between AC & DC Voltage (with
Comparison Chart) - Circuit Globe. [online] Available at: https://
circuitglobe.com/difference-between-ac-and-dc-voltage.html
5. Circuit Globe, (2019). What is Peak Value, Average Value and
RMS Value? - Definition and Explanation - Circuit Globe. [online]
Available at: https://circuitglobe.com/what-is-peak-value-average-
value-and-rms-value.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
6. Electrical Engineering Community, (2015).How to Use a Voltmeter?
[online] Available at: https://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/
others/how-to-use-a-voltmeter.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
7. Electrical4U, (2019). Potentiometer: Definition, Types, and
Working Principle. [online] Electrical4U. Available at: https://
www.electrical4u.com/potentiometer/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
8. ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students, (2019).
Different Types of Bridge Circuits and its Functions. [online]
Available at: https://www.elprocus.com/different-types-bridge-
circuits-and-circuit-diagrams/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
9. ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students, (2019).
Potentiometer Working, Their Applications and Different Types.
[online] Available at: https://www.elprocus.com/potentiometer-
construction-working-and-applications/ (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
10. Instrumentation and Control Engineering, (2018).Classification
of Measuring Instruments. [online] Available at: https://
automationforum.co/classification-of-measuring-instruments/
11. Patel, P., (2017).General Principles of Measurement. [online]
UrbanPro.com. Available at: https://www.urbanpro.com/btech-
tuition/general-principles-of-measurement (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
12. Redefining Knowledge, (2017). Tangent Galvanometer:
Construction, Working, Sensitivity, Accuracy. [online] Available
at: https://hemantmore.org.in/science/physics/tangent-
galvanometer/3818/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
13. TheFreeDictionary.com. (2002).Electrical Measurements.
[online] Available at: https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/
Electrical+Measurements (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3
INSTRUMENTATION
In this chapter, we will learn about:

• History and development of instrumentation.
• Parameters that can be measured using instrumentation.
• Classification of instrumentation.
• Application of instrumentation.
KEY TERMS:
• Automotive • Piezoelectric accelerometer

• Home security system • Pneumatic instruments
camera • Recorder
• Indicator • Series modular
• Instrumentation • Two-stage amplifier
• Parameters
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The application of instruments, in the form of devices or systems, in
order to attain some specific objective with reference to measurement
or control or maybe both is referred to as instrumentation.
A measurement instrument is a device which is capable of detecting
changes, the changes can be either physical or in a particular process.
After this, these physical changes are hence converted into some form
of information which is understandable by the user.
For example, when the switch is closed, the resistor produces
heat which will tend to increase the temperature of the liquid in the
tank. The measurement instrument will then detect the increase in
temperature and will show on the scale of that measuring instrument.
To get the information about the physical changes in the process,
direct indication or recorder is used.
• Indication: This is the simplest form of measurement. It
helps in knowing the current state of the variable.
• Recorder: It allows us to observe the current and previous
state of the variable as this device stores data. It can provide
us with the overall history of the variable.
3.2. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF

INSTRUMENTATION
3.2.1. Pre-Industrial Period

In ancient technologies, for comparing weights and to indicate
position, scales, and simple pointers are used respectively. In the tomb
of the ancient Egyptian king Amenhotep I (buried around 1500 BCE);
one of the oldest water clocks was found. Further improvements were
made in the water clocks. They got the fundamentals of the automatic
control system device by 270 BCE (Figure 3.1).
Instrumentation 47
Figure 3.1: Ancient water clock used in ancient

Egypt.
File:Water_clock,_Egypt,_Ptolemaic_Period,_
reign_of_Ptolemy_II,_285-246_BC,_limestone,_
carnelian_beads_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_
University_of_Chicago_-_DSC07912.JPG
Christopher Wren in 1663 presented a
design for a ‘weather clock’ in front of the Royal
Society. The drawing shows meteorological
sensor moving pens over paper as directed by
the clockwork. For two centuries, these devices
were not standardized in meteorological.
As displayed by pneumatic chart recorders,
where a pen is displaced by a pressurized
bellows, the concept remained unaltered. Until
the industrial revolution took place, recorders,
displays, controls, and integrated sensors was
out of the common and was limited by both
need and practicality.
3.2.2. Early Industrial Period

In early 1930s, the pneumatic transmitter
and automatic 3-term (PID) controllers were
introduced. Before that, for control and
indication, early systems used direct process
connections to local control panels.
Depending on the need to control valves and
actuators in the field, the ranges of pneumatic
transmitters were defined. As a standard, a
signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (0.2 to 0.1 kg /
cm2 or 20 to 100 kPa) was defined and a range
from 6 to 30 psi was standardized in order to be
used for larger valves. Starting with the range
of 20–100 mA up to 90 V for loop powered
devices; transistor electronics enabled wiring
and replaced pipes, reducing the range to 4–20
mA at 12 to 24 V in more modern systems.
A device which produces an output signal,
often in the form of a 4–20 mA electrical current
Voltage is the
pressure from an signal is known as transmitter. In spite of the fact
electrical circuit›s that many other options using voltage, pressure,
power source that ethernet, and frequency are possible. In the mid
pushes charged of 1950s, the transistor was commercialized.
electrons (current)
through a conducting In order to operate valves, circuit breakers,
loop, enabling them regulators, solenoids, relays, and other devices,
to do work such as instruments were attached to a control system
illuminating a light. to provide signals. Such devices were able to
control a desired variable for output and hence
provided with either remote or automated
control capabilities.
Own standard instrumentation signal was
introduced by each of the instrumentation signal
and thus caused much confusion. The confusion
ended up when for transmitters and valves, a
range 4–20 mA was used as standard electronic
Instrumentation 49
instruments signal. In the 1970s, these signals got

standardized as ANSI/ISA S50,“Compatibility
of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial
Process Instruments.”
And the maintenance cost was reduced when Instrumentation is
the transformation of instrumentation from a field of study and
mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, work centering on
and valves took place to electronic instruments. measurement and
The maintenance cost was reduced as the control of physical
processes.
electronic instruments were more dependable
than mechanical instruments. Along with this,
the efficiency also increased and production
because of their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics
was preferred in corrosive and explosive
atmosphere; they got the advantage.
3.2.3. Automated Process Control Period

During the beginning years of the process
control, process indicators and control elements
were observed by an operator that controls the
unit in order to adjust the valves to obtain the
desired temperature, pressures, and flows.
With the evolution of technology, pneumatic
controllers were invented. They were installed
in the field which monitored the process and
controlled the valves. Hence the time required
by the process operator to monitor the process
was reduced.
After some years, the actual controllers
were shifted to a central room and the signals
were transmitted to the control room in order to
monitor the process and the output signals were
transmitted to the final control element such as
valve in order to adjust the process as required.
These controllers and indicators were

installed on a wall which was referred to as a
control board. While monitoring the process
indicators, the operator used to stand facing this
board walking back and forth. The time required
by the process operator to walk around the units
was again reduced. During these years, the most
standardized pneumatic signal levels used was
3–15 psig.
3.2.4. Large Integrated Computer-Based

Systems Period
A DCS control room is made in order to plant
information and display of controls on the
computer graphics screens. In this control room
the operators are positioned. Despite retaining a
plant overview, they can view and control any
part of process from their screens. There were
many stages involved in the evolution of the
process control of large industrial plants. At the
beginning, the control would be from the panels
which are local to the process plant. Despite that
there was no overall view of the process and also
it required a large manpower in order to attend
to these dispersed panels.
The transmission of all plant measurements
to a permanently-manned central control room
was the next logical development. And hence
Transmission is
a machine in a
the centralization of all the localized panels
power transmis- took place and it had an advantage of lower
sion system, which manning levels and easier overview of the
provides controlled process. Oftentimes the controllers were behind
application of the the control room panels and the transmission
power.
of all the automatic and manual control outputs
back to plant took place.
Instrumentation 51
However, although providing a central

control focus, as each control loop had its own
controller hardware, this arrangement was not
flexible. And also, in order to view different parts
of the process, continuous operator movement
are required within the control room.
It became possible to replace these discrete
controllers with computer-based algorithms
when the electronic processors and graphics
displays were introduced. It was organized on
a network of input/output racks with their own
control processors. It was possible to distribute
it around the plant and communicate using
graphic displays in the control room. Then the
distributed control concept was brought into this
world.
Interconnection and reconfiguration of plant
controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks
became easier with the introduction of DCSs
and SCADA. It also provides an easy interfacing
with other production computer systems.
This also activated the cultured alarm
handling, removed the need for physical records
such as chart recorders, introduced automatic
event logging, permitted the control racks to
be networked and so to reduce cabling runs, is
located locally to plant and thus provided high-
level overviews of production levels and plant
status.
3.3. MEASURED PARAMETERS

There are many parameters such as physical
values which can be measured using
instrumentation.
• Pressure: The physical force is

applied on an object is known as
pressure. The force which is applied is
perpendicular to the surface of objects
per unit area. The basic formula used
for measuring pressure is:
P = F/A
where F is force applied and A is area of the
surface. SI unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa).
Types of pressure include absolute, differential,
atmospheric, and gauge pressure.
• Temperature: It can be defined as
the intensity of heat present in a
substance or object. It is expressed
using a comparative scale and can be
displayed by a thermometer or can be
recognized by touch.
In order to measure temperature, certain
devices are used such as thermometers, digital
thermometers and thermocouples. Thermometer
contains mercury. The temperature is directly
proportional to an expansion of mercury.
The moment the temperature increases, the
fluid in the thermometer expands thus showing
the measure of temperature. Hence it can be
said that the temperature can be measured by
measuring volume of the fluid. SI unit used for
measuring temperature degree Celsius, Kelvin,
and Fahrenheit.
• Viscosity: The resistance of a fluid
(liquid or gas) to deformation of its
shape at a given rate can be termed
as viscosity. For example, for liquid,
it relates to ‘thickness’ like syrup has
higher viscosity than water.
Instrumentation 53
• Ionizing Radiation: The radiation

having enough energy in order to
remove tightly bound electrons
from the orbit of an atom during an Ionizing ra-
interaction with an atom, so that the diation is a type
atom becomes charged or ionized is of energy released
by atoms that
referred to as ionizing radiation. travels in the form
• Frequency: The number of waves of electromagnetic
passing through a fixed point in unit waves (gamma or
X-rays) or particles
time is called as frequency. It is the
(neutrons, beta or
number of cycles or vibrations passed alpha).
by a body in one unit of time in
periodic motion. Its SI unit is Hertz
(Hz).
• Voltage: The amount of potential
energy between two points on a
circuit, in which one point has more
charge than others, is called as
voltage. Voltage is measured in Volts.
1 Volt is the potential difference
between two points that imparts one
joule of energy per unit coulomb of
charge that passes through it.
• Current: The amount of charge that
flows through the circuit over a period
of time is called as Current. SI unit
of current is Amperes. 1 Ampere can
be defined as 6.241 X 1018 electrons
(1 Coulomb) per unit second passing
through a circuit.
• Capacitance: It can be defined as
the amount of charge stored inside
a capacitor at a given voltage.
When charges are introduced to the
positive plate of the capacitor due
to EMF, the capacitor gets charged.
Correspondingly, when the charges

are pulled out of the capacitor, it gets
discharged. SI unit of capacitance is
Farad.
• Inductance: It is the property of a
coil to resist any change in electric
current flowing through it. When
the coil opposes the current change
through itself, it is referred to as self-
inductance.
When a secondary coil resists the change in
current in a primary coil then that is referred to
as mutual inductance. SI unit of inductance is
Henry.
• Resistance: The property of a
material which opposes the flow of
electric current passing through it is
known as resistance. Insulators have
very high resistance while conductors
have very low resistance. SI Unit of
resistance is Ohms.
• Levels of Liquid: It can be measured
using instrumentation. In order to
establish the level of liquid in a
river, well, tank or other body of
liquid, pressure transmitter can be
used. The pressure at the bottom of a
container filled with liquid is directly
proportional to the height of the liquid
in the container.
• Flow: It can be referred to as moving
steadily and continuously in a stream.
Quantifying the bulk fluid movement
is measurement. The number of ways
or devices can be used in order to
Instrumentation 55
measure the flow. Some common

types of flowmeters are:
• Electromagnetic;
• Positive- displacement;
• Obstruction- type;
• Anemometer;
Mass flow meter
• Fluid dynamic (vortex shedding); is a device that
• Inferential (turbine type); measures mass flow
rate of a fluid
• Mass flowmeter (Coriolis); traveling through a
• Ultrasonic. tube.
3.4. ELEMENTS OF
MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS
Any general measuring instrument consists of
following parts:
• Amplifier / Conditioner: Some
changes which are detected by the
sensors can be very small, so they need
to be amplified and then conditioned
so that it can be properly displayed
(Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Two-stage amplifier.
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/byzantium-
books/27143980992/
• Sensor: These are the devices that

detect any change in the process it
is measuring and thus experience
changes in its physical properties.
• Display: In order to understand
the measured data, measurement
instruments use graduated instrument
or an electronic display. In addition to
this, sometimes the display works as
a recorder so that the measurement’s
history or trends can be conveyed
easily.
• Transmitter: Most of the times,
the information obtained after the
measurement is done, are needed to
send to a control room which is located
at a distance from the instrument. For
this transmission of information, a
particular instrument is used which is
referred to as transmitter (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: Series modulator for AM transmitter.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Series_
modulator_for_AM_transmitter.png
Instrumentation 57
3.5. CLASSIFICATION OF
INSTRUMENTS (FIGURE 3.4)
Figure 3.4: Hierarchy showing classification of in-

struments.
3.5.1. Electrical and Electronics

Instruments
Electronics and electrical instrument can further
be divided into three categories:
1. Analogue Instruments:
• By using this instrument, physical
quantities like current, energy, volt-
age, and power can be measured.
• These instruments can give the out-
put signal of the range 4–20 mA.
• Typically, these can transmit signals
at the distance of 1200 m.
• Electrical and Electronics instru-
ments have good accuracy.
• They are easy to maintain.
• In these instruments, data having
only one variable can be transmitted.
2. Smart Analogue Instruments:
• By using this instrument, quantities
like temperature, static pressure, etc.
can be measured.
• Smart analog instruments have ex-

cellent accuracy.
• They perform their own diagnosis
that is they are able to analyze their
own functionality problem.
• Data having one variable can be
transmitted.
3. Digital Instruments:
• A number of digital instruments are
able to use a single cable.
Calibration is
the process of
• Transmission of multiple values can
configuring an be done for each instrument such as
instrument to provide calibration, process variable, diag-
a result for a sample nostics, etc.
within an acceptable • Data capacity of these instruments is
range.
influenced by the mode of transmis-
sion used like fiber optic, cable or
even wireless.
• Can transmit signal at a distance of
approximately 1900 m without a re-
peater.
3.5.2. Pneumatic Instruments

The pneumatic instruments are powered by air.
One major advantage of pneumatic instruments
is that these instruments do not consume
electricity, and hence they can be used in the
areas where it is inconvenient to use electric
power.
The pneumatic instruments are ambiguous
instruments and work with a single variable. These
instruments are affected by temperature changes
and vibrations and require high maintenance.
The output signal of the transmitters is between
3–15 psi and the maximum distance up to which
it can transmit signals is approximately 200 m.
Instrumentation 59
3.6. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

1. Range: This is the region between
the minimum and maximum values
that is the limits within which a vari-
able is measured.
2. Span: The maximum value of the
range minus the minimum value of
the range calculates span.
3. Elevation: The lower limit will be
the elevation, if the lower limit of
the range is a positive value. For ex-
ample, if a range is given as 10°C to
200°C, then the elevation is 10°C.
4. Overrange: When a device is set
up to work within a pre-determined
range and it is made to work above
or below the range, then a protec-
tion mechanism is required in order
to prevent the damage to the instru-
ment. Positive overrange is when the
value measured is above the maxi-
mum value. Negative overrange is
when the value measured is below
the minimum value.
5. Depression / Suppression: The val-
ue of the lower limit is depression
when the lower limit of the range is
negative. For example, if the range is
–10°C to 100°C, then the depression
will be 10°C.
6. Accuracy: It is the number that de-
fines the limits of the error.
7. Reference Value: It refers to either
the expected, actual or the desired
value of the variable. In order to gen-
erate the error signal in a feedback
control system, the measured value

is fed back and then subtracted from
the reference value.
8. Error: It can be defined as the dif-
ference between the measured value
and the actual value (or the desired
Physical vari- or the expected value) of a physical
ables are things
variables. The error can be both the
like the position
of particles or positive as well as negative. The er-
orientation of rigid ror is positive, when the value which
bodies in a physi- is measured is greater than the actual
cal system. value. The error is negative when the
value measured is less than the ac-
tual value.
Error > 0, if measured value > actual value
Error < 0, if measure value < actual value
3.7. APPLICATION OF
INSTRUMENTATION
3.7.1. Instrumentation in Automotive

Complex instrument can easily be found in any
modern automobile. Engine rotational speed
and vehicle linear speed are displayed inside the
automobiles.
In addition to this, there are also displays of
distance traveler, battery voltage and current,
fluid levels, fluid temperatures and other
feedbacks of various controls such as parking
brake, transmission position, headlights, turn
signals) (Figure 3.5).
Instrumentation 61
Figure 3.5: Speedometer and other indications.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedometer
For special problems such as fuel low, tyre
pressure low, check engine, seat belt unfastened,
check engine). In order to report diagnostic
equipment, problems are recorded. To provide
voice commands to reach a particular destination,
navigation systems are provided.
Automation instrumentations have an
advantage that they are cheap as well as reliable
for a long period and in harsh environments.
There is independent airbag system in which
sensors, logic, and actuators are pre-installed.
Sensors are used in anti-skid braking system to
control the brakes. For example, autonomous
cars having bizarre instrumentation are been
demonstrated.
3.7.2. Instrumentation in Household

A very common example of instrumentation
system used in household is a mechanical
thermostat. A thermostat is used to control
the room temperature as well as a household
furnace. By using bi-metallic strip, a typical unit
can sense temperature. By a needle on the free
end of the strip, it displays the temperature. The
furnace is activated by using a mercury switch.

The mercury makes physical and also electrical
contacts between the electrodes.
Home security system can be another
example of application of instrumentation in
Remote Monitor- household. The home security system or any
ing is a standard kind of security system contains a variety of
specification that
facilitates the moni- sensors such as motion detector sensor, switches
toring of network to door openings, simple algorithms to detect
operational activities interruptions, local controlling and remote
through the use of re- monitoring of the system so that the police
mote devices known can be notified if there are any mishappening
as monitors or probes.
(Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Home security system camera.
Source: https://www.flickr.com/pho-
tos/146791570@N05/31793674263
Sensors are used in kitchen for controlling
purpose. By measuring the internal temperature,
a refrigerator maintains a constant temperature.
Instrumentation 63
Until the limit switch is thrown, an automated ice

machine produces ices. For reaching a targeted
food temperature, some ovens use temperature
probe. A microwave oven cooks using sensors.
They follow a heat then sense then heat then
sense cycle until the sensing is done.
Some more examples include bread toasters.
By time or heat measurements, pop-up bread
toaster can be operated. In a toilet, the float acts
as a water level sensor. Until a float closes the
mouth of valve, a common toilet refills the water
tank.
3.7.3. Instrumentation in Aircrafts Magnetic com-

pass is the most
In early times, a few sensors are used in the familiar com-
aircrafts. For example, a magnetic compass pass type. It functions
provided a sense of direction. ‘Steam gauges’ as a pointer to
were used in order to convert air pressures into «magnetic north»,
deflections in the needle and that deflection the local magnet-
ic meridian, because
were interpreted as altitude and airspeed. The the magnetized
displays used by pilot were very critical. needle at its heart
Now in modern times, more set of sensors aligns itself with the
horizontal component
and displays are used in aircrafts and so they
of the Earth›s mag-
are embedded into avionics systems. For netic field.
reliability, redundant sensors were used. A set of
information is transferred to a crash recorder in
order to assist any investigation.
Now- a- days aircrafts contain global
positioning systems, autopilots, inertial
navigation, aircraft stabilizing systems,
autopilots and inertial navigation systems.
Computer displays having head up displays are
now used by pilots for displays (Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7: The T-6 Texan II simulator instrument

panel uses a single flat panel monitor.
Source: https://www.jbsa.mil/News/News/Arti-
cle/461724/aetc-commander-presents-duckworth-
award-to-558th-fts/
A distributed instrumentation system is
used which named as air traffic control radar.
An electromagnetic pulse is transmitted from
the ground and receives an echo. Aircrafts use
transponders in order to transmit codes while
receiving the pulse. Thus, the system displays
map location of the aircraft, identifier, and
altitude. Based on the antenna direction and
time delay that was sensed previously, the map
locates the aircraft.
3.7.4. Instrumentation in Laboratories

In order to measure electrical as well as chemical
quantities, laboratory equipment is there. For
example, a plethora of equipment can be used
in order to test the drinking water for pollutants
automatically.
Instrumentation 65
3.7.5. Instrumentation in Industries

Instrumentation plays a very important role in Acceleration is the
measuring and controlling various quantities rate of change of
in industries with the help of various industrial velocity of an object
instruments. with respect to time.
Some common quantities that are generally

measured in any industry are temperature of a
device, fluid pressure, volume of fluid, fluid flow
rate, motion, position or physical dimensions,
electric current, electrical resistance, voltage,
and even acceleration of the machine which is
being used (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.8: Piezoelectric accelerometer.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_
accelerometer
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define instrumentation.
2. Which instrument was found in the tomb of Egyptian king
Amenhotep 1?
3. Name the device used for measuring temperature and how it
works?
4. What is voltage? Define 1 volt.
5. Name the parameter that can be measured using instrumentation.
6. Define the elements of measurement instruments.
7. What are the types of instrumentation? Further, give the
classification of electrical and electronic instruments.
8. What is overrange?
9. Give the examples of systems used in automobiles that use
instrumentation.
10. Briefly explain the application of instrumentation in household.
Instrumentation 67
REFERENCES
1. Agarwal, T., (n.d.).Understanding about Industrial Instrumentation
in Real-Time Applications. [online] Available at: https://www.
edgefx.in/industrial-instrumentation-in-real-time-applications/
2. Careerride.com. (2012).Explain Capacitance, Inductance,
Resistance - Electronics. [online] Available at: https://www.
careerride.com/view/explain-capacitance-inductance-resistance-
electronics-3259.aspx (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). Frequency | Definition, Symbols,
& Formulas. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/
science/frequency-physics (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). Viscosity | Definition, Facts,
& Examples. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/
science/viscosity (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
5. Hughes, J., (2019). Real World Instrumentation with Python.
[online] O’Reilly | Safari. Available at: https://www.oreilly.com/
library/view/real-world-instrumentation/9780596809591/ch01.
html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
6. Taylor, C., (n.d.).Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Ohm’s Law -
learn.sparkfun.com. [online] Learn.sparkfun.com. Available at:
https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/voltage-current-resistance-and-
ohms-law/all (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
7. Toppr-guides, (2019). What is Pressure? - Definition, Formula,
Unit, Examples, Videos. [online] Available at: https://www.toppr.
com/guides/physics/force-and-pressure/introduction-to-pressure
8. Toppr-guides. (2019). Temperature Measurement Devices, Units,
and Flow of Heat. [online] Available at: https://www.toppr.com/
guides/science/heat/heat-and-measuring-temperature/ (Accessed
on 24 June 2019).
9. World Health Organization, (2019).What is Ionizing Radiation?
[online] Available at: https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/
about/what_is_ir/en/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

• Concept of simple electric circuit.
• Devices use in the electric circuit.
• Materials Required for making a simple circuit.
• Semiconductor Physics and Circuit Theory.
KEY TERMS:
• Capacitors • Resistance
• Components • Traces
• Filament
• Floating
• Fluctuating
• Humming
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Since the things, in reality, will be different from what everybody read
in textbooks. Designing circuits takes a lot of reading and practice.
Capacitors are pretty handy components used as timing elements or
as filters. When components are in series and it is important to note
for many reasons for actually connecting circuit in houses or in other
places.
Diving into the electronics for the first time can be daunting. A
circuit is a closed path through which an electric current can flow.
A circuit can be closed or open, if the circuit is closed then all of the
components are connected and the electrical current can flow. On the
other hand, if the circuit is opened then a connection is broken and the
electrical current cannot flow.
Multimeters can be a key tool in many of the electric tasks that you
might need to do around the house. They are used to measure current,
voltage, and resistance which can be essential to the success of your
project. Not to mention that such measurements are also required in
order to stay safe during your electric work and after your task is done.
The market offers two types of multimeters nowadays: analog and
digital multimeters.
The circuits have been used to send energy in order to turn things
on like the motor in the drill or the bottle in the flashlight. A lot of
things that has been used every day contain circuits and circuit boards.
For example, a circuit board contains lots of little circuits that each has
their own individual function. For example, one circuit might turn on
the motor and another circuit might make the buzzer beep but not all
circuits have to be this complicated and it is possible to make a simple
circuit out of just a light bulb, a power source as well as some wires.
4.2. ELECTRICITY AND CIRCUITS

It is necessary to understand how the electricity works completely
without the current and voltage, full group. Resistance which is
measured in Ohms and resistance are very important to have in a
circuit and a resistor basically provides a circuit with some amount of
resistance.
Electronic Circuits 71
It will actually resist the current, however,

many ohms that resistor is going to provide.
Resistor is a passive
Resistance is actually important. For Example, two-terminal
there is one battery and it has two terminals at electrical component
the top and there are two wires as mentioned in that implements
the figure and these wires lets lead them up to a electrical resistance as
little light bulb and the light bulb is giving off a a circuit element.
bunch of light.
Nowadays many people cannot be separates
from electronic devices. They believe it can help
them to finish their work. It’s true because by
using electronic devices it will make us easier to
do our job. For instance, computer. If people use
computer in working like make a report, send
an email, and finding sources it will be easier
besides we do not need use computer.
The battery in this case just imagine is
providing a ton of current to the light bulb and
the light bulb can’t handle it and this might
actually burn out the light bulb and cause the
light bulb to be not able to work instead it is
necessary to limit and to resist some of the
current so that it don’t overload the light bulb
and it will blow out.
So, in this case, it is important to add a little
resistor into the wire and that will help resist
some of the current that way the light bulb can
actually work but there are few things that the
person see that says 1 ohm and that means 1
ohm. The person can also see something that
says 1k ohm and this stands for one kilo-ohm
and that’s actually equivalent to 1000 ohms.
The person also observed and see something
like 1m ohm and this stands for one mega ohm
and that really means 1 Million ohms and they
are just three different units and ohms which are
regular that are going to use in equations and all

that. There is one-kilo ohm that really just means
one thousand ohms and it also has 2 mega ohms
means 2 million ohms and 20-kilo-ohms mean
20,000 ohms.
There are multiple types of resistors but the
most common one that it can see and hopefully
the ones that are going to be getting and basically
it’s a little component and there are two wires
coming out the ends and it has a little body
which is called as a resistor except how in the
world do the humans know that if a resistor is a
10 ohm resistor or maybe a 1 kilo-ohm resistor
or a 1000 ohm resistor and how the person know
that the resistor is going to provide to the people
(Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: Power resistor.
File:0.3power_resistor3.jpg
Well, the resistors actually have little color
bands on them so let’s imagine one resistor has a
brown color band and then it has two black color
bands like so and then say it has a red color band
at the end. These color bands will actually tell
that how many owns of resistance this resistor
will provide for the circuit.
A simple circuit allows a light bulb to light.
A circuit is a route through which electrical
current can flow. For Example, Electrons flow

from the negative side of a D cell battery to a
conducting material on the base of the bulb.
From there, the electrons flow up a wire that is
inside the bulb and across the filament, which is
the part of the bulb that actually light.
When the electrons go through the filament,
some of the electrical energy is changed to heat
and light energy. The electrons continue down
another small wire inside the bulb to another
conductor on the base of the bulb. The electrons
finally make their way to the positive side of the
battery. There would not be a complete circuit if
the electrons did not travel to the positive side of
the battery, and the bulb would not light.
When there is an unbroken path on which
electrons flow, it is called a complete circuit. The
unbroken path that the electrons follow is called
a closed circuit because electricity will only
flow on an unbroken path, the light bulb will not
light unless there is a closed circuit. It has been
observed that there is an insulator between the
conductor that leads up to the filament and the
conductor that leads away from the filament.
Power supplies and the electronics within
power supplies are very important. Without
them, many electronic circuits would not work,
and it is also important to ensure the specification
of any power supply meets the requirements of
the circuit it is powering.
It is to be believed that the atoms of the
conductors easily accepted and pass on electrons;
the atoms of insulator do not. Electrons will
not easily pass through insulating material
that surrounds a wire. If an insulator did not
surround a wire carrying a current, it is possible
for the electron flow to get directed to another

conductor that comes into contact with the
circuit. Electricity will follow the path of least
resistance. If the electrons take a path short of
the complete circuit, it is called a short circuit.
4.3. COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC

CIRCUITS
4.3.1. Coupling and Decoupling

Capacitors
Capacitors are pretty handy components used as
timing elements or as filters. When using it as a
decoupling capacitor, then the person needs to
connect them in parallel with the power supply
because for supplies of any kind is not perfect.
Decoupling capaci- The output from these will be fluctuating in
tor is a capacitor used
to decouple one part of
nature and adding a decoupling capacitor will
an electrical network prevent these fluctuations from the power supply
(circuit) from another. to reach the digital pins. It is often suggested to
use big electrolytic capacitor near power supply
and ceramic capacitor near the chips.
Coupling capacitor, on the other hand,
should be added in the path of the signal, this will
eliminate low frequency or DC noise from the
signal. As a result, it is widely used in Amplifiers
and high-speed circuits. Value of a capacitor
depends on the frequency that the people need
to allow. Capacitance value decreases as a loud
frequency goes up.
4.3.2. Pull Up and Pull-Down Resistors

In digital circuits, it is necessary to feed input
using switches or push button when doing that,
there is a risk of leaving the input pins into
the floating state. Floating state is where in
footprints of a chip cannot detect input logic and
ultimately lead to unexpected output. In order
to avoid this floating state, resistors of specific
value are used. Pull up resistor connect the input
pin to VCC, making it to read logic one whereas
pull-down resistor connect an input to ground
making it to read logic zero.
4.3.3. Discharge Time of Batteries

Mobile also needs to power it with batteries,
the most important step while doing this is to
calculate the discharge time of a battery. This is
because if someone attempted to discharge the
battery capacity more than a defined level than
the battery will be permanently damaged as a
rule of thumb, it is always important to choose
a battery with 1.5 times more capacity than the
circuit’s actual consumption.
Although, this might slightly vary with
the battery chemistry so people might want to
check its datasheet. If the circuit requires one
ampere for an hour than they should probably
choose a battery with capacity of 1.5 amperes in
order for long-lasting battery life and optimum
performance.
Operational amplifiers provide an ideal
basis for a large number of electronic circuits
ranging from amplifiers themselves, through to
filters, astables, and bistables. Check out these
electronic tutorials on operational amplifier

circuits.
4.3.4. Resistor Wattages

For Resistor wattage, almost every designer
put some good amount of time to figure out the
resistor values that goes into their circuit but
what is rating is often ignored. Wattage rating
of a resistor means the maximum amount of
power; a resistor can safely dissipate in the form
of heat.
If the dissipation in the resistor exceeds the
maximum wattage rating, the resistor is likely
to fail and smoke. The person can find different
wattage resistors for a given resistance value
means that higher the wattage rating bulkier
the resistors will be hence pay attention to the
power dissipation in the resistor and choose the
resistor that fits the need tip.
4.3.5. Usage of Microcontrollers

Microcontroller is Circuit designers often overkill their design by
a compact integrated using too many components rather than using
circuit designed to a microcontroller which will make their life
govern a specific
operation in an em- lot easier. Many modern MC use comes in
bedded system. small packets with inbuilt features like timers,
ADC, counters serial communication to see SPI
and so on and combining the analog hardware
with right MCU and the people will see better
possible performance benefits (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Microcontroller trainer.
Source: https://www.indiamart.com/
proddetail/8051-microcontroller-trainer-lcd-ver-
st805102-4707625497.html
4.3.6. Using Transistor Pairs/Arrays

Transistors are widely used to turn on or off
the load and amplify signals. When using it as
a switch, there might be instances where the
transistor couldn’t provide enough current to
turn on the load.
4.3.7. Using PWM Signals to Save Power

Humans might have heard about PWM which is
a modulation where the duty cycle of the pulse is
modified and using the PWM signal, the person
can drive LEDs which ultimately can recycle
the power consumed by them. This is possible
since LEDs and motors are quite slow to react
to a high-frequency PWM signal.
When a PWM signal of 70% age duty cycles
is supplied to drive an LED, Current flows only
70% of total time. Therefore, power consumed

will be 70% of calculated power which means
30% of path is saved.
4.3.8. Individual Traces for Signal

References
When the engineers design a PCB or wireless
circuit provides individual traces when
connecting different signal references back to
the ground or common node. It is necessary to
avoid interconnecting references together and
then connecting it to the common node. It will
result in a humming sound or noise and analog
amplifiers. This also applies to wiring of input
or output jack’s tone and volume controls and
switches.
4.3.9. Choosing the Right Components

Selecting the right path for the circuit design can
be tough since there are plenty of parts available
in the market. Designers might often stick to the
component; they have in the inventory or the
one they have used in previous designs.
Doing this might work but the design will
not be optimum or the circuit might not produce
desired results.
4.3.10. Understanding the Building Blocks

Circuit designing is pretty much like a game of
Tetris where the gamer fit in individual blocks
of different sizes depending likewise in circular
design, the people should be aware of individual
blocks and its functions and then put them

together.
Some of the functional blocks like Microphone is
microphone, pre-amplifier, Amplifier, and an example of
speaker are voltage dividers, RC elements, RLC a transducer, a
device that changes
elements amplifiers, multivibrators, switches, information from one
Darlington transistors, rectifiers, regulators, form to another.
registers, multiplexers, and so on and having
a clear understanding of these blocks is really
necessary to build the desired circuit. So,
understand these blocks and combine them in
appropriate way and practice a lot.
4.4. MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR

MAKING A SIMPLE CIRCUIT
Firstly, the electric switch is required which has
an On and Off button and people should also
need a cell or a battery as well as the conducting
wires which have a meeting point. Electric
object is also requiring for making the simple
circuit so that these activities generate a result
(Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Usage of battery.
Source: http://toolboyworld.com/eBay/Ryobi_Batt_
Rebuild.htm
The experts believe that electronics have

affected the people’s lives in many different
aspects and today the people see it everywhere
and the objective is to build the foundation for
analysis and design of electronic circuits. The
devices that have been used in the electronic
design are based on semiconductors and to
understand how the devices operate will be the
part of the semiconductor physics.
Charges can be separated by several means
to produce a voltage. A battery uses a chemical
reaction to produce energy and separate
opposite sign charges onto its two terminals. As
the charge is drawn off by an external circuit,
doing work and finally returning to the opposite
terminal, more chemicals in the battery react to
restore the charge difference and the voltage.
The particular type of chemical reaction
used determines the voltage of the battery, but
for most commercial batteries the voltage is
about 1.5 V per chemical section or cell.
4.5. CIRCUIT THEORY AND

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
The basis circuit theory must have circuit
theorems, KVL, and KCL and Norton equivalent
but there are few devices and few components
that the engineer person can play with resistors,
capacitors, inductors maybe transformers
but they were very few in number so in basic
electric components, it has resistors, capacitors,
and inductors and with such a small number of
components especially two terminal devices is
very difficult to build many useful and exciting
circuits.
But the circuit theory courses, they didn’t

have that many applications from real life
examples of a circuit design. Another hand in
electronics, the world is different so in electronics
in addition to these basic components, there are
some other components that suddenly open up
the horizons for circuit design.
For Example, Diodes, transistors such as
bipolar transistors and MOS transistors and it
also has op-amps and it can be seen as a black
box which is an amplifier with two inputs. So,
there are so many devices and it can be built
much more complex and sophisticated circuits
and that’s why electronics is so exciting and
there are many new ways for connecting these
things together.
The person can imagine how many
combinations and permutations of these devices
Semiconduc-
can exist and that is why it is interesting to study tor is a material
electronics because these devices are based on whose electrical
semiconductors so it is necessary to understand conductivity is
the semiconductor physics to some extent just between that of a
the way an engineer is designing an automobile conductor and an
insulator.
needs to know how the engine operates or
the carburetor operates and it is necessary to
understand how that devices operates internally.
The semiconductor physics is not as deep.
The semiconductor physics is the foundation of
Diodes, transistors, and MOS transistors devices
so semiconductors and semiconductor physics
at a simple level and so build a diode and it’s
important to understand its inner workings and
more importantly find out how it can become
the model.
The simple electronic circuits will also clear
the concept of current, voltage, and power as
they are related to each other. The current is a

flow of electrical charge and any atom which
is the fundamental building blocks of any
material; it consists of 3 primary elements. It
contains proton and neutron which presides
in the nucleus and the electron which moves
around the nucleus in the orbits.
The electron which is moving in the
outermost orbit can be easily knocked out of
the atom by just applying a little bit of energy
and these electrons which are in the outermost
orbit contributes in the flow of current. So,
these electrons possess a negative charge, while
proton processes a positive charge.
Neutron has no charge or electrically they are
neutral. So, when the same polarity charges
have a tendency to move away from each other
while the opposite polarity has a tendency to
move towards each other. So, the unit of charge
is coulomb and it is donated by symbol Q or q.
Power supplies and the electronics within
power supplies are very important. Without them
many electronic circuits would not work, and it
is also important to ensure the specification of
any power supply meets the requirements of the
circuit it is powering. There are several areas
that need to be borne in mind when designing
electronic circuits and equipment. They range
over a variety of areas.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are electronic circuits?
2. How the current travels through the electronic circuits?
3. How are the analog electric circuits being important in daily
life?
4. What type of materials is required for making an electric
circuit?
5. What are the electronic components needed for designing the
model?
6. How the batteries are useful?
7. What is the role of semiconductor in the electronic circuits?
8 Explain microcontroller components of electric circuits?
9. How PWM signals are used for saving the power?
10. What are the resistor wattages?
REFERENCES
1. Circuitdigest.com. (n.d.). 200+ Electronic Circuits - Simple Circuits
and Mini Projects. [online] Available at: https://circuitdigest.com/
electronic-circuits (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Electronicsandyou.com. (n.d.). What is an Electronic Circuit.
[online] Available at: http://www.electronicsandyou.com/
electronics-basics/What_is_an_electronic_circuit.html (Accessed
on 24 June 2019).
3. Engineersgarage.com. (n.d.). Electronic Circuits | Basic Electronics
Circuit Diagrams | Schematics. [online] Available at: https://www.
engineersgarage.com/electronic-circuits (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
4. John, C., (2018).Electronic Circuits and Diagrams-Electronic
Projects and Design - An Authentic Resource on Electronics.
[online] Electronic circuits and diagrams-electronic projects and
design. Available at: http://www.circuitstoday.com/ (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
5. Tooley, M., (n.d.).Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and
Applications. [eBook] p. 2. Available at: http://fmipa.umri.ac.id/
wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Tooley_Electronic_Circuits_-_
Fundamentals_and_ApBookZZ.org_.pdf (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
5
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
In this chapter, you will learn:

• To understand the concept of the Instrument Transformer and its association
with the industry.
• To access the knowledge about the present times applications of the
Instrument Transformers.
• To acquire the knowledge of the various divisions of the Instrument
Transformers that have been developed with the passage of time.
• To gain knowledge about the applications of the Instrument Transformers
in the different fields of various industries.
• To know about the certain possible methodologies for the tests of the
Instrument Transformers.
• To know the about the certain advantages and disadvantages that are
physically observable while putting the Instrument Transformers to the
application in the real-life industry.
KEY TERMS:
• Burden test • Polarity test

• Current transformers • Ratio test
• Excitation (saturation) test • Voltage transformers
• Instrument transformers • Voltages
• Insulation resistance test • Winding test
• Low-level currents
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Electrical instrument transformers are capable of changing high-level
currents and voltages to homogenous truncated levels that can be
measured without any further difficulty. The low-level currents and
voltages are measured without any further difficulty as these values
are usually separated from the high-level voltages and current.
When the instrument transformers are used for measuring tenacities,
the instrument transformers render that level of voltage or current
signals that are extremely precise illustrations of the transmitting
line standards. These transmission line values are identical to the
desired values equally in the aspects of degree and phase of the line
segment. These transmitted signals permit precise fortitude of income
promoting.
When the instrument transformers are utilized for fortification
tenacities, the instrument transformer productivities obligatory
are precise in the proper signification about the transmission line
standards all through the consistent-state and temporary situations.
These serious signals deliver the foundation for circuit pull-off process
due to the burden circumstances, and as such are essential to system
dependability and safety.
Rudimentary application of Instrument transformers is to step
down the voltage and current of the Alternating Current System.
The voltage and current standards of the power organization is high
on the factual stats. It is very problematic and overpriced to plan the
calculating tools for quantification of these kinds of high-level voltage
and current. Usually gauging devices are designed for 5 ampere and
110 volts.
The innovative extent can be resulted simply by increasing the
consequence with the alteration percentage. These specifically created
transformers with correct turn’s proportion are known as Instrument
transformers (Figure 5.1). These instruments transformers are of
usually of two types:
• Current transformers (CTs)
• Potential transformers (PT).
Instrument Transformers 87
Figure 5.1: Instrument transformer is the device

used for monitoring the voltage or current in a given
circuit.
Alternating cur-
rent is an elec-
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ tric current which
commons/0/03/SF6_current_transformer_TGFM- periodically reverses
110_Russia.jpg direction, in contrast
to direct current (DC)
Instrument transformers make available which flows only in
whichever of the two quantities, current or one direction.
voltage, at a serviceable level to examine the
voltage or current in a specified electrical
connection. For instance, it would not be
inexpensive to partake an ammeter that could
quantify near about 600 mperes in a conductor
unswervingly.
It is cost-effective to have an ammeter that
is capable of quantifying the current which is
exceeding to a variety of 0–5 amperes. By
implanting a CT in the electrical transformation,
it will yield a current which is exactly
comparable to the current in the conductor that
the organization demand to examine over a
series of 0–5 amperes which resembles to the
0–600 amperes.
The ammeter will partake a level of 0–600
amperes. Similarly, it would not be cost-
effective to amount a voltage of near about
14,000 volts unswervingly. By introducing a

voltage transformer in the electrical connection,
a straight comparable voltage over a scale of
0–120 volts will be current which resembles to
0–14,400 volts. Current and voltage transformers
are also utilized to offer the energy to function
numerous defensive spreads.
The extent to which an instrument
transformer yields a current or voltage that
is comparable to the individual that has to be
examined is mentioned to as its accurateness.
5.2. IMPORTANCE OF
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
The Instrument Transformers be made up of
high dielectric strength oil-occupied enterprises
by means of paper and foil defenses soaked with
purified desiccated and degassed transformer
oil, or pressure-measured, defense-categorized
SF6 gas-protected projects. This safeguards
traditional dependable presentation for periods
of facility in difficult worldwide out-of-doors
surroundings.
Ammeters and Voltmeters are utilized for
quantifying the voltage and currents of Straight
Current but in High voltage alternative Current
instruments are hard to ration by means of
ammeters and voltmeters. Consequently, to
resolve these difficulties instrument transformers
are utilized to quantify these types of huge
alternative currents and voltages. Typically,
Instrument Transformers can divide into
dualistic sections such as CTs and PT (Figure
5.2).
Figure 5.2: The concept of instrument transformer

focuses on maintaining the linearity of the systems
during the faults.
Source: https://cdn10.picryl.com/photo/2013/12/31/
gasp-global-air-sampling-program-multi-filter-
slide-mechanism-no-2-1b1b8a-1600.jpg
Dependent on the supplies for those claims,
the information technology development and
building can be fairly dissimilar. Normally,
the measuring the information technology
necessitates high correctness in the variety of
usual functioning voltage and current.
Fortification of the information technology
wants linearity as an extensive scale of voltages
and currents. Throughout a commotion, such as
scheme responsibility or overvoltage transients,

the production of the information technology is
utilized by a defensive relay to recruit a suitable
Overvoltage is a
exploit, such as exposed or adjacent a wave,
voltage that exceeds
the maximum value of redesign the scheme, etc., to alleviate the trouble
operating voltage in an and defend the other set of the power scheme.
electric circuit.
5.3. TYPES OF INSTRUMENT

TRANSFORMERS
There are three elementary kinds of instrument
transformers:
• Current transformers (CTs);
• Voltage transformers; and
• Potential transformer.
5.3.1. Current Transformers (CTs)

CTs are utilized to step-down the flow of the
current in an expectable manner with respect
to both current and phase. They are frequently
utilized as contributions to current-powered
devices (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: Current transformers are usually linked

in series with each other.
Source: https://www.maxpixel.net/static/photo/1x/
High-Voltage-Substation-Transformer-Station-
Risk-2868856.jpg
CTs are primarily utilized to quantify the

enormous alternative current in electrical
apparatus.
In approximately some of high voltage
lines where measuring apparatus are tough to
join, these kinds of CTs are utilized with extra
ammeters to amount the current underneath
alternative current choices.
To rationalize the flow of current in a high
voltage lines this CT step down the present scale
into recognized proportion.
Usually the CT is linked to the line with
sequence assembly.
In CT the amount of turns of loops in
subordinate is larger than the main coil.
When the ratio of the primary to secondary
coils of the CT is near about 200: 10 then it
steps up the functioning voltage to near about
20 times to that of initial. Clasp on this type of
CTs are the furthermost used CTs in electrical
energy manufacturing business.
5.3.2. Voltage Transformers

Voltage Instrument Transformers yield
a secondary voltage that is considerably
comparative to the initial or primary voltage,
but that varies in aspect of the phase by the
degree of an angle that is near about to zero for a
suitable track of the influences. Every so often,
voltage instrument transformers are utilized as
PT or in blend with CTs (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: Voltage transformers are used to pro-

duce an auxiliary voltage for the maintenance of the
system.
Source: https://media.defense.gov/2017/
Apr/11/2001729489/-1/-1/0/170408-F-ZZ999-103.
JPG
Coupling capacitor is
a capacitor which is Voltage instrument transformers and
used to couple or link coupling capacitor voltage transformers are
together only the AC
signal from one circuit
linked in the parallel sequence from single
element to another. electrode to additional or to the ground. The
coupling capacitor, which finds the function in
the voltage transformer, is extensively utilized
at the sophisticated scheme voltages of near-
about 115 kV and directly above.
It is a voltage instrument transformer
appointed diagonally as a fragment of a capacitor
element linked from the electrode to ground.
5.3.3. Potential Transformer

Potential instrument transformers are
tremendously precise and generally the kind
of these potential instrument transformers is
cascades underneath step down transformer
group.
All PT are usually reducing lower than the
shell-type transformer and it is not considerably
dissimilar from the normal two winding

transformers which was earlier conversed.
Secondary segment of the PT is usually
totally as an alternative to defend in contrast to
the peak voltage. Potential transformer is linked
to the line of the step-down transformer in a
parallel method.
The primary or initial High voltage of the
potential instrument transformer also ought to
be beached for extra shield for the worker of the
potential instrument transformer.
5.4. APPLICATIONS FOR INSTRU-

MENT TRANSFORMERS
5.4.1. Industrial
Exactly, intended instrument transformers
for industrial requirements, the range can be
produced to numerous intercontinental ideals
such as IEC, IEEE, and AS (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5: Instrument transformer finds most of its

usage in the industrial application.
commons/5/53/BA75-b2hv-Breakdown-during-
transformer-oil-testing.jpg
5.4.2. Marine
Instrument trans- There are some instrument transformers used
formers are high
accuracy class in the marine ecosystem. Exceptional instrument
electrical devices transformer are generally used for setting
used to isolate or up the explanations for container exporting
transform voltage or organizations.
current levels.
5.4.3. Commercial
The use of the Instrument Transformer is found
widely in the commercial sector. Defensive gear
and calculating control in the whole of the world
in the maximum of the exclusive constructions.
5.4.4. Infrastructure
There are many favored principal contractor
which cater several conveniences all around
the world for merchandise dependability and
correctness.
5.4.5. Renewable Energy

There are many uses of the Instrument
Transformers that have been deep-rooted in the
sector of the Renewable Energy. For instance,
there is an instrument transformer is positioned
on the site of the one of the largest wind-farm of
the Europe, ITL solutions.
Here the instrument transformers can be
discovered in the huge or minor windmills
(Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6: Most of the renewable sources of energy

are going to use the instrument transformer as the
core component of the mechanism.
Source: https://c.pxhere.com/photos/fe/c3/high_
voltage_feed_windstrom_converter_110kv_connec-
tion_connecting_cables_infeed-638423.jpg!d Renewable en-
ergy is energy that
Some of the major applications in the is collected from
industrial world are: renewable resources,
which are naturally
• Income measuring for electrical replenished on a hu-
values, self-governing energy man timescale, such
manufacturers, or manufacturing as sunlight, wind,
operators. rain, tides, waves, and
geothermal heat.
• Defensive communicating for the
usage with switchgear to regulate the
system current and voltage levels.
• High level of precision in extensive
current variety usage for self-
governing energy amenities.
• Position of the facility power requires
in the interior of the substations or for
energy requires at distant locations.
Over the period of past few years, usually
there was stoppage in the necessity of tools and
from now, no development has been observed

in the present-day manufacturing situation.
Even the marketplace extent was detected to be
lessening in the 400-kV section.
The same trend has been seen in the other
segments of 220/120 and 66 kV. The lessening
in the segment of 765 kV was detected, which
was largely due to change from AIS to GIS.
Still, there were not a single main risk was
detected which might be reasoned for the exports.
In the transformed manufacturing situation,
numerous increase arrester companies have
ongoing industrial CTs and various companies
have arrived the arena with the production of the
CTs up to the range of 220 kV.
5.5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVAN-

TAGES OF INSTRUMENT TRANS-
FORMER
Some of the major advantages of the instrument
transformers are:
Capacitance is the • The interpretation or the readings of
ratio of the change
the instrument transformers do not
in an electric charge
in a system to the depend on the constant values that
corresponding change are being used in the diverse circuits
in its electric potential. such as the resistance, inductance &
capacitance.
• If there is any situation of shunts
and multipliers, this is a conceivable
method to homogenize the device
around the grades or standards that
are being set by the manufacturing
organizations.
• This usage of the instrument

transformer is a very easy process
as compared to other kinds of
transformers.
• The determining circuit is usually
positioned remote or away from the
main power circuit. There is a trend of
the less power usage in the metering
circuit. This leads to the successful
operation of numerous devices from
a solo instrument transformer (Figure
5.7).
Figure 5.7: There are many disadvantages and ad-

vantages in the usage of the instrument transformer.
Source: https://cdn12.picryl.com/photo/2016/12/31/
transformers-current-energy-science-technology-
d23a47-1024.jpg
Disadvantages of the instrument
transformers:
• The instrument transformer in
functionality, to some extent varies,
from that main power transformer.
In the scenario of the instrument
transformer, the load impedance
or ‘burden’ on the auxiliary coil
is actually negligible. This is the
reason why the so the instrument

Power transformer is transformer functions on the short
a one kind of trans- circuit situations.
former that is used
• Also, the flow of the current in the
to transfer electrical
energy in any part of auxiliary winding is not administered
the electrical or elec- by the load impedance on the auxiliary
tronic circuit between winding but totally hinge upon the
the generator and the current that is flowing in the principal
distribution primary
winding.
circuits.
• The quantity of the power which
is being handled by the instrument
transformer is very small. The product
of the respective voltages and current
on the auxiliary winding when the
Instrument Transformers is providing
the device with its extreme evaluated
rate of current is called as the rated
burden.
• The proportion fault regulates the
quantity of turns in the windings
that are being introduced as the
reimbursement to lessen the magnitude
of the error to the minimum extent.
5.6. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORM-

ER TESTING
The significance of transformer tests is regularly
taken too lightly. Hazards such as perplexing
instrument transformers for measuring and
fortification, or mingling up the electrical
connections can be condensed expressively by
examining before the initial usage.
At the identical moment of time,
indemnities to the inner side of an instrument
transformer, triggered for example all through
the distribution, might be documented with

no trouble. Also, variations in an instrument
transformer, produced, for example, by aged
padding, can be recognized at an initial phase.
Instrument transformers are a distinct kind
of transformer which is used in the electrical
energy system for stepping down the flow of
the currents and voltages of the system that is
eventually used for calculating and fortification
resolution.
Instrument transformer is two types.
• Current Instrument transformer; and
• Voltage Instrument transformer.
5.6.1. Ratio Test

The ratio test for the Instrument Transformers
is carried out in order to demonstrate that the
proportion of the Instrument Transformers is as
quantified. Also, this is done to confirm that the
proportion is accurate at various passages of a
multi-tap Instrument Transformers. The propor-
tion of the number of turns in the primary and
the auxiliary winding is equal to the electrical
energy proportion of Instrument transformers
In fact, the Ratio tests for the Instrument
Transformers are completed by putting on an
appropriate energy, which is lower than the
overload level, to the auxiliary level of the
Instrument Transformers underneath test even
though the principal side voltage is quantified to
analyze the turn’s ratio.
5.6.2. Polarity Test

The polarity marks on a CT appoints the
comparative prompt flow of the directions of the
electrons. The polarity test demonstrates that the
forecast direction of the auxiliary CTs current
(leaving) is accurate for a specified flow of the
direction of primary electrons that are entering.
Taking care to detect correct polarity is
significant at the time of establishing and
associating the CTs to power measuring and
defensive relays. At the same instant of time,
that the primary current is coming in the primary
terminal the equivalent auxiliary current should
be exiting the equally marked auxiliary terminal.
5.6.3. Excitation (Saturation) Test

The excitation moves in a spherical manner
around the points where current jumps up for
a minor rise of voltage; is very significant
for contrast of curves with available curves
or analogous CT curves. The outcome of the
excitation test should be associated with printed
information of the producer or earlier recordings
to recognize any variations from the earlier
curves that are attained.
The journal of IEEE labels the overload
capacity as “the point where the tangent is at
45° to the auxiliary exciting amperes.” This is
also called as the “knee” point. This test is done
to quantify that the Instrument Transformers is
of precise correctness grade, has not at all any
shorted windings in the Instrument Transformers
and has not even a single short circuit that are
thought to be present in the principal or auxiliary
windings of the Instrument Transformers under

test.
5.6.4. Insulation Resistance Test

Dielectric strength is
The insulation or the production among the defined as the
CT windings and windings to ground must be electrical strength of
verified for dielectric strength though executing an insulting material.
an all-inclusive test of the CT. Three tests are
executed in order to recognize the situation of
the insulation of the CT considered for the test:
• Primary to Secondary: Verifies the
situation of the insulation in between
high to low range.
• Primary to Ground: Verifies the
high to ground range.
• Secondary to Ground: Verifies the
low to ground range.
Insulation resistance readings must continue
to be impartially constant over a period of time.
A sharp dip in trending of insulation resistance
values point in the direction of the insulation
deprivation and in addition to it, the examination
is needed in order to identify the issue.
5.6.5. Winding Resistance Test

The DC that is direct current winding resistance
measurement is a significant quantification
in examining the real situation, state, and
accurateness of a CT. Winding resistance in a
CT will alter over a period of time which relies
on the sample age, operation, external situations
and loading result.
It is suggested to calculate direct current

Winding resis- DC winding resistance sometimes on a solitary
tance is defined as tap or multi-tap CT and trend the values. A high
the resistance of a accuracy low resistance quantification circuit is
length of copper needed to get this small winding resistance.
wires from one end to
the other. The turn resistance of the Instrument
transformer is attained by separating the voltage
drop transversely through the winding. This
voltage drop is usually calculated from direct
current millivoltmeter, with the functional direct
current through the turns of the transformers.
The Instrument Transformers ought to be
demagnetized after the achievement of turn
resistance test.
5.6.6. Burden Test

The burden of a CT can be described as the
complete impedance in ohms on the subordinate
output terminals. The entire burden is a
mixture of impedance that is provided by watt-
hour meter coils, relay current coils, contact
resistance, terminal blocks, wire resistance and
test switches are further utilized in the auxiliary
loop.
Each CT has an auxiliary burden when
associated in a relay or metering circuit. CTs
are expected to offer the secondary productivity
current that is grounded on their accurateness
class.
In the case, if a CT is not correctly sized
grounded on an auxiliary loop burden, it may
outcome in a reduction in CT secondary current.
Burden testing is significant to confirm that the
CT is providing current to a circuit that does not
beat the grade of the burden.
In addition to it, the burden test is also

valuable in guaranteeing that the CTs are:
• Not left behind with an exposed
circuit when not utilized;
• Associated with an only ground point;
• All associations are close-fitting.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the term ‘Instrument Transformers.’
2. What is the working principle of the Instrument Transformers?
3. How does Instrument Transformers is used in the industry of
Information Technology?
4. Define the different types of the Instrument Transformers.
5. Why is the Voltage Instrument Transformer usually used in
combination with the Potential Voltage Transformers?
6. What is the benefit of using Potential Instrument Transformers
in the place of Voltage Instrument Transformer?
7. Explain the different areas where the application of the
Instrument Transformers is found.
8. What are the major advantages and disadvantages of the
application of the Instrument Transformer in the modern
world?
9. What is the importance of the tests for the Instrument
Transformer?
10. Explain all the methods of performing the tests that are
required to test the authenticity of the Instrument Transformer.
REFERENCES
1. Bayt.com. (2019).What is Instrument Transformer? Give its Types.
- Bayt.com Specialties. [online] Available at: https://specialties.
bayt.com/en/specialties/q/221338/what-is-instrument-transformer-
give-its-types/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Borse, V., &Sohoni, P., (2019).Instrument Transformer – IEEMA.
[online] Ieema.org. Available at: https://ieema.org/division/
instrument-transformers/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. Classle. (2019). Disadvantage of Instrument Transformers. [online]
Available at: https://www.classle.net/submission/disadvantage-
instrument-transformers (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. Crmagnetics.com. (2019).Instrument Transformers – Application
Guide. [online] Available at: https://www.crmagnetics.com/
technical-references/instrument-transformers-application-guide
5. Daware, K., (2019). Instrument Transformers - CT and PT. [online]
Electricaleasy.com. Available at: https://www.electricaleasy.
com/2014/06/instrument-transformers-ct-and-pt.html (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
6. EEP - Electrical Engineering Portal, (2012).Introduction to
Instrument Transformers. [online] Available at: https://electrical-
engineering-portal.com/introduction-to-instrument-transformers
7. Electrical Power Energy, (2017).Types of Instrument Transformers
in Electrical Engineering. [online] Available at: http://www.
electricalpowerenergy.com/2017/03/22/instrument-transformers/
8. Electrical4U. (2018). Instrument Transformers | Electrical4U.
[online] Available at: https://www.electrical4u.com/instrument-
transformers/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
9. Gmb, H. O., (2019). Instrument Transformer Testing. [online]
Omicronenergy.com. Available at: https://www.omicronenergy.
com/en/applications/instrument-transformer-testing/#contact-
menu-open (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
10. Group, T., (2019). Instrument Transformers - Instrument
Transformers - Products & Solutions - Trench. [online] Trenchgroup.
com. Available at: http://www.trenchgroup.com/en/Products-

Solutions/Instrument-Transformers/Instrument-Transformers
11. Instrument Transformer Basic Technical Information and
Application, (2019). [eBook] Florida: GE Grid Solutions.
Available at: https://www.gegridsolutions.com/products/manuals/
ITITechInfo.pdf (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
12. Instrument Transformer, (2019). [eBook] idc-online. Available at:
https://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electrical_
engineering/InstrumentTransformer.pdf (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
13. Instrument Transformers, (2019). ITL - Current Transformer &
Voltage Transformer Design and Manufacture. [online] Available
at: https://itl-uk.com/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
14. New.abb.com. (2019).Instrument Transformers | ABB. [online]
Available at: https://new.abb.com/high-voltage/instrument-
transformers (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
15. Petropedia.com. (2019).What is Instrument Transformer? -
Definition from Petropedia. [online] Available at: https://www.
petropedia.com/definition/6958/instrument-transformer (Accessed
on 24 June 2019).
16. Testguy.net. (2017).6 Electrical Tests for Current Transformers
Explained. [online] Available at: https://testguy.net/content/264-6-
electrical-tests-for-Current-Transformers-explained (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
17. TheFreeDictionary.com. (2019).Instrument Transformer. [online]
Available at: https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/
Instrument+Transformer (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
18. Transtutors.com. (2019).Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers
Assignment Help. [online] Available at: https://www.transtutors.
com/homework-help/electrical-engineering/electronic-and-
electrical-measurements/disadvantages-instrument-transformers.
aspx (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
19. www.globalspec.com. (2019).Instrument Transformers Information.
[online] Available at: https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/
electrical_electronic_components/transformers/instrument_
transformers (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
6
AC BRIDGES

• Describe the meaning of the AC bridges.
• Explain the construction of AC bridges.
• Describe the general form of AC bridges.
• Describe the types of AC bridges.
• Explain the differences between AC and DC bridges;
• Examine the general properties of AC bridge circuit.
KEY TERMS:
• AC bridges • Oscillators
• Capacitance measuring • Peltier heating
bridges • Resistance measuring bridges
• Inductance measuring • Storage factor
bridges • Vibration galvanometers
• Operational amplifier
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Bridges are very important for the accurate measurement of
components values such as inductance, resistance, and capacitance,
etc., the bridges that are most commonly used comprises of networks
having four resistance arms that altogether form a closed circuit. These
are generally working by supplying current to two opposite junctions
and an instrument to detect current is attached to other two junctions.
The basic functioning of bridge circuit depends on null detection
principle and it also makes use of the principle of comparison
measurement methods. The value of an unknown component is being
compared with that of precisely known standard component. Thus,
it can be said that the measurement of accurate value depends on the
bridge and not on the null detector.
When flow of current is not detected through the null detector, it
means that the bridge is balanced. There is some kind of relationship
exists between the component values of the four arms of the bridge
at the balancing and it is called balancing equation or balancing
condition. Balancing equation helps in measuring the value of the
unknown component.
6.2. WHAT ARE AC BRIDGES AND GENERAL FORM

OF AC BRIDGES
Alternating current bridge methods play very important role in
measuring quantities of electrical equipment. They are capable of
measuring capacitance, inductance, storage factor and any loss
of current can be easily predicted accurately and conveniently by
deploying ac bridge networks (Figure 6.1).
AC Bridges 109
Inductance is
the name given to
the property of a
component that
opposes the change
of current flowing
Figure 6.1: Wheatstone bridge electric. through it and even
a straight piece of
wire will have some
inductance.
to/2012/04/24/17/04/wheatstone-40465_960_720.
png
The AC bridge is generally considering as
the modification of Wheatstone Bridges. An
ac bridge mainly comprises of arms, balance
detector, and a source of excitation.
All of the four arms in an ac bridge are
impedance, and the galvanometer and the
battery of the Wheatstone bridge with a detector
and an ac source that is considered vulnerable to
small alternating potential differences.
The primary benefits of using ac bridge
circuits is not only limited to finding
measurement of unknown impedances, but
also its allied parameters such as capacitance
inductance, dissipation factor and storage
factor, etc.
These types of circuits play an important

Dissipation factor is role in finding other applications in complex
a measure of loss-rate
electronic circuits and communication systems.
of energy of a mode
of oscillation (me- There are various roles that alternating current
chanical, electrical, or bridge circuits perform and these are: commonly,
electromechanical) in providing feedback paths for amplifiers and
a dissipative system. oscillators, shifting of phase, filtering out
unnecessary and measuring frequency of audio
signals.
In case of measurements at low frequencies,
it is the power line that act as a primary source
to supply power to the bridge circuits. In case of
measurements at higher frequencies, electronic
oscillators are commonly used as bridge source
supplies. There are various benefits of using
these oscillators as the frequency is easily
adjustable, constant, and measure results with
preciseness.
The waveform is place very near to a sine
wave, and the power output generated by it
is adequate for most bridge measurements. A
common type of oscillator having power output
of 7 W has a frequency range of 40 Hz to 125
kHz.
The detectors commonly used for ac bridges
are:
• Headphones;
• Vibration galvanometers; and
• Tuneable amplifier detectors.
6.2.1. Headphones
Headphones are commonly used detectors for
AC bridges at frequencies of 250 Hz and over
AC Bridges 111
up to 3 or 4 kHz. These types of detectors

are considered as most sensitive one for this
frequency range.
It is usually found that when these
headphones are used at a single frequency,
a tuned detector mostly gives the highest
sensitivity and discrimination against harmonics Sine wave or sinusoid
in the supply. is a mathematical
curve that describes
a smooth periodic
6.2.2. Vibration Galvanometers oscillation.
Vibration galvanometers play an important role

and are extremely useful for power and low
audio frequency ranges.
Vibration galvanometers are designed
in such a way in order to perform at various
frequencies ranging from 5 Hz to 1000 Hz, but
in most of the cases, it works below 200 Hz due
to the reason than as below this frequency they
are more sensitive as compared to headphones.
6.2.3. Tuneable Amplifier Detectors

Tuneable amplifier detectors are one of the most
multifaceted detectors. In this, it is possible to
tune transistor amplifier electrically and thus is
capable enough to act to a narrow bandwidth at
the bridge frequency. The output of the amplifier
is fed to a pointer type of instrument. This
detector is able to work at a frequency range of
10 Hz to 100 kHz.
For commonly ac bridge measurements of
capacitance and inductance, it is adequate to
use a fixed frequency oscillator of 1000 Hz and
output of almost 1 W. In case of some important
work, it is advisable to use continuously variable
oscillators having outputs up to 5 W. In certain

scenario, it is beneficial to use high power, but
in practice, limited power supply to the bridge is
Oscillator is a circuit
which produces a recommended.
continuous, repeated, Another criterion that is mostly in trend is
alternating waveform to use an un-tuned amplifier detector. There are
without any input.
many ways to measure balance detection such as
orally by headphones, and visually by a pointer
galvanometer having a logarithmic deflection
(In a way to ensure that galvanometer will not
damage which may be caused by unbalance).
6.3. TYPES OF AC BRIDGES

Bridges are types of circuits that primarily work
with measuring devices. In a bridge, there are
of four components and a meter. The circuit
includes two branches, in every branch; there
are two components and a meter that acted as a
link between the two branches.
One of the primary purposes of using
this approach is to ensure high accuracy in
measurement and that cannot be possible by
using just one meter, specifically in some type
of AC components in which it is very difficult to
measure it with just one meter. One out of four
components is a component that a person will
use in measuring.
6.3.1. Resistance Measuring Bridges

A resistance bridge (for AC or DC) generally
consists of an ohmmeter and also includes
four resistors. Out of these four resistors, two
resistors denoted by the name (R1 and R2) are
attached to a series and in the same way other
AC Bridges 113
two also named as (R3 and R4). All these pairs

of resistors are connected in a parallel way in
order to splits the current into the circuit - some
proportion of current passes through R1 and R2
and the remaining content passes through R3
and R4.
The meter is placed between these two
intersections which (R1 and R2) and (R3 and
R4). It is important to note that when all the
resistors are of same type, then the meter always
read zero. In certain instances when the resistor
contains the formula R1/R2 = R3/R4, then it
also read zero.
Among all these resistors, two resistors Variable resis-
always have the accurate value and the value tor is a resistor of
of one resistor always varies. In case of fourth which the electric
resistors, its value id being measured. At the resistance value can
be adjusted.
time when variable resistor is turned down
before the meter reads zero, then there is one
possible way to measure the value that is off the
scale.
6.3.2. Capacitance Measuring Bridges

Capacitors are instruments that primarily work
with AC circuits and these cannot be able to
perform with DC circuits except briefly when the
DC circuit is either turned off or on. Capacitors
have the ability to affect the functioning of AC
circuits by changing the connection between
current cycles and voltage.
It is very difficult to measure the value of a
capacitor at the time when it affects AC current.
The method or criteria to measure a capacitance
bridge is just same as it is for a resistance bridge
except the four components are capacitors.
6.3.3. Inductance Measuring Bridges

Inductors also known by the name chokes and
coils are devices that mostly work with AC
circuits, and are unable to work DC circuits
except briefly when the DC circuit is either
turned off or on. Inductors can also interrupt
the functioning of AC circuits by shifting the
relationship between the voltage and current
cycles. It is not easy to measure the value of
inductor at the time it affects the AC current, but
with the help of bridge, it is easy to measure the
value (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Inductance measuring bridges.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/
thumb/c/c0/Mutual_inductance_equivalent_circuit.
svg/1280px-Mutual_inductance_equivalent_circuit.
svg.png
The method or criteria to measure an
inductor bridge is just same as it is for a
Magnetism is a resistance bridge except the four components
class of physical
are capacitors. In case of inductor bridges, it
phenomena that are
mediated by magnetic become essential to work with utmost care
fields. while physically separating inductors because
inductors work with the help of magnetism and
if by some means these two come together, then
the magnetic fields can interact.
AC Bridges 115
6.4. AC VERSUS DC: THE TRUTH

The primary purpose of this section is to clear
some of the confusions related to resistance
bridges and about the compatibility of AC and
DC or vice versa. In this, some of the advantages
of using one bridge or method over others are
discussed (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: AC to DC power supply.
commons/4/4e/ACtoDCpowersupply.png
6.4.1. Stability and Accuracy in AC and

DC
It is generally believed that AC is more accurate
stable as compared with and DC. But it is not
true at all. Both AC and DC are true radiometric
devices that primarily work with a ratio
transformer in order to compare resistances.
In case of both the bridges, the measured
value relies on the ratio of the windings of the
transformer. Accuracy and stability of both the
devices depends on transformer winding that
have an integer quantity. Some of the factors
such as use of old components or environmental
factors never affect the accuracy or stability of
these bridges.
6.4.2. Vulnerability of AC or DC Bridges

to Thermoelectric EMF
In few cases, it is noted that DC bridges are more
vulnerable to thermoelectric EMF. While in
most cases, it is not because the current always
reversed between each measurement. In few
cases, it is affected because of the large period
of time in measurement. The noise during the
measurement may be increased and cause error
in the readings.
As in case of advance DC bridges that are
currently most in use, it reverses the current
every 10 seconds or even less, EMFs are not
a problem at all. There is need to work more
attentively at the time of using DC bridges in
order to reduce thermoelectric EMF and it is
possible by safeguarding the connectors with a
draft shield or by using the high-quality copper
connectors. By taking these two measures, noise
from the thermoelectric EMF in DC bridges can
be reduced significantly.
The noise from the EMF in DC bridges will
be increased and can be reached to uncontrolled
when using 0.25Ω SPRTs at high temperatures
such as at the freezing point of silver.
6.4.3. Errors in Peltier Heating When

Using DC Bridges
It is wrong to assume that Peltier heating can
cause error while using DC bridges. The power
of Peltier heating can be easily measured
while multiplying excitation current with
thermoelectric EMF. Thermoelectric EMF in
case of SPRTs always has value less than 10 µV.
At the time of releasing current of 1 mA, it is
AC Bridges 117
worth noticing that the Peltier heating power is

always below 10 nW. If one compares this result
with the Joule heating power, its value is 25 µW
for an SPRT at 25Ω with 1 mA of current.
Peltier coefficient
There is an issue with Peltier only in case is the ratio of the
of germanium thermometers because the Peltier rate at which heat is
coefficient in these thermometers is always evolved or absorbed
higher. Because of this insignificant error, most at a junction of two
of the metrologists use DC with germanium metals in the Peltier
effect to the current
thermometers over AC and also provide some passing through the
benefits in its application. junction.
6.4.4. AC Bridges Are More Immune to

Interference from AC Power Lines
This type of belief is not valid at all. AC
bridges are more vulnerable to interference
that come from the adjacent power lines and
this chance increased when there is existence
of asynchronous and subharmonics noise in
the supply. Because of this reason, most of the
operators in the lab that works on AC bridges
for fixed-point measurements prefer DC-heated
furnaces and these are even more expensive as
compared to AC bridges. It is not possible to
minimize the level of noise below 50 µK at the
time of using an AC bridge with an AC furnace.
It will be same if we used it DC bridges. While
on the other hand, A DC bridge can minimize the
level of noise below 15 µK with an AC furnace.
6.4.5. Level of Noise in the AC and DC

Bridges
It is generally seen that, in certain cases, AC
bridges has lower level of noise as compared to
DC bridges. In some labs that use AC bridges

with 25Ω SPRTs, the lab operator witnessed
the level of noise as10 µK. It is because they
always use DC-heated furnaces and always
work with utmost care in eliminating problem
from interference and reactance.
While on the other hand, most of the other
labs are not successful in minimizing the level
of noise to such extent in case of AC bridges and
experienced noise closure to 50 µK. However,
with DC bridges, the lab operators experienced
better results as the noise level is within 15 µK
as compared to far more than 50 µK in case
of AC bridge. It is because of the use of AC
furnaces and without taking any effort to reduce
reactance and interference.
6.4.6. Level of Speed in AC and DC

Bridges
It is worth noticing that AC bridges are faster
than DC bridges because it takes less time in
measurement. The AC bridges that are more
precise can measure within 20 seconds and after
a good start, new measurement can be passing
on in every 10 seconds. It is possible to measure
as fast as two seconds with poorer resolution.
On the other hand, DC bridge takes at least two
minutes to settle, but after then its measurement
time improved to 8–10 sec.
The time gap can be reduced to as much
as four seconds but with poorer resolution. AC
bridges provide significant benefits for time
control measurements and for measuring time
control applications. It is important to note that
none of the two bridges are so fast.
AC Bridges 119
In some kind of applications in which time

play an important role, a different type of DC
readouts is available that provide the benefits of
short closing times and measurement intervals.
In terms of speed, these DC instruments are
far above than any AC devices and are more
applicable for time controlling measurements,
process control applications with multiple
sensors, and secondary-level PRT calibration.
6.4.7. Warm Up Times in DC Bridges and

AC Bridges
DC bridges, in order to do the operations with
full accuracy takes warm-up time of at least
10 minutes. However, when the bridges are
portable, there is no warm-up time required in
case of both the bridges. Both the bridges are
placed at one place with left power on in order
to make sure that they are ready to use whenever
required.
6.4.8. Vulnerability of AC Bridges Exhibit

Errors Due to Reactance Effects in the
Thermometer, Lead Wires, or Resistors
It is widely believed that AC bridges can cause
errors because of the reactance effects in the
lead wires, thermometer, or resistors, but is not
valid at all. Firstly, most of the standard resistors
and SPRTs are designed in order to reduce the
inductance. Secondly, low-reactance coaxial
cables are used in the functioning of AC bridges.
Also, the excitation current, which is used
in more advance AC bridges, has very little
frequency of 25 or 30 Hz. In addition, AC
bridges use plays an important role in eradicating

Reactance is the reactance effects by using special quadrature
opposition of a
balancing circuitry. As a result, reactance is not
circuit element to a
change in current or a major problem in primary-level thermometry.
voltage, due to that However, it can become an issue of high level
element›s inductance of concern in case of the following circumstances:
or capacitance.
when the resistance level is either very high or
very low, the lead wire is either too large or of
inferior quality and have excessive capacitance
or inductance, and resistors or thermometers are
of low-grade quality and have high inductance.
In all these instances, DC bridges and readouts
will give accurate and better results.
6.5. CONSTRUCTION OF AC
BRIDGES
6.5.1. AC Bridge
Definition: According to circuit globe “The
bridge uses for measuring the value of unknown
resistance, inductance, and capacitance is known
as the AC Bridge.
The AC bridges are very convenient and
give the accurate result of the measurement.”
6.5.2. Construction of AC bridges

The AC bridges have very simple construction.
The bridge comprises of four arms, in which
there is one AC supply source and the balance
detector.
It primarily works on the approach that the
balance ratio of the impedances will play the
AC Bridges 121
role of providing stable condition to the circuit

which is determined by the null detector.
6.6. WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO

USE BRIDGE CIRCUIT
• Bridge circuits are very helpful in
accurate measurement of reactive
components, resistance, impedance,
pressure, strain, temperature, and
other physical quantities (measured
or sensed with transducers).
• This type of circuit is used in many
high-cost real-time monitoring
devices in which physical quantities
are calculated or measured with the
help of transducers.
• Bridges circuits are also seen in high-
priced component measuring devices
such as high-end ohmmeters and
inductive-capacitive meters.
• Bridges also play important role in
resolving AC signals into filters, DC
signals, oscillators (Wien-Bridge),
and to eradicate completely input
capacitances in test instruments
(oscope x10 probes).
6.7. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AC

BRIDGE CIRCUITS
The basic criteria or functioning of AC bridge
circuits are just as same as it is in the case of
DC bridge circuits: that a stable relation of
impedances (rather than resistances) will helpful
in a “steady” condition as indicated by the null-

detector device (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4: Operational amplifier applications.
commons/thumb/3/3e/Op-Amp_Summing_Ampli-
fier.svg/2000px-Op-Amp_Summing_Amplifier.svg.
png
• Null detectors that are used in AC
bridges are comprises of many
devices such as oscilloscopes
(CRT’s), delicate electromechanical
meter movements, headphones (either
unamplified or amplified), or any type
of other device having the capability
of registering very minor AC voltage
levels. (In some cases when AC is
corrected, then DC meter movements
can be used). Like DC null detectors,
it’s only required point of calibration
precision is at zero.
• AC bridge circuits are joined together
in the form of symmetry in which
unknown impedance is equalized
by a standard impedance of the same
AC Bridges 123
category on the same side (bottom

side or top side) of the bridge. Or,
these bridges can be joined in an
unsymmetrical manner using parallel
impedances to equalize series
impedances, or even capacitances
balancing out inductances.
• In AC bridge circuits, it is often found
that there is at least one modification, Impedance refers to
the amount of oppo-
since both phase angle and impedance
sition faced by direct
magnitude are need to be balanced or alternating cur-
towards each other. rent when it passes
• It is generally seen that some of through a conductor
component, circuit
the impedance bridge circuits are or system.
sensitive to frequency while, it is not
the case with others. Circuits that are
sensitive to frequency can be used
as frequency measurement devices
if the value of all the components is
precisely known.
6.8. CONCLUSION
In the end, it is concluded that bridge circuits are
very useful in measurement of output in the form
of a voltage level that changes as the measured
physical quantity changes. They accurately
predict inductance, resistance, and capacitance
values, and also determine the small changes in
these quantities about a nominal value.
They are of immense importance in
measurement system technology because so
many transducers measuring physical quantities
have an output that is expressed as a change in
resistance, inductance or capacitance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by AC bridges?
2. What are the general forms of AC bridges?
3. Explain the different types of AC bridges in detail?
4. What is the difference between AC and DC bridges?
5. Explain the general properties of AC bridges in detail?
6. Define the construction of AC bridges?
7. Are AC bridges more stable and accurate than DC bridges?
8. Are DC bridges more susceptible to thermoelectric EMF?
9. Do AC bridges have lower noise than DC bridges?
10. Do DC bridges need to warm up longer than AC bridges?
AC Bridges 125
REFERENCES
1. As.flukecal.com. (2019).AC versus DC: The Truth. [online]
Available at: https://as.flukecal.com/literature/articles-and-
education/temperature-calibration/papers-articles/ac-versus-dc-
truth (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Bengalstudents.com. (2019).A.C. Bridges for Measurement of
Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance, Frequency, etc. | Bengal
Students. [online] Available at: http://bengalstudents.com/
index.php/contents/AC%20Bridges%20for%20Electrical%20
Measurement (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. Bridges, A., (2019).A.C Bridges. [online] 4s6ggs.blogspot.com.
Available at: http://4s6ggs.blogspot.com/p/a.html (Accessed on 24
June 2019).
4. Bridges, D., (2019).D.C and A.C Bridges. [online] Brain Kart.
Available at: https://www.brainkart.com/article/D-C-and-A-C-
Bridges_12734/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
5. Circuit Globe, (2019). What is AC Bridge? - Definition & Explanation
- Circuit Globe. [online] Available at: https://circuitglobe.com/ac-
bridge.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
6. Faculty.chemeketa.edu. (2019). [online] Available at: http://faculty.
chemeketa.edu/csekafet/ELT133/ACBridge.pdf (Accessed on 24
June 2019).
7. Measurements, _., Measurements, _., System, P., Protection,
_., Electronics, _., Electronics, _. and Systems, C. (2019).
What are AC Bridges and General form of AC Bridges.
[online] Electrical engineering info. Available at: https://www.
electricalengineeringinfo.com/2017/04/what-ac-bridges-general-
equation-form-ac-bridges.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
7
POWER MEASUREMENT
In this chapter, you will learn:

• To understand the concept of power measurement;
• To know the history of electric power;
• To understand the advantages and disadvantages of two wattmeter
method;
• To understand about the challenges of electric power and
measurement methods;
• To learn about the quality measurement data in power
measurement;
• To gain knowledge of possible future Applications.
KEY TERMS:
• Bolometer • Seebeck effect

• Carnot efficiency • Single phase watt meters
• Direct-current power • Special polyphasewatt meters
• Electric meter • Thermistor
• Frequency • Westinghouse electric
• Power and measurement
7.1. INTRODUCTION
The speed at which electrical energy move or distributed is measured
in an electrical system. The possible movement of electric charge
between the points is equivalent of in volts between two points.
The direct power is also not regular with twice the essential
frequency and this causes the voltage and current to be irregular with
same essential frequency. The average current is very much important
in this situation, and in almost all the situations the heat or mechanical
power is realized as the power transform into this and the thermal or
mechanical inactivity of the production system is shaped by fast up
and down in voltage of electricity.
In the direct current circuits the measurement of power can be done
by concurrent measurement of voltage and power using good quality
of voltmeters and ammeters of direct current. The exact measure of
direct current is obtained by required direct current.
The moving-coil, dynamometer wattmeter is the normal device
for measuring the current in circuit of power-frequency.
The digital display of average electric current can be seen in
electronic wattmeter. The variation in measurement of frequency can
be greatly increased up to 100 kilohertz or more, with exact reading
and also the decrease in errors of reading in the device.
The total current measurement in a polyphase system is obtained
by integrating the single-phase watt meters or by special polyphase
watt meters that are joint combinations of elements of single-phase
wattmeter.
A general theorem called Blondel’s theorem asserts that the total
power supplied to a load over N wires can be measured by using N–1
watt meters. The theorem states that the total power in an N wire system
can be measured by taking the sum of the readings of Nwattmeters so
arranged that each wire contains the current coil of one wattmeter.
One voltage terminal of each wattmeter is connected to the same
wire as its current coil, and the second voltage terminal is connected
to a common point in the circuit. If this common point is one of the N
wires, one wattmeter will read zero and can be omitted.
Power Measurement 129
The dynamometer watt meters give errors

and cannot be used at the frequency higher
than current frequencies. The advanced and
developed digital wattmeter has variations Power trans-
higher the audio frequency and makes exact form is a family of
functions that are
audio-frequency power measurements relatively applied to create a
practical. Normally though, the indirect methods monotonic transfor-
are used for power measurements at higher mation of data us-
frequency. ing power functions.
The power across a normal resistance load

can be measured and the power calculated
for determining some hundred-megahertz
frequencies. The absorption power meters are
defined as devices that integrate the resistive
load and voltmeter. In power measurement
the diode might be used to identify the radio-
frequency.
The thermal based devices are more accurate
than these easy to use instruments. The metals
that are not the same and joined at the end are
called thermocouple.
The moment at which the combined end is
heated and the other end is at less temperature,
the electric current is produced and this is called
thermoelectric or Seebeck effect.
The difference in temperature between
the two ends is in same amount as current.
For electric power measurements, the resistor
supplied from the power source is used to
measure power. The right thermal coupling is
guaranteed using thin film techniques to make
the thermocouple and resistor that are used by
modern devices. The output is a low-level dc
signal as in diode sensor systems the output is
the low-level signal of direct current.
The electric circuit bridge in which one

of the bridge arms consist of the temperature-
Polyphase System is sensitive resistor is called as bolometer.
a combination of It works on the theory that the temperature is
two or more than sensed by the bridge circuit.
two voltages having
same magnitude Bolometric bridges use either the barraters
and frequency but or thermistors are known as the temperature-
displaced from each sensitive resistor is called as bolometric bridges.
other by an equal
electrical angle. The semiconductor instrument with a
negative temperature constant is mainly
substituted by barrater that is more rugged is
called thermistor. The thermistor is made up as
a small bead with very short lead wires in an
order such that all the resistance is in the bead
for power measurements.
The direct resolve of heat manufactured by
the input power is based on the calorimetric
techniques that are used to measure the exact high
voltage electricity. The exact rise in temperature
reading is recorded when the electricity is
applied on calorimeter to know the power. Then
the input signal is removed and direct current
is applied until the exact equal temperature is
reached. The signal power is same as the direct
current. In the industrial uses the calorimeter
process is used mostly.
7.2. HISTORY OF ELECTRIC

METER
The charging for electricity of customers is
started from the time of discovery of electricity
meters, making it possible as the profit is realized
to construct the country electricity network for
moving electricity. The network of wires that
permits the supplying of electricity across the

country.
Till the year of 1870, in telephones and
telegraphs most of the electricity is used.
The discovery of electric bulbs by Edison
revolutionized the concept of electricity and
companies realized the need of electricity in
homes for lightning purposes. The development
of electric meters at that time is in nascent stage
and there is also not very much availability of
electric meters that were working properly.
The low technology method is implemented
by Edison. The billing for consumption of
electricity is on lightning the number of bulbs.
This concept is in line with the modern business
structure; Edison was supplying the blades
to sell the razor. The funding for this idea of
business is not possible.
There are many experts from the year of
the 1880 that have thought and experimented to
solve the problem of in what way measurement
of the flow of electrons through wire is made
possible. The process of two electrode chemical
system in which the charge was realized by the
amount of zinc moving from one electrode to
another. The employees have to take the weight
to know the expenses.
The invention of meter that looks like toy
to scare the birds is the walking-beam meter
by Thompson. The moving of alcohol at the
fixed time inside the group of bottles caused the
bottles to move back and front due to heating
and cooling. The meter is there to measure the
movements. This was a good idea, but it does
not survive longer.
The major industrial conflict in power

sectors till the end of year of 1888 is no more a
problem, the solution is amicably arrived. There
is a problem in that the technology that moved
electricity over long distances and altering the
voltage yet Edison made put focus on the use
of direct-current power. The use of electricity is
restricted by these problems.
The rights for exclusive commercial
purposes of transformer are bought by George
Westinghouse, and it enhanced the voltage of
alternating current electricity. The company
Westinghouse electric, with the exclusive rights
of the electric transformer, made possible to
supply power over long distances, permitting
for larger, unified power-generating hubs. The
huge amount of electricity is then produced by
these electric hubs that can power factories as
well as your conventional bulbs in the streets
and houses.
The realization of costs is necessary. The
Electrical network is employee of the Westinghouse comes up with
an interconnection of the solution to buy the rights of use of the
electrical components
(e.g., batteries,
innovation by Nikola Tesla for a better electronic
resistors, inductors, system. The latest system of electrical network
capacitors, switches, is made possible.
transistors) or a
The hugely beneficial idea attracts the
model of such an
interconnection, large investment in the electrical sector, the
consisting of electri- different type of technologies started to come
cal elements (e.g., together create build the recognized structure
voltage sources, cur- for electrical generation and movement of
rent sources, resis-
electricity all over the country.
tances, inductances,
capacitances). The repetition of the induction watt-hour
meter was accepted as good method by the year
of 1890. The number of rotations that a metal
disk does due to movement of magnetic flux is
measured by the meter. The quantity of electricity

is equal to the speed of the movement of disk on
its own axis, so the meter can measure exactly
the unit of energy amount use. The company
is maintaining the data of use of electricity in
homes or business mainly by this method.
The electricity engineers were slowly
increasing the voltage of the power lines coming
from huge power plants, to fulfill the needs
of increasing consumers in large cities. The
movement of electricity with good quality over
long distance is made possible by high voltage.
The large number of American houses had
electricity by the year of 1920, and they used to
power their motor by electricity.
The years after the world war when the
famous Great Depression strike the economies
of countries the government start to regulate
private companies and made provisions for
supplying power to rural areas far from big
cities through various government bodies.
In the year of 1942, when the 70 years are
completed of supplying electricity the Electric
Institute Bulletin released a special magazine.
The number of American citizens has become
so normal with living with electricity that they
forget when they are living without electricity.
The amount of electricity that is measured
in horsepower is for use with employees in
industries has enhanced from 3 in 1914 to 6.5
till the year of 1942, with large amount is made
available from purchased electrical power. There
is a famous quote by an American professor,
there is availability of six billion manpower for
the industry, that is equal to 50 subordinates
for each man, woman, and children due to

advancement in engineering.
7.3. EFFICIENCY, POWER, AND

MEASUREMENT
7.3.1. Energy Efficiency

The energy is released that is in form of heat the
time when one type of energy is transformed into
another, for example during running of turbine
or transmission of power. The quantity of power
consumed in order to generate the same amount
of power, is the important factor in conversion.
The calculation of productivity of power is
done by dividing the energy produced by the
initial energy used as raw material. For example,
the energy efficiency of refrigerator is 20 to
50%, the electric bulb has 5%, the LED lamp has
more than 30%, and more than 59% has wind
turbine. There is more than 39% productivity in
total generation of electricity.
The saving capacity is necessary for heating,
lighting, and for use in houses for determining
the energy saving rate of houses and buildings.
The houses and buildings electric saving rate is
determined by reason such as insulation strategy
and higher the measurement.
7.3.2. Carnot Efficiency

The good heat engine and effective
thermodynamic cycle is invented by the 19th-
century physicist and engineer Nicolas Said
that is also known as the Carnot cycle. The
Carnot cycle is the most efficient theoretical

thermodynamic cycle for getting job from
Thermodynamic
two fixed temperature bodies. He showed to
cycle refers to any
the world that productivity if 100% is also not closed system that
possible by a perfect machine. undergoes various
changes due to tem-
perature, pressure,
7.3.3. Measuring Energy and Power and volume, howev-
er, its final and initial
The capacity of Energy, that is the ability of state are equal.
machine to do work, is measured in joules or
watt-hours, with 1 watt-hour equal to 3,600
joules.
The watt is the unit of Power. The machine
capacity or type of energy is determined by the
quantity of work, movement or light built over a
specific period of time. For example, the amount
of electricity is consumed more by the bulb in
relation the amount of light it produces.
The In economics and industry, the ton of
oil equivalent (toe) is used to compare different
energy sources.
7.4. ADVANTAGES OF TWO

WATTMETER METHOD
The various advantages of two wattmeter
method are:
• The implementation of this method
equally for balanced as well as
unbalanced weights.
• The watt meters connection is not
dependent on star connected load
neutral point.
• It is not essential to open the delta
connected load connecting the watt
meters.
• The two-watt meters are essential

for calculating complete 3 phase
electricity.
• The power factor can only be
determined in case the balance of load
is balanced. The use of two-watt meter
readings for equal loads can be used
to get total reactive volt-amperes.
7.4.1. Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter

Method
The few disadvantages of this method are:
• In three phases the implementation is
not possible.
• The watt meter can get wrong results
if measurement of W1 and W2 may
not be recognized and noted correctly.
7.5. METHODS FOR POWER

MEASUREMENT
The electric bill generated by the use of power
by energy companies based on changes in the
consumer profile is disadvantage for them.
The complete power supplied to houses is
not represented by the active power with the
implementation to power lines of non-linear
flow of power.
The reactive electricity can be easily
measured by various methods without mistakes
by the electrical system including only
sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms at a
fixed frequency.
The existence of non-sinusoidal waveforms

causes the measurement error due to existence
of energy inside the harmonics.
The power is measured in watts, defining the
speed at which power is being used at a particular
time. For example, the time on which a 15-watt
LED light bulb draws 15 watts of electricity at
any moment when turned on.
The unit of energy measurement is watt
per hour, defining the complete quantity of
electricity used over time. The speed at which
electricity is consumed and over the period of
time combine together called as Watt-hours. For
example, in one hour the 15-watt light bulb uses
electricity of 15 watt-hours, and consumes 15
watts at any second.
The amount of electricity used by large
appliances and by houses is measured in unit
of Kilowatts and kilowatt-hours. The amount
of electricity consumed is measured in unit of
Kilowatt-hours and display on electricity bill,
detailing the used power.
The one hour of electricity at an amount of
1,000 watts is one kilowatt per hour, and 1,000
watts are equal to one kilowatt. The latest and
advanced refrigerators consume on an average
300–400 kilowatt-hours per year. For example,
the normal home in America consumes about
7,200 kilowatt-hours of electricity each year.
The quantity of electricity needed by the
one city, or production o9f electricity by the
power plant is measured in Megawatts. The One
megawatt is equal to 1,000 kilowatts and this is
equal to1,000,000 watts. For example, the size if
normal coal plant is 600 megawatts.
The capacity of huge power plant or many

plants is measured in unit of Gigawatts. The one
gigawatt is equivalent of 1,000 megawatts and
this equal to 1 billion watts. For example, the
full ability of American power generating plants
was approximately 1,100 gigawatt in 2012.
7.6. CHALLENGES AND TRENDS IN

ANALYSES OF ELECTRIC POWER
7.6.1. Quality Measurement Data

The large variety and diverse types of factors with
time meter varying from tens of nanoseconds to
stable phase are contained in state electric quality
problems. The power quality and performance
of machines needs different solutions and each
of these phenomena might have a range of
different reasons.
Power supply is The imbalance in the electrical environment
an electrical device
that supplies electric between the power supply system and the
power to an electrical machine it serves is the cause of rise in power
load. quality. The various power quality problems
develop from the imbalance in the electrical
environment between the power supply system
and the hoses from which it has load.
The negative connection between the machine
and the electric supply system causes the power
quality problems. For example, nonlinear loads
are recognized to produce harmonic currents that
can stimulate the supply system into resonance.
The voltage and current measurement can
identify the bulk of power quality issues. The
regular measurement or monitoring over the
long time periods is necessary as power quality
trouble is comparatively temporary and the

times it happens are not fixed.
The monitoring of power quality has been
used greatly to examine the system performance
and in identifying the power quality issues. The
knowledge of the electric power quality of the
system, enable the machine to recognize errors
in the features or sign in the machines and or
issues can give information to customers to
adjust the devices according to the voltage in the
power in their homes.
The devices used to monitor the power
should normally have the capacity of capturing
actions varying from direct current frequencies
to a few megahertz. The large number of devices
used in business or industry has sampling rates
of 256 sample per cycle, there is same frequency
remains and the large amount of power quality
program have frequency contents below 5
kilohertz.
The economic and technical problems
are the reason of limited availability of the
high-quality devices to capture irregular high-
frequency program. The large number of power
quality monitoring devices is being fitted in the
machine or customer devices; the final user must
struggle with such large amount of data.
The real functioning of power quality
devices and programmers are in its capacity to
read and examine the large amount of data, and
make conclusions and taking actions to solve
and making good to remove all the problems of
power quality. The goal can be achieved by using
signal processing technology in combination
with many artificial intelligence technologies.
7.6.2. Potential Future Applications

The advancement of many applications of power
quality data is dependent on signal processing
technology. Some of the more important
applications are:
1. Industrial Power Quality Moni-
toring Applications:
• The recognition of opportunity for
saving of energy and decrease in de-
mand and maintenance of data of de-
mand of power.
• The examination of Harmonics to
recognize apprehension of trans-
former loading, cause of harmonics,
problems representing of equipment
that is converters, and apprehensions
of resonance related with improve-
ment of power factor.
• The maintenance of data of low volt-
age to recognize the effect on three-
phase motor heating and loss of life.
• The sudden drop in voltage heav-
ily impacts the examination to rec-
ognize sensitive devices and pos-
sible opportunities for process ride
through improvement.
• The assessment of power factor
improvement to recognize proper
working of capacitor banks, appre-
hension of switching, apprehension
of resonance, and improving perfor-
mance to decrease electric bills.
• The recognition of issue of switch-
ing, inrush current apprehension,
and safety of working of device can
be solved by examination of power
mechanism of motor.
• The documentation of fluctuation

in voltage to recognize the problem
of load switching and load perfor-
mance.
• The examination of safety from short
circuit to identify proper working of
instruments for protection built on
the features of current in short cir-
cuit, time-current curves, etc.
2. Power System Performance As-
sessment and Benchmarking:
• The audit of stable phase quality of
power according to national and in-
ternational benchmarks.
• The definition of quality power qual-
ity performance in terms of features
of statistical power quality bench-
marks.
• To describe the dates for audit and
database management, finding the
capacitor bank and describing the
capacitor switching to recognize the
source of the passing current upline
or downline.
• The documentation of standards of
performance for system benchmark-
ing uses and for doing the system
maintenance on urgent level and im-
provement in funding.
3. Applications for System Mainte-
nance and Operations and Reli-
ability:
• Locating Faults: The increase in
time of answering for repairing cir-
cuits significantly and recognition of
various issues and terms associated
with multiple technical problems in
the same location over the time.

• Capacitor Bank Performance As-
sessment: The problems of fuse
blowing can failures, problems of
switches, and resonance issues can
be recognized by Smart applications.
The examination of working of voltage
regulator to recognize strange working, arcing
Voltage regulator is problems, regulatory issues. It can be achieved
a system designed with deep research studies, recording of data of
to automatically voltage, and voltage variations.
maintain a
constant volt- • Distributed Generator Perfor-
age level. A voltage mance Assessment: The problems
regulatormay use a of interconnection can be recognized
simple feed-forward by Smart systems that is safety de-
design or may include
vice coordination problems, appre-
negative feedback.
hension about harmonic injection,
islanding issues, etc.
• Incipient Fault Identifier: The cur-
rent leakage usually happens before
the real failure and this causes the
problem in cable and arrester. It is
the best expert system application
for the monitoring system.
• The effect of harmonic loading in
calculations and problems of life of
transformer can be examined by as-
sessment of loading.
• Performance assessment can identi-
fy the issues of coordination, proper
working of short circuit situations,
nuisance tripping; can be recognized
by the examination feeder breaker.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is power measurement?
2. Explain the history of electric meter in power measurement?
3. What are the advantages of the two-wattmeter method?
4. Explain the disadvantages of the two-wattmeter method?
5. What are the methods of power measurement?
6. What are the challenges and trends in power measurement?
7. Explain the quality measurement data in electric power
measurement?
8. What are the potential future applications?
9. In what ways can you assess power system maintenance?
10. In the year 2012 what was the full ability of American power
generating plants?
REFERENCES
1. Cepisca, C., Ganatsios, S., Andrei, H., &Grigorescu, D.,
(2007). Methods for Power Measurement in Energy Meters.
[online] Research gate. Available at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/267971499_METHODS_FOR_POWER_
MEASUREMENT_IN_ENERGY_METERS (Accessed on 24
June 2019).
2. Madrigal, A., (2018).Measuring the History of Electricity. [online]
WIRED. Available at: https://www.wired.com/2008/09/gallery-
electrical-meter/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. McGranaghan, M., &Santoso, S., (2007).Challenges and Trends in
Analyses of Electric Power Quality Measurement Data. [eBook]
Hindawi Publishing Corporation, p. 2. Available at: https://pdfs.
semanticscholar.org/da16/4fd6071f11aa9d7e86e991c9dc06457a9
9d6.pdf (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. PlanèteÉnergies, (2015). Energy: Efficiency, Power and
Measurement. [online] Available at: https://www.planete-energies.
com/en/medias/close/energy-efficiency-power-and-measurement
5. Scribd. (n.d.). Advantages of Two Wattmeter Method (17K Views).
[online] Available at: https://www.scribd.com/doc/48680190/
Advantages-of-Two-Wattmeter-Method (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
6. TheFreeDictionary.com. (2019).Electric Power Measurement.
[online] Available at: https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/
Electric+power+measurement (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
8
ENERGY AND ITS
MEASUREMENTS

• The definition of energy;
• Different forms of energy;
• Commonly used measurement systems;
• Renewable and non-renewable energy;
• Measurement of energy.
KEY TERMS:
• Biomass • Non-renewable energy

• Energy • Nuclear power
• Fossil fuel • Renewable energy
• Geothermal power • Windpower
• Measurement
• Natural gas
8.1. INTRODUCTION
Energy is defined as the measurement of ability to do some work. It
can be stored as well as measured in many forms. Nowadays, energy
is widely used in day-to-day life. However, it is generally used quite
roughly as it does not have any specific type of meaning (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1: Energy is the ability to do work.
Source: http://www.picpedia.org/highway-signs/e/energy.html
These days’ people generally discuss about the consumption of
energy that energy can never be destroyed. However, it is transferred
from one form to another. There are some forms of energy that are less
beneficial to humans as compared to some others.
In physics, energy is defined as the capacity of doing the work.
It may exist in kinetic, potential, electrical, thermal, nuclear, and
chemical or various other forms. In addition to that, there are heat and
work also, that is, energy involved in the transfer process from one
specific body to another.
Energy is always classified as per its nature, after being transferred.
Therefore, transfer of heat may become thermal energy, whereas
work done may display or indicate itself as a form of mechanical
energy. Every single form of energy is correlated with the motion. For
Energy and its Measurements 147
instance, if any specific body is in motion, then

it has kinetic energy. Mechanical energy
is the sum of kinetic
A tensioned device such as a spring or
and potential en-
bow owes the strength to develop motion, ergy in an object that
as it comprises potential energy due to its is used to do work.
configuration. In a similar manner, nuclear
energy is similar to the potential energy as it
results from the arrangement of subatomic
particles present in the nucleus of an atom.
Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed, but it can only be changed from
one form to another. This is the first law of
thermodynamics. This is also known as the law
of conservation of energy. For instance, when a
stone slides down the hill, the potential energy
that the stone entails from being located at very
high position on the slope is transformed to
kinetic energy, which is known as the energy of
motion. As the stone slows down and then stop
because of friction, the kinetic energy from the
motion of stone is then transformed to thermal
energy that heats the slope as well as stone.
There are several ways by which one form
of energy can be converted to another. Valuable
electrical or mechanical energy is produced by
different kinds of devices such as heat engines,
fuel-burning, batteries, fuel cells, generators,
and magnetohydrodynamic systems.
Energy is measured in joules in the
International system of units (SI). One joule is
defined as the work done by a one-Newton force
acting over a one-meter of the distance. There
are different forms of energy. These are:
• Chemical energy;
• Electrical energy;
• Gravitational energy;
• Heat or thermal energy;
• Light or radiant energy;
• Motion or Kinetic energy;
• Nuclear energy.
8.2. BASIC CONCEPT OF

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWA-
BLE ENERGY SOURCES
The electricity or electrical power used by
people in their homes are mainly produced by the
Electric power is the
rate, per unit time, at burning of coal or natural gas, by a hydroelectric
which electrical en- plants located on river, by a nuclear reaction and
ergy is transferred by many more. When people fill up the tank of their
an electric circuit. vehicles, the key energy source is petroleum or
gasoline, which is refined from crude oil.
Gasoline may consist of ethanol produced
by processing of corn. Natural gas, coal, nuclear,
petroleum, ethanol, and hydropower are known
as energy sources.
Energy sources are mainly divided into two
groups:
• Renewable Energy: An energy
which can be replenished easily; and
• Non-Renewable Energy: An energy
which cannot be replenished easily.
Both renewable and non-renewable energy
can be used as primary sources of energy for the
production of valuable energy like heat or for
the production of secondary energy sources like
electricity.
Mainly there are five renewable energy

sources:
• Biomass from plants;
• Geothermal energy from heat present
inside of the earth;
• Hydropower from flowing water;
• Solar energy from the sun; and
• Wind energy.
Some of the nonrenewable energy sources
are:
• Coal;
• Hydrocarbon gas liquids;
• Natural gas;
• Nuclear energy;
• Petroleum products.
Coal, crude oil and natural gas are known as
fossil fuels as their formation took place around
millions of years ago by the action of heat present
in the core of the earth and pressure from soil
and rock on the fossils of decayed plants as well
as creatures like microscopic diatoms.
A lot of petroleum products are produced Nuclear energy is
by using crude oil. As well, petroleum liquids energy in the nucleus
(core) of an atom.
can be produced by using coal and natural Atoms are tiny
gas. Nuclear energy is mainly produced from particles that make
uranium, which is a non-renewable energy up every object in
source whose atoms are divided by a process the universe.
known as nuclear fission to create heat and
produce electricity.
There a number of energy measurement
systems available currently. Out of them, the
most commonly used is SI system. Some of the
units of measurement are given below:
• MKS System (Metric System):

Calories or Cal: It is generally
used to represent the content of
energy in food and fuel, capacity of
air-conditioning and refrigeration
system, etc. one calorie is defined as
the amount of heat needed to increase
the temperature of one gram of water
by one degree Celsius. As calorie is
very small unit, thus kilocalories or
Kcal is mostly used. One kilocalories
is equal to one thousand calories.
• SI Unit System: Joule: These days,
SI unit system is the commonly used
system of unit measurement. Behind
the unit name ‘Joule,’ there is a
famous scientist named Joule who has
made major contributions in the field
of thermodynamics. In addition, Joule
is the small unit and thus kilojoule or
KJ is used. One kilojoule is equal to
one thousand joule.
• British Thermal Unit: Btu: One
British thermal unit is defined as
the amount required increasing the
temperature of one-pound water by
one degree Fahrenheit.
8.3. RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy cannot be exhausted as it is
continually renewed. This comprises geothermal
heat, sunlight, tides, water, wind, and different
forms of biomass. Most of the renewable energy
resources directly or indirectly depend on
sunlight.
Hydroelectric power and wind are the direct

outcomes of differential heating of the earth,
which leads to air moving about (wind), and
precipitation forming as the air is lifted. Solar
energy is regarded as the direct transformation
of sunlight by the use of panels and collectors.
The energy of biomass is considered as stored
sunlight confined in plants.
There is some other energy that does not Gravitational
directly depend on sun or sunlight. These are energy is the
tidal energy, which is known as the conversion potential energy held
by an object because
of gravitational energy, and geothermal energy,
of its high position
which is an outcome of radioactive decay in the compared to a lower
crust along with the heat of accelerating the position.
earth (Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2: Renewable energy can be replenished

again.
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mypublic-
lands/29541441390
8.3.1. Solar Energy

This form of energy mainly depends on the
power of nuclear fusion from the core of the
Sun. This form of energy can be collected and
then transformed in several different ways.
The range is mainly from heating of solar

water with attic cooling or solar collectors for
domestic application to the complex or intricate
technologies of direct transformation of sunlight
to the electrical energy by using boiler, mirrors
or photovoltaic cells.
However, unluckily, these are not sufficient
to power our modern society (Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3: Solar panels are used to generate elec-

tricity.
Source: https://pixabay.com/images/search/
solar%20panels/
8.3.2. Wind Power

The movement of atmosphere is mainly
determined by the differences in temperatures at
the surface of earth, as there is difference in the
temperature of the surface of earth when ignited
by the sun.
Wind energy can generally be used to
generate electricity and to pump water.
However, it requires huge areal coverage for the
production of effective amount of energy.
8.3.3. Hydroelectric Energy

This kind of energy uses the gravitational
potential of eminent water that was actually
lifted by the sunlight from the oceans. It is not
strictly considered to be renewable as all of
the reservoirs fill up and then requires costly
excavation to become valuable again.
At present, most of the locations for
hydroelectric dams have already been used in
the developed world (Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4: Hydroelectricity is produced by the use

of hydroelectric energy.
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/56227271@
N03/5204576637
8.3.4. Biomass
Biomass is the term used for the energy obtained
from the plants. Energy in this form is generally
used all over the world. The most famous form
of energy is the burning of trees for warmth and
cooking.
This phenomenon produces huge amount
of carbon dioxide gases into the environment
and is regarded as a major contributor in the air
pollution in several areas. Few modern forms of

Biomass is organic biomass energy are production of alcohol and
material that comes methane for electric power plants.
from plants and
animals, and it is a
renewable source 8.3.5. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
of energy. Bio-
mass contains stored They are not strictly considered as renewable
energy from the sun. form of energy but they are present in very large
amount and when used create very less pollution
in the atmosphere. Hydrogen can be used as fuel
mainly in vehicles with water as the product of
combustion.
Hydrogen being a pure and clean-burning
fuel can reduce an effective amount of pollution
in several areas. Hydrogen can also be utilized
in the fuel cells same as batteries to give power
to the electric motors. Major production of
hydrogen needs a lot of power.
Because of the energy requirement to
produce hydrogen gas, the outcome is the
transfer of pollution from the cities to different
power plants. There are various significant
methods of hydrogen production such as solar
power that may change this scenario completely.
8.3.6. Geothermal Power

Energy left over from the original accretion of the
planet and augmented by heat from radioactive
decay seeps out slowly everywhere, every day.
In some areas, the geothermal gradient is very
high that it can be exploited for the production
of electricity. Geothermal gradient is the rise in
temperature with depth.
The probability is limited to just few
locations on the earth and there are several
issues that restrict its efficacy. Earth energy is

another form of geothermal energy, which is an
outcome of the heat stored in the surface of the
earth. At every place, soil tends to remain at a
constant temperature and can be used along with
different kind of heat pumps to cool a building
in summer and heat a building in winter.
This form of energy can effectively reduce
the requirement of other power for maintain
suitable temperatures in buildings but they
cannot be used for the production of electricity
(Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: Geothermal power.
Source: http://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/italy-is-
sues-new-geothermal-guidelines-for-development-
and-operation/
8.3.7. Other Forms of Energy

Energy from oceans, tides, hot hydrogen fusion
are different forms of energy that can be used
for the production of electricity.
8.4. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

Non-renewable energy is mainly derived from
those sources that will not be replenished after
its use. Most of the non-renewable energy is

obtained from fossil fuels: natural gas, coal,
and petroleum. Carbon is the key element in
fossil fuels. Due to this reason, the time period
in which fossil fuels were formed is known as
Carboniferous Period.
The formation of fossil fuels took place in
similar manner. Hundreds of millions of years
ago, even before the existence of dinosaurs,
Earth had really a different landscape. It was
covered with swampy forests and shallow seas.
Plants, plankton, and algae grew in these
ancient swamps. They used to absorb sunlight
and produced energy by the process known as
photosynthesis. After their death, the organisms
were carried to the bottom of lake or sea by the
current of water. There was some amount of
energy stored in those plants and animals when
they died.
Over the time, the dead plants were
deformed under the seabed. Rocks and several
other sediment loaded on top of those plants
developed high pressure and heat underground.
In the current environment, the remains of plants
and animals are ultimately converted into fossil
fuels such as gas, coal, petroleum, and natural
gas. At present, there are great underground
pockets of these non-renewable sources of
energy over the globe. These underground
pockets are known as reservoirs.
Mainly there are four key sources of non-
renewable energy. These are discussed below:
8.4.1. Coal
Coal is a black rock. It can be burned for the
production of energy. Basically, it is made from Carbonization is a
process in which a
those plants that are preserved for making fossil. fuel is heated without
Based on the amount of carbonization it has gone air to leave solid
through, the rank of coal is decided. Anthracite porous carbon.
is known to be at the highest rank of coal. On the
other hand, peat is at the lowest position of coal
because it has gone through very least amount
of carbonization.
The history of coal mining goes thousands
of years back to ancient Rome and China.
Although, it became quite important during the
period of Industrial Revolution in the 19th and
20th century, when it was generally used to heat
buildings, power steam engines and produce
electricity. In different ways, the use of coal as
a major source of power enabled the Industrial
Revolution.
In spite of the fact that coal is in use for
very long, it remains to be comparatively cheap
and abundant to convert to energy. Although,
combustion, and coal extraction both are
hazardous process. Coal mining, particularly
surface mining, can be mainly critical of
landscapes and contaminate local resources
such as soil and water.
8.4.2. Oil
Apart from the five energies discussed above,
oil is considered to be one of the most important
forms of non-renewable energy which is highly
versatile in nature. Oil is that kind of fossil
Fossil fuel is a fuel

fuel which is used for varied purposes and is
formed by natural significant for the purpose of generating energy
processes, such as with other applications in use.
anaerobic decomposi- Oil could be stored for a longer period of
tion of buried dead
organisms, containing time under the earth’s surface and is extracted
energy originating through a process known as the drilling process.
in ancient photosyn- The oil is found below the two layers of rock
thesis. wherein a pipe gets inserted to get the oil out of
that layer or the surface which is supposed to be
digged upon by the miners.
After the drill rigs get installed into the
surface (which could be either offshore or
onshore), it becomes easy to extract oil on a
regular basis for quite a long period of time.
After the drilling process gets completed. It
is important to first refine the oil as there are
separate chemicals present in the crude oil.
At approximately 45 gallons of refined oil
quantity, petroleum product gets formulated
through refinery processing gain. The petroleum
products after the refinery process are:
• Gasoline;
• Ultra-low sulfur distillate;
• Jet fuel;
• Heating oil;
• Hydrocarbon gas liquids;
• Heavy fuel oil.
8.4.3. Natural Gas

Out of all the energy sources discussed, it is the
“Natural gas” which is present on this planet
in abundance and stands second place in its
abundance. It is methane that is principally
considered to be a natural gas (Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6: Methane is the main natural gas.
File:Ch4_methane_icon.png
Like any other fossil fuel, natural gas was
also formulated through the process of pressure
and heat pressing which is generally performed
over the organic material over millions of years.
Coal deposits and oil are few fossil fuels that are
found in big open pockets, but the same is not
the case with natural gases.
They get trapped in rock formations and
extracted through a process known as hydraulic
fracturing which is quite complicated in nature.
The process of hydraulic fracturing, as its
name suggests involves high-pressure water
which gets piped underground. This piping
process is required to break the rock which
further helps in reducing the gas. In the case of
hard rocks, several chemicals are being used in
the process to extract the natural gas.
At an initial stage of the extraction process,
the first thing you get extracted is the “wet
natural gas” because of the presence of liquid
hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbon gases.
Another process is then used to get methane
and other useful gases separated from the wet
natural gas.
8.4.4. Nuclear Power

Although nuclear power is not considered
to be a fossil fuel but is definitely a form of
non-renewable energy. It is regarded as non-
renewable energy form due to the material that
is being utilized in nuclear power plants. For
example, Uranium which is a non-renewable
resource and is used for the generation of nuclear
power.
The generation process of Nuclear energy
involves the release of energy at that period of
time when the atoms of uranium get divided
or separated in the process known as “nuclear
fission.” The process of nuclear fission takes
place in a nuclear reactor. The type of uranium
used for nuclear energy is U-235. This uranium
isotope is used because its atoms are easily split
apart.
Uranium is found commonly and is generally
found under the rocks. But not every kind of
uranium could be used for the process of nuclear
fission and for that you need to have uranium
235 to conduct the process successfully.
Uranium which is extracted from rocks
gets further enhanced in order to take a form
of uranium 235 isotope before being made into
pellets. These pellets are then used to get them
formulated into nuclear fuel rods.
The brighter side of nuclear energy is that
when used under nuclear power plants it does
not pollute the atmosphere and there is no
emission of greenhouse gases. Small amount of
radioactive material produces a lot of energy;
the raw materials are relatively cheap and last
a long time.
8.5. MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY

All the units of energy that have been
discussed in this chapter have been derived
from a technical definition of energy which is
generally used by the physicists. According to
this definition, Energy can be represented by
equations provided below:
Work = Force x Distance
According to various physicists, energy can
be regarded as something which has an ability to
perform a task. According to physicists, works
can be defined as that force which when applied
to any form of the matter or an object gets
multiplied by the distance that has been traveled
by the object.
Force can be measured by the unit known as
Newton (coined after Sir Isaac Newton), where
a Newton is equal to the force that is required to
move the object which weighs around 1 kilogram
and is 1 meter in length within one second in
a vacuum with absolutely zero friction. The
amount of energy that is needed to accelerate an
object with one Newton force over a distance of
one meter is known as joule.
There are few other definitions for the
energy measurements units. Those definitions
are provided below:
1. Calorie: It is the amount of heat that
is needed to raise 1 gram of pure water
from 14.5 to 15.5° Celsius. This can
be measured at “standard atmospheric
pressure.” Now there are 4.1855 joules
in 1 calorie. Calorie can be denoted as
cal. A kilocalorie is denoted as kcal.
1 kcal is equal to 1000 calories and 1
kilocalorie is equal to 4185 joules.
2. Btu: It is also known as British thermal

unit. Btu is the amount of energy which
is required to raise the temperature
of one pound of water one degree
Fahrenheit.
3. Watt (W/m2 or Wm–2): It is the metric
unit of measurement of the intensity of
radiation in watts over a square meter
Radiation is surface. One watt is equal to one joule
the emission or
of work per second. A kilowatt (kW) is
transmission of
energy in the form the same as 1000 watts.
of waves or particles
through space or
through a material 8.5.1. Measurement of Electrical Energy
medium.
When electrical power and time comes together
it tends to form “Electrical energy.” The
measuring unit for electrical power is “joules”
which can be described as, “1 joule of energy
is equal to 1 watt of power is consumed for 1
second.’’ The relationship between power and
energy is indispensable and electrical energy
could be measured in the case you have the
measurement of electrical power. Therefore, it is
first important to have an in-depth understanding
about electrical power. Electrical power is
the total amount of electrical current that gets
generated from a particular amount of voltage
wherein the power is the rate at which energy is
delivered. The unit for its measurement is unit.
The unit for electrical power in mathematical
terms is denoted as the “measurement of
electrical energy” and is highly dependent
upon power which is measured in kilowatts,
gigawatts, watts, Megawatts, and time which
is measured in an hour. Out of all the units of
energy, “joule” is considered to be the smallest
unit. In the case of bigger calculations, different
units are used as a mode of measurement. So,

the unit used for electrical energy is watt-hour. Megawatts are used
to measure the output
The basic unit of power for the measurement of a power plant
of electrical power is “Watts” or it can be stated or the amount of
that the rate at which electric current is being electricity required by
used at a particular moment. an entire city.
8.5.2. Units of Electrical Energy

• The standard unit for the measurement
of an energy is “Watt-hour” which
illustrates the number of watts that
have been used in a given time frame.
This further describes the speed of
consuming the power in that given
time frame.
• The higher unit of energy in the
case of large appliances is termed
as the “Kilowatt-hour.” This is due
to the power that has been drawn
in kilowatts for handling the large
heavy appliances. For example, the
one-kilowatt hour is the total amount
of energy that has been extracted by
the 1000 watts appliance if they have
been used for almost an hour. In this
case, it can be illustrated as;
One kilowatt = 1000 watts
• Talking about the large appliances, it
is necessary to talk about the power
generated in large quantity. This power
generation and its output have a unit
and it is termed as “Megawatt-hour.”
In the case of huge power plants, the
term megawatt is used to describe the
power generation capacity of power
plant.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define energy.
2. State the difference between renewable and non-renewable
energy.
3. Enlist different forms of energy sources.
4. Explain SI unit system in detail.
5. How electricity is produced by using solar panels?
6. Which period is known as “Carboniferous Period”?
7. Discuss the units of electrical energy.
8. Illustrate key sources of non-renewable energy resources.
9. Define kinetic and potential energy.
10. Why natural gas is considered as a non-renewable energy
source?
REFERENCES
1. Bright Hub Engineering, (n.d.).Energy & Power Plants. [online]
Available at: https://www.brighthubengineering.com/power-
plants/4962-what-are-the-units-of-measurement-of-energy-and-
power/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Daniel, C. P., (2009).What is Renewable Energy? [online] Penn
State Extension. Available at: https://extension.psu.edu/what-is-
renewable-energy (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. Davison, A., (n.d.).Renewable Energy, forms and Types of Renewable
Energy. [online] Altenergy.org. Available at: http://www.altenergy.
org/renewables/renewables.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. Eia.gov. (2018).What is Energy? - Energy Explained, Your Guide
to Understanding Energy - Energy Information Administration.
[online] Available at: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.
php?page=about_home (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
5. Electrical4U. (n.d.). Measurement of Electrical Energy |
Electrical4U. [online] Available at: https://www.electrical4u.com/
measurement-of-electrical-energy/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
6. Encyclopedia Britannica, (n.d.). Energy | Definition, Types, &
Examples. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/
science/energy (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
7. Greentumble. (2018). What are the Main Types of Non-Renewable
Energy? | Greentumble. [online] Available at: https://greentumble.
com/what-are-the-4-main-types-of-non-renewable-energy/
8. Khan Academy, (n.d.). What are Energy and Work? [online]
Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/work-
and-energy/work-and-energy-tutorial/a/what-is-work (Accessed on
24 June 2019).
9. Morse, E., (2013).Non-Renewable Energy. [online] National
geographic society. Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.
org/encyclopedia/non-renewable-energy/ (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
10. Pidwirny, M., (2006).6(b).Measurement of Energy. [online]
Physicalgeography.net. Available at: http://www.physicalgeography.
net/fundamentals/6b.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
9
MAGNETIC FORCE

• To understand the importance of the Magnetic Fields in the modern world.
• To gain knowledge about the process of measuring Magnetic Fields and the
different instruments that are being used in the Magnetic fields.
• To understand the difference between the various aspects of the Magnetic
Field.
• To gain the knowledge about the different quantities of the Magnetic Field.
• To understand the difference between the units of measurement of the
magnetic field.
• To understand the various aspects of magnetic field instruments.
• To understand the effect of Magnetic field on the Human Health.
KEY TERMS:
• Field flux • Moving charge

• Flux density • Permeability
• Gaussmeters • Reluctance
• Magnetic force • Scalar magnetometers
• Magnetism of electromagnets
• Magnetometers
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Magnetic force, attraction, or revulsion that happens in between the
elements that are charged electrically due to their movements. It is
considered as a force that is accountable for such type of effects as
the action of powerful motors and the magnetism of electromagnets
for iron.
The electronic forces are present in between the electric charges
which are immobile in nature. On the other hand, it is observed that
the electronic and magnetic forces are present in between the moving
electric charges. The magnetic force among the two moving charges
may be defined as the action that is applied upon either charge by a
magnetic ground that is made by the other moving charge (Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Magnetic force occurs among the particles that are electrically
charged because of the movements.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/
Earth%27s_magnetic_field_pole.svg/1092px-Earth%27s_magnetic_field_
pole.svg.png
Magnetic Force 169
The magnetic force that is present on an

electric charge that is moving is applied in a way Magnetic force is
at a right angle to the plane that is created by the a consequence of
the electromagnetic
path of its speed and the path of the magnetic force, one of the four
area that is close to it. fundamental forces of
The outcomes of the appropriate nature, and is caused
by the motion of
measurements and evaluations that were
charges.
performed previously, as well as the reference
levels in force for harmless general community
and professional contact, are existing initially.
The basic information for the inspected
substation along with a brief explanation of the
field measurement tools used follow.
The primary outcomes of the field
measurements in the field of the aforementioned
substation are available in appropriate tables
and figures. In accordance to the international
guiding principles, the ultimate inferences,
relating to harmless public and professional
contact to these areas, are set out.
9.2. ESSENTIAL QUANTITIES

REQUIRED IN THE SYSTEM OF
MAGNETIC FIELD
If the burden of two systems of measurement for
common quantities (English vs. metric) throws
your mind into confusion, this is not the place for
you! Due to an early lack of standardization in
the science of magnetism, we have been plagued
with no less than three complete systems of
measurement for magnetic quantities.
At the initial time, the individual is required
to become familiar with the several quantities
that are linked with the field of magnetism. There
also exist quite a few added quantities which
have to be dealt inside the magnetic systems as

compared to that for electrical systems.
In case of the electrical energy, the basic
Ohm’s law states that quantities of the electrical energy comprise of
the current through
the Voltage (E), Current (I), Resistance (R), and
a conductor between
two points is directly Power (P). The initial three quantities of the
proportional to the electrical energy are associated to one another
voltage across the two by a law which is known as Ohm’s Law (E=IR;
points. I=E/R; R=E/I), while Power is in association to
voltage, current, and resistance by another law
that is known as Joule’s Law (P=IE; P=I2R;
P=E2/R).
On the other hand, in the case of the
magnetism, there are the following quantities to
deal with:
• Magnetomotive force;
• Field flux;
• Field intensity;
• Flux density;
• Reluctance;
• Permeability.
9.2.1. Magnetomotive Force

It is defined as the amount of the magnetic
field energy, or “push.” It is similar to that of
the electronic voltage that is also known as the
electromotive force (Figure 9.2).
Magnetic Force 171
Figure 9.2: Solenoid: An example of magnetomo-

tive force.
commons/f/f5/Finite_Length_Solenoid_field_ra-
dius_1_length_1.jpg
9.2.2. Field Flux

It is defined as the amount of the over-all field
effect, or “material” of the field. It is similar to
that of the electronic current.
9.2.3. Field Intensity

It is described as the quantity of the field force
(mmf) that is circulated over the dimension of
the electromagnet. At some of the times, it is
also to as attracting Energy.
9.2.4. Flux Density

It is described as the quantity of magnetic field
flux that is concerted in a specified range. The
SI unit of flux density is T (tesla).the higher the
flux density is, the stronger is the magnet at that
specific position and hence, it can better hold
the iron particles at that specific point.
9.2.5. Reluctance
It is defined as the opposition to magnetic
field flux by a specified capacity of area or the
element. It is similar to that of the electrical
resistance.
9.2.6. Permeability
Magnetic flux is the The definite evaluation of a reception of the
product of the average material of magnetic flux, similar to the given
magnetic field times
resistance of a conductive material (ρ), apart
the perpendicular area
that it penetrates. from inverse, by higher penetrability it means
easier way of magnetic flux, on the other hand,
the larger specific resistance means more hard
way of electronic current.
It is observed that there are not just more
quantities to keep the record of with magnetism
as compared to that with electrical energy, but
also, there exist various diverse systems of unit
measurement for every single quantity (Figure
9.3).
Magnetic Force 173
Figure 9.3: Magnetic insulator.
Source: https://live.staticflickr.
com/880/39246809610_a0955842aa_b.jpg
For the general quantities such as length,
weight, volume, and temperature, we have
English as well as metric systems. Though, there
is generally more than just single metric system
of units (SI), and numerous metric systems are
applied in the magnetic field calculations.
Minor system is known as CGS. CGS referred
to the Centimeter-Gram-Second, it represents
the root measures on which the entire system is
grounded. The other system was initially known
as the MKS system. MKS system is referred to
the Meter-Kilogram-Second.
Later, this system was reviewed into another
system, which is known as the RMKS. RMKS
is referend to the Rationalized Meter-Kilogram-
Second. This system was finally adopted as
an international standard and it was given the
name again as SI. SI is referred to as the System
International.
9.3. MAGNETIC FIELD

INSTRUMENTS INFORMATION
The magnetic field instruments from MicroSense
magnetic field instruments are the tools that
are used to evaluate the magnetic field or flux
which is surrounding the permanent magnetic
body, coils, and electrical devices.
These magnetic field instruments involve
meters, gauges, preceptors, recorders, and other
type of the instrumentation. The selection of
a definite magnetic field instrument relies on
the category of device that are required, the
technology it executes, its form, its productivities
and interfaces, and several other stipulations of
the performance.
9.3.1. Device Type

Magnetic field instruments comprise of the
magnetometers and Gaussmeters. These are
also known as the Tesla-meters. At some of the
times, these two meters, Magnetometers, and
Gaussmeters are used in a transformable manner
for defining the devices that are used to evaluate
the power of the magnetic field.
Though, the two meters magnetometers and
Gaussmeters can be distinguished based on the
kind of power of the field strength is evaluated.
Gaussmeters are well-thought-out devices that
are used for high field power; on the other hand,
magnetometers are the devices that are used for
low field power (Figure 9.4).
Magnetic Force 175
Figure 9.4: There are many rules to know the direc-

tion of the magnetic field.
Source: https://farm4.staticflickr.com/3835/1478118
6402_1feeaec483_b.jpg
Gaussmeters are definitely thought to
evaluate the magnetic field measurements
above 1 mT that is referred to as milliTesla. On
the other hand, the devices that are evaluating
the field lower than this value is referred to as
magnetometers.
9.3.2. Instrument Technology

The Magnetic field devices comprises of the
numerous categories of the sensing technologies.
Reliant on the variety of sensitivities that the
devices can be planned for, they can be referred
as the Gaussmeters, magnetometers, or both of
the two meters.
9.3.3. Gaussmeters
Electrical signal is The Hall Effect devices change the power that is
a voltage or current kept in a magnetic field to an electrical signal
which conveys by making a voltage among the two ends of a
information, usually
current-carrying conductor whose faces are
it means a voltage.
The term can be used vertical to a magnetic field.
for any voltage or Magneto diodes are two-terminal Hall
current in a circuit. Effect tools that are analogous to a conventional
bipolar diode. The voltage-current features
of a magneto diode are more responsive to a
magnetic field.
Magneto transistors comprise of a bipolar
transistor that is applied on a semiconductor
area. They are three-pronged tools that comprise
of an emitter area, an extended base region, and a
collector area. The existence of a magnetic field
in the base area produces a Hall Effect voltage
which creates a pulse on the transmission line.
9.3.4. Magnetometers
The magnetic field instrument from Ohio
Semitronics Magnetometers is the type of
magnetic field instruments for high-sensitivity
applications that are perceiving fields of the low
power. These magnetic field instruments can be
categorized as vector or scalar tools grounded
on their capability to get the experience of the
field path in addition to the power of the field.
9.3.5. Scalar Magnetometers Measure

Magnitude Only
Proton precession tools make use of fluids like
kerosene and methanol that have high solidities
of hydrogen molecules in it.
Magnetic Force 177
The optically pumped instruments separate

an alkali in the form of gas with a definite
wavelength of light. A radio frequency signal
is modulated in order to find out its optimal Nuclear preces-
depolarization frequency, this determined sion is a long-
depolarization frequency differs with the term, spontaneous
ambient magnetic field. phenomenon,
unaccompanied by
Over Hauser or nuclear precession devices energy exchange.
link an electron-rich liquid along with the
atoms of the hydrogen and then project the
combination to the radiations of the frequency
which is matching the radio frequency (Figure
9.5).
Figure 9.5: There are many studies which show the

direction of the lines of magnetic field.
commons/b/bb/P156-Lines_of_magnetic_force.jpg
9.3.6. Vector Magnetometers Perform the

Evaluations of the Amplitude as Well as
the Direction
Magnetometers are that kind of magnetic field
detectors which are very sensitive to even
slightest of the magnetic field. In context with
one usually applied kind of the magnetic force is
detected by the methods of a delicate electronic

balance, which is very sensitive to the different
types of the magnetic field.
In this device the magnetic material is located
on the one side or one arm of the balancing area,
consequently which is positioned in the range of
the magnetic field.
The magnetic field that is exerting a force
on the magnetic material is then resolved by
the weight that is needed to counterbalance the
force that is exerted by the magnetic field. The
maximum reactive or sensitive magnetometer
in a contemporary physics research laboratory
employs a magnetic identifying component
called the superconducting quantum interference
device (SQUID).
A SQUID, generally known as SQUID,
comprises of a tremendously sleek and
electrically resistive connection. This is also
known as Josephson junction. This Josephson is
placed in between two superconductors.
Superconductors are the components which
experience a changeover at low temperatures to
a state of zero electrical resistance and almost
entire segregation of magnetic fields. In its direct
current means of operation, a SQUID is cooled
down at the initial phase to its superconducting
form, and after this the stream of the electrons
is penetrated through it while the voltage
through the intersection is observed. There has
been a certain difference in the magnetic fields
generated by the alternating current and direct
current.
When the intersection detects a magnetic
field, the directions of the flow of electrons is
changed because of an interfering procedure
Magnetic Force 179
at the quantum level among two electron

wavefronts by the intersection, this results in an
alteration in voltage.
Interference is a procedure that happens
Amplitude is the
usually because of the combination of two
maximum displace-
wavefronts. The lines of the magnetic force are ment or distance
added up in some areas and canceled out in other moved by a point on
areas. This relies on the position of the crest and a vibrating body or
trough of every single lines of the magnetic wave measured from
its equilibrium posi-
force in space.
tion.
For instance, the interference among the
sound waves that is arising from the two
concurrently played musical instruments
adjusted to diverse frequencies to some extent
that resulted in the existence of beats or
variations in the amplitude of the sound.
SQUID comprise of two superconductors
that are detached by sleek insulating coatings to
make two parallel Josephson connections. They
are most generally used to evaluate the magnetic
fields that are generated by the actions of the
brain or heart.
Atomic SERF magnetometers attain the
magnetic field sensitivity of the high intensity
by supervising a vapor of alkali metal atoms
of the high intensity dispensing in a near-zero
magnetic field. These kinds of magnetic field
sensors are one of the easily detected magnetic
sensors that are presented.
Fluxgate or coil instruments evaluate the
variations in the magnetic field at the edges of
a perpendicular pole and draw this data on a
graph. Magneto-inductive devices comprise of
a coil that envelops a ferromagnetic core whose
penetrability alters in the interior of the magnetic
field of the earth.
9.3.7. All-Inclusive Technologies

Magneto resistive instruments evaluate the
electrical resistance as a function of the
employed or ambient magnetic field. They
can be constructed as magnetometers for more
sensitive applications, or as Gaussmeters for
detecting the magnetic fields which are of high
intensity.
9.3.8. Forms of Magnetic Field

Magnetic field instruments comprise of two
forms. This can either be in handheld or
mounted category. For the practical usage and
those that needs transportability, handheld form
of magnetic field instrument may be required.
The other Mounted forms are generally
bigger tools that are combined into a larger
portable unit or vehicle, or are it is applicable in
fixed lab or the constructing environments.
9.3.9. Outputs and Interfaces

It is significant for a magnetic field instrument
to contain the outputs and interfaces that are
practical for the worker and it is also well-suited
with other merged systems. Magnetic field
instruments vary in context of electrical outputs.
The analog current that is ranging in between
4–20 mA are appropriate for distributing the
signals between two points which are located
at a far distance. Also, the analog voltages are
simple, generally linear functions (Figure 9.6).
Magnetic Force 181
Frequency modula-
tion is the encoding
of information in
a carrier wave by
varying the instanta-
Figure 9.6: Basic magnetic mirror machine. neous frequency of
the wave.
commons/9/9c/Basic_Magnetic_Mirror.jpg
The modulated analog output signals are
programmed, but still, these modulated analog
output signals are analog in nature. The instances
involve sine wave, pulse wave, amplitude
modulation (AM), and frequency modulation
(FM) signals.
There also exist various digital outputs.
RS232, RS422, and RS485 are some of the
common serial, digital protocols. Popular
parallel protocols comprise of the general-
purpose interface bus (GPIB), a standard bus
which is also called as IEEE 488.
There also exist some other digital outputs
for magnetic field instruments. These comprise
of the transistor-transistor logic (TTL) signals.
The outcomes that alter the state of a switch or
alarm are also presented.
9.3.10. Performance Specifications

The magnetic field instruments can be carefully
chosen which is grounded on a number of
diverse stipulations that are associated to the
performance of the tool.
Flux density measurement is the extent by

which the sensor or the device is formulated in
order to measure. Often, it corresponds to the
linear output area of the identifying technology.
9.3.11. Sensing Accurateness Is the

Essential Calculating Accurateness of the
Device
Resolution is the least increment of measurement
probable with the tool. An instrument with high
range of resolution is capable of making minor
measurements or calculations.
Bandwidth is considered as the extent of
the frequency over which the tools fulfill the
requirement of its accurateness specifications.
The Exactness lowers with low-intensity
frequencies until and unless the tool is
capable of the direct current response. Also,
the accurateness lowers the close and directly
above resonance frequencies, where its outcome
answer rolls off.
Operating temperature is considered as the
temperature extent up to which the tool or the
gadget is functionally operated.
9.4. CONNECTION BETWEEN

ELECTRIC FIELD AND MAGNET-
IC FIELD
9.4.1. Electric Fields

The electrical fields are generated by voltage
and it the intensity of the electric field rises
up as the voltage upsurges. The power of the
Magnetic Force 183
electrical field is calculated in units of volts

per meter (V/m). Every so often, the electrical
fields are existing even if the device or the tool
is switched off, as long as it continues to be in
the connection to the electrical source.
On the other hand, the intensity of the
electric fields reduces at the fast pace as the
sample is moved further from the initial power
source. They are also shielded or weakened as
they pass through buildings, trees, clothes, etc.
(Figure 9.7).
Figure 9.7: The picture depicting the flow of mag-

netism in an electromagnet.
Source: https://c1.staticflickr.com/3/2911/14733269
436_4aa758ff17_b.jpg
9.4.2. Magnetic Fields

The intensity of the magnetic fields is the
outcome of the flow of current by the electrical
cables or electrical tools and it rises up in strength
as the rate of current rises. Magnetic fields are

calculated in units of Gauss (G) or Tesla (T).
The unit Gauss is most usually used in the Unit-
ed States and on the other hand, the unit Tesla
is the internationally recognized term. This is
different from the phenomenon of the electric
field as magnetic field is only generated when
Intensity is the power
the current is flowing.
transferred per unit The intensity of the magnetic fields also
area, where the area reduces at the fast speed as the sample moves
is measured on the further from the initial power source, but these
plane perpendicular are not as easily protected as electrical fields;
to the direction of
propagation of the
magnetic fields seems to pass across most
energy. constituents. This is the reason why they seem
to be more of a consideration.
9.5. HEALTH EFFECTS OF

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC
FIELDS
The stated indications from the wide-ranging
community to electrical and magnetic field
contact comprise of the headaches, nervousness,
depression, sickness, and fatigue. To date,
logical evidence does not advocate a connection
between these indications and contact to
electrical and magnetic fields.
The most current investigation that has
paid attention on magnetic fields because there
was some epidemiological research that have
recommended an enlarged danger of the disease
such as cancer with contact to magnetic fields
while no analogous connections have been
described for electric fields.
Even though there is some weak scientific
evidence to recommend a connection among
Magnetic Force 185
the electrical and magnetic fields and cancer,

at this period, there have been no established
associations between the exposure of the
electromagnetic field and an increase danger of
many diseases such as cancer, leukemia or other
non-cancer linked disease.
9.5.1. Electric and Magnetic Field

Exposure Standards
At the present times, there are no centralized
principles that restrict the professional or
residential contact to 60 Hz of electromagnetic
fields. There are various states that have set
principles for electrical fields on transmission
lines and an also there are few states that have
set principles for magnetic fields.
There are some cities that further restrict
the power of the electrical field at the crossing
of the pathway in order to guarantee that the
intensity of the electrical current conducted into
large metal thing such as trucks and buses does
not characterize an electric shock danger.
The contact limit of the person should be as
low as 1–3mG, which have been recommended
by the constructors of electrical and magnetic
field meters and there are diverse associations
that have established their own exposure guiding
principle which are 10 Gauss or more than that.
Since there is no reliability in the suggested
exposure ranges, in the common sense it should
be practiced that there should be negligible
contact whenever it is possible.
The human being is considered as a
bioelectrical organism and is influenced by
artificial electrical and magnetic fields. Because
of low-frequency magnetic fields, the making

of the hormone that is known as melatonin is
changed. Melatonin plays a significant part in
human bio-frequencies, in reproduction system,
development, and the immune system. The
direct influences of a deduction in its creation
can be sleep disorders, mental disorders such as
anxiety, depressions-, and detrimental diseases
such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s.
Since the year 2002, magnetic fields of the
low frequency are well thought-out by the World
Health Organization (WHO) as possible human
carcinogens.
In the year 2015, there were many agencies
in the nations such as the Scientific Committee
on Health, Environmental, and Emerging
Risks (SCHEER) specified that, in general,
epidemiological research of low-frequency
fields depicts a higher danger of youthful
leukemia with normal day to day contact of the
magnetic fields of the intensities higher than
0.3–0.4 μT.
More current investigations or research have
depicted a direct connection among magnetic
fields and miscarriage. For example, a research
that was done in the year 2017 by the National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
(NIEHS) has discovered that “women exposed
to higher MF levels had almost three times the
risk of miscarriage than those with lower MF
exposure.”
Magnetic Force 187
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term of magnetism?
2. Explain the concept of the permeability in the field of
magnetism.
3. Explain the significance of the magnetometers.
4. Explain the functionality of the gauss meter.
5. What is the relation between the magnetic field and electric
field?
6. What are the different interfaces and specification in the
magnetic field?
7. Distinguish among CGS system and Standard system.
8. Define the term of accurateness in the context of magnetic
field.
9. What are the side effects of magnetic field with respect to
health of humans?
10. Explain the term of magnetomotive force.
REFERENCES
1. Allain, R., Brown, J., McClusky, M., Martineau, P., Marshall, A., So,
A., & Rogers, A., (2019).How Do You Measure the Magnetic Field?
[online] WIRED. Available at: https://www.wired.com/2014/01/
measure-magnetic-field/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Anastasia, S., Safigianni, A., Spyridopoulos, I., &Vasilis, L. K.,
(2012). Electric and magnetic field measurements in a high voltage
center. The Annals of Occupational Hygiene (Vol. 56, Issue 1, pp.
18–24), https://doi.org/10.1093/annhyg/mer076 (Accessed on 24
June 2019).
3. Carles, S., &Descobreix, L. L. S., (2019). Transformer and High
Voltage Measurement: Magnetic Field. [online] Available at: https://
www.carlessuria.com/en/artificial-radiation/electric-magnetic-
fields/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. EMFs, W., introduction, T., fields, E., fields, M., EMFs, U., EMFs,
M., services, E., together, A., U., policy, E., UK, P., lines, C., USA,
P., Assessment, S., Assessment, G., Assessment, S., Assessment,
G., EMFs, P., EMFs, O., EMFs, C., EMFs, L., more, F., issues, F.,
easements, F., distances, F., notices, &., noise, F., navigation, F.,
interference, F., fields, S., fields, S., cables, F., compasses, E., fields,
E., view, S., devices, T., fields, W., fields, I., fields, I., fields, P.,
limits, S., & EMFs, W., (2019). Measuring and Calculating EMFs |
EMFs.info. [online] EMFs.info. Available at: http://www.emfs.info/
what/measuring/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
5. Encyclopedia Britannica, (2019). Magnetic Force | Physics. [online]
Available at: https://www.britannica.com/science/magnetic-force
6. Engineering.com. (2019).Different between AC and DC Magnetic
Field. [online] Available at: http://www.engineering.com/Ask@/
qactid/7/qaqid/5576.aspx (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
7. Gmw.com. (2019).Magnetic Field Measurement. [online] Available
at: http://www.gmw.com/magnetic_measurements/magmeas.html
8. Grainger.com. (2019).Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF) - Quick
Tips #344 - Grainger Industrial Supply. [online] Available at:
https://www.grainger.com/content/qt-electric-magnetic-fields-344
Magnetic Force 189
9. Magnetic Units of Measurement, (2019).All about Circuits (1stedn.,

p. 1).
10. Safigianni, A., &Tsompanidou, C., (2009). Electric- and magnetic-
field measurements in an outdoor electric power substation.
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, [online] 24(1), pp. 38–42.
Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224310049_
Electric-_and_Magnetic-Field_Measurements_in_an_Outdoor_
Electric_Power_Substation.
11. Science Buddies, (2019). Measuring Magnetic Fields | Science
Project. [online] Available at: https://www.sciencebuddies.
org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/Elec_p030/electricity-
electronics/measure-magnetic-fields (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
12. Science.jrank.org. (2019).Magnetism - Measurement of Magnetic
Field. [online] Available at: https://science.jrank.org/pages/4084/
Magnetism-Measurement-magnetic-field.html (Accessed on 24
June 2019).
13. Socratic.org. (2019).What is Magnetic Force Measured in? |
Socratic. [online] Available at: https://socratic.org/questions/what-
is-magnetic-force-measured-in (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
14. www.globalspec.com. (2019). [online] Available at: https://
www.globalspec.com/learnmore/sensors_transducers_detectors/
electrical_electromagnetic_sensing/magnetic_field_instruments
10
ANALOG RECORDERS AND
DIGITAL RECORDERS

• Sound recorders and basic requirement of the same.
• Basic sound recorders being used at previous times.
• Digital recording and how it is being employed presently.
• Understanding of Analog recorders and its benefits.
• Understanding of digital recorders and its benefits.
• Learning how Analog tape works.
• Definition of Alternating current bias in terms of Analog Recording.
• Explanation of Digital recording principles.
• Learning about different digital formats.
• Understanding basic difference between digital and Analog recorders.
KEY TERMS:
• AC bias • Incremental digital recorders

• Analog recording of sound • Magnetic tape recorders
• Analog tape • NRZ recording
• Clock pathway • Oculographic recorders
• Digital formats • Sound recorders
• Digital recording • Synchronous digital recorders
10.1. INTRODUCTION
Digital magnetic tapes are frequently being used as storing devices
in numerical data dispensation claims. Digital tape units are basically
being divided into two categories, incremental, and synchronous.
Incremental digital plotters are ordered to step ahead that is
increment for each digital charm to be chronicled provided data may
be at a comparatively sluggish, or even intermittent amount. In this
method, each character is similarly and exactly spread out along the
tape.
In a synchronous digital recorder, the tape gets along at a constant
speed which is about 75 cm/s while a greater amount of data characters
is being stored. The data contributions are at exact rates, up to tens of
thousands of characters per second.
The tape is quickly being brought up to rapidity, footage takes
place, and the tape is given to a quick stop. In this way a chunk of
characters which is a record is being written with each character
spaced equally along the tape (Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1: Sound recorders when they first became popular.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/
Scully_280_4-track_tape_recorder%2C_Ardent_Studios_%28cropped%29.
jpg
Analog Recorders and Digital Recorders 193
Chunks of data are typically unglued from

each other by a removed region on the tape
called the record gap. The synchronous tape
component gets initiated and brings halt at the
tape for each chunk of data to be stored.
Fonts are signified on magnetic tape by
a computerized coded mixture of one bit in
suitable tracks across all the tape width. The
footage method used in most arrangement tape
recorders is the manufacturing accepted in the
company named IBM format of Non-Return
Zero which is the full form used in place of NRZ
recording.
In this scheme, the tape is magnetically
soaked at all duration in one of the two optimistic
or the undesirable way. The Non-Return Zero
method usages the difference in flux course on
the tape to elect one unit, and no change in flux Binary number is
a number expressed
way to elect zero bit. This method is explained in the base-2 numeral
in the below sections, as we all well aware of system or bina-
the binary number which are numerical zero and ry numeral system,
one the binary number 11101011 is represented which uses only two
by a flux pattern in the Non-Return Zero system. symbols: typically «0»
(zero) and «1» (one).
The easiest to understand method of coding
the footage head arena is to opposite its course.
In digital data recording, a footage arena of
amplitude is more than enough to generate
magnetic fullness through the total tape layer
width is being reversed to record a one signal
and being kept continuous to record a zero
signal. Copy of this storage is achieved by using
a timing signal obtained from a distinct clock
pathway, consistent to the time when a one or
zero is being recorded.
Self-clocking schemes, where the storing
field is being reversed at steady intervals, and
one or zero signals are being stored amid these

clock signals, are also being employed. It is
obvious that the uppermost resolution is created
in Non-Return Zero footage by taking care of the
field amplitude so that maximum longitudinal
decrement happened in the uppermost layer of
the tape. In repetition, larger regions are usually
being used to ensure more dependable stored on
a coated thicker tape.
To minimize the belongings of loafers, large
storing fields are being employed, and resolve is
forgoing for augmented dependability. Current
high-density information storing on oxide
powder tape is in the variety of in the range
fifteen hundred to two thousand flux setbacks
per inch. By using slim metallic coatings with
greater coercive force, postponements up to
10,000 setbacks per inch are conceivable in
coming years.
Since magnetization is self-governing of
frequency and amplitude but most probably
being dependent only on the schism of the
storing current, the normal problems of non-
linearity and misrepresentation being observed
in direct and frequency modulation (FM)
recordings do not exist. The inscribe coils of the
tape cranium need only adequate current, of the
precise polarity, to soak the tape.
Two of the issues being encountered in
digital recording are signal drop out and bogus
pulses losing or addition of data. Signal dropout
or loss of pulses develops thoughtful when the
stuffing thickness increases a greater number
of units per unit tape length. As a checkered-on
dropout mistakes, most tape systems consist of a
parity checkered. This check consists of keeping
track of the amount of one bits of data initially

chronicled on the tape by script an equivalence
check pulse on an extra tape track.
If the amount of 1 ‘s stored is smooth it is
called a smooth equivalence checkered, and if
the amount of 1 ‘s stored is odd, after that it is
an odd equivalence checkered. Once a fall back
happens, the equivalence checkered does not deal
with the already stored data and an equivalence
error is being observed. Some schemes usage
the equivalence error scheme to deal with
missing bits in the suitable seats in requirement
to representative that an equivalence error has
been observed. Another scheme, called bipolar
or positive alternate mark inversion
This arrangement has no remaining Direct
Current constituent and has almost zero power
in the range at zero frequency. These are beats
of 50% duty cycle as they are only semi as
extensive as the beat intermission makes them
and by upsetting the schism of alternative one
bit. The bipolar format is really a three-state
signal wither of the three positives, zero or
negative,
There are numerous kinds of digital tape
recorder by means of numerous non-compatible
arrangements. They all require the values of
digitizing complete enclosed in the digital
audio informal, and they all face the same test
which is how to attain a great enough frequency
answer to store the great quantities of data audio
requires. There are two important methods many
pathways, or a very high tape speed.
The machineries that require the multi-track
schemes are very luxurious, they essential up
to four tracks per audio channel but are very
dependable, and with approximately replicas,

the tape can be amended with a razor blade. High
haste machines get the haste from a moving
head, just like its competitor video recorders. In
fact, the first of these were adapted video tape
recorders, and the new budget multitrack use
normal customer type video conveyances and
tape.
Incidentally, it is this association of digital
recorders to video that accounts for the humorous
sample rate of 44.5 kHz. A single video edge has
490 lines, each being as a slanting stripe across
the tape. It turns out you can stuff three stereo
examples in one of these appearances. At 30
frames per second, you get 44,100 specimens.
Of course, these statistics are based on black
and white television. Color television runs a tad
slower, so if you use a color VCR for recording,
the sample rate winds up at 44,056.
The most important formats found still
presently are Sony multitrack, Sony PCM, DAT,
ADAT, and Tascam DA-88.
Recorder can be careful as a convenient that
is valuable in creation an enduring record of
analog waveforms, alphanumeric information,
and graphics.
The recorders are useful in variety of
applications such as in medicine, science, and
engineering. The electrical quantities, such as
voltage and current are measured directly. The
non-electrical quantities are recorded using
indirect methods. Electronic recorders may be
classified as:
• Analog recorders;
• Digital recorders.
Analog recorders dealing with analog

systems can be classified as:
• Graphic recorders;
• Oculographic recorders;
• Magnetic tape recorders.
Digital recorders dealing with digital output
can be classified as:
• Incremental digital recorders;
• Synchronous digital recorders.
10.2. DIGITAL RECORDING

Digital recording is a method for preservative
audio signals and video or graphic images as
a sequence of beats that can be recorded on
magnetic tapes, visual discs which is also called
compact discs, or computer diskettes. These
Digital data is
pulses are stowed in the procedure of a sequence data that represents
of binary digits (that is, zeros, and ones). other forms of
To brand the recording, an Analog-to-digital data using specific
machine language
changing transforms the sound signal or visual systems that can
projection into digital data which is a complex be interpreted by
sequence of zeros and ones that is being stored various technologies.
on high-speed magnetic tape or on disc or floppy.
The scheme that theatres back or recites out the
sound or image interprets the two codes back
into Analog which is basically line like signals
being employed a digital-to-analog transference
(Figure 10.2).
Figure 10.2: Mixer and digital recorder.
Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/23/31207220_
b746edaacc_b.jpg
Tape players, compact disc players, video
disc players, and CD-ROM which is the
abbreviation used in place of Compact Disc-
Read-Only Memory players in home computers
are instances of digital-to-analog transfers being
used to play back audio and video codes in our
homes.
10.3. ANALOG RECORDING OF

SOUND
The rudimentary code of disk storing is
very modest. Movement of the microphone
diaphragm is being transferred into a wiggle
groove on a touching part of vinyl. A stylus
drawing the wiggles precisely copies the gesture
of the diaphragm at the period the recording was
complete.
Electricity is really related to the procedure,
used as a suitable course to connect the
microphone to the harvester and the spontaneous
to the speaker.
Most of the growth in record technology has

been keen to hitting a lot of melody on a single Rapidity can be
record. The clear method, sluggish rapidity and defined as the
a thin groove touched an applied boundary in hyperbolic angle that
the central of the period with the 33-1/3 rotation differentiates two
frames of reference
per minute microgroove record.
in relative motion,
At that speed, as nine inches per second in each frame being
the inner part of the groove, a 20 kHz signal has associated with
a wavelength of 0.0004 inch (Figure 10.3). distance and time
coordinates.
Figure 10.3: Analog recorder.
commons/0/0f/Ton_S.b%2C_tape_unit.jpg
It is very problematic for the production of
stylus that would grip wavelengths smaller than
that.
The main customer of actual estate on the
storage is low incidence gratified. This is sole
only the reason of the largeness of the electrical
sign shaped is relative to the side to side speed
of the stylus. Given equivalent velocities, a low
incidence wiggle will swipe broader than one
of high frequency since at low frequencies the
cutter will not turn around as often as it does at

Low Incidence refers high frequency.
to disability areas
To counter this effect, the low incidence
that occur rarely or
in low numbers. gratified of the stored data is purposely abridged,
and this low-end roll-off has to be modified by a
bass boost in the playback system.
The intensified frequency gratified is
assumed an action exactly opposite to that of
the troughs. High-frequency info is highlighted
throughout recording, and abridged throughout
playback. This is an effort to reduction of the
noise made by the unevenness of the vinyl. That
sound is white noise, and similar as such sounds
are like a high-frequency marvel.
When the replay system decreases the high
frequency gratified to its good level, the sound
in that variety is abridged by the similar amount.
The mixture of bass roll-off and triple boost is
named the recording typical, and the balancing
reply of the replay system is called Recording
Industry Association of America which is the
full form used in place of equalization after the
manufacturer’s connotation which consistent
this feature in the year 1956.
The long-playing is a rare species with the
advent of Compact Disk technology, but it will
not disappear overnight. Even if no new records
are produced, there are hundreds of millions in
existence, including many unique performances
and compositions.
10.3.1. Analog Tape

Analog recording, of sequence, predates tape
with all from wax cylinders to wire being used
to imprisonment a presentation. But when one
of the famous American audio engineer Jack

Mullin bare a pair of German Magnetophonon
machineries during World War II, he
distinguished right away he was on to somewhat
greater.
The arrangement obtainable two main
compensations over the acetate disks of the
diurnal storing time duration of more than 30
minutes, and the aptitude for footages to be
amended. It was the first-time audio could be
manipulated.
In the simplest of standings, magnetic tape
contains of a shrill layer of Mylar or alike material
covered with iron oxide. The tape mechanism
head uses a charge on the oxide, which polarizes
the oxide particles and effectively “captures”
the signal. It’s a procedure that makes some
stimulating by-products, many of which directly
affect the sound of the recording (Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.4: Analog cassette tape.
to/2017/11/26/19/01/cassette-2979725_960_720.jpg
Perhaps the most usually cited characteristic
of Analog footage is its “warmth.” Tape warmth
enhances a level of color to the complete,
chiefly unstiffening the bouts of musical notes,
and congealing up the low-frequency range.

Footage at somewhat hot levels to Analog tape
can also produce a nice misrepresentation that
works well with sure types of music such as
rock, soul, and blues.
Each of these manufacturers’ different
models became loved (or despised) for their
mechanical attributes and characteristic sound.
In the day, a recording studio’s model of
multitrack tape recorder was considered as
intrinsic to its sound as their acoustics, console
or microphone collection.
10.3.2. AC Bias
Tape recording would be a very low loyalty
Magnetization is commercial business without Alternating
the density of current bias. The procedure of magnetization is
magnetic dipole lined only when practical to arenas of medium
moments that forte. There is a boundary to the forte of arena
are induced in a
magnetic material
that the tape can receive. Once the tape is totally
when it is placed attracted, no quantity of extra current in the
near a magnet. spear will upsurge the subsequent field. That
disorder is called saturation.
As the forte approach’s fullness, there
is a slow decrease in the efficiency of the
magnetization procedure. These consequences
in a phenomenon called “soft clipping,”
which is certainly misrepresentation, but as
misrepresentations go is sensibly inoffensive.
Parenthetically, since the greatest
equalization upsurges the high frequency
gratified of the signal, this cutting will occur
to the highs first which is that is why a cassette
observed to let it lose its top end response when
it is recorded “hot.”
Clipping is something one has live within

all electronic schemes, and is informal to evade
simply keep the improvement down. Additional
area of nonlinearity is additional problematic
to contract with. The magnetization procedure
produces field areas that alternative in schism
which is one north, one south, and north again,
and so forth. In amid there are areas where the
arena strength is nothing.
When the oxide is not magnetized, a
reasonable quantity of current is needed to
manufacture any magnetization at all this leaves
an even spot in the center of the waveform.
One must avoid the belongings of this
nonlinear area by totaling a very high frequency
which is over 100 kHz bias indication to the
signal one is trying to store in the form of record.
The output is the third waveform. The center of
the bias incidence is usually distorted, but the
original signal, which is the form of the general
waveform, is spotless. The playback skull does
not respond to the bias signal and just revenues
the unique.
The amplitude of the bias signal has to be
prudently attuned to deliver a misrepresentation
free recording. Many tape decks which are
especially cassettes deliver a switch to make a
coarse variation in bias for dissimilar tape types,
but a finer standardization is really obligatory
for optimum results.
10.4. DIGITAL RECORDING

In the modest case, the word numerical
mentions to the picture of an amount in digital
form and analog mentions to an incessant
physical quantity. To digitize income to change

an analog physical quantity into a digital value.
For instance, if one can represent the strength of
a sound by statistics proportionately related to
the strength, the analog worth of the strength has
been signified digitally.
The correctness of the digital change
is contingent upon the amount of separate
arithmetical standards that can be allocated and
the degree at which these arithmetical capacities
are made. For instance, four numerical stages
will project variations in the amplitude of sound
which is less accurate than 256 numerical levels
and a rate of 8 conversion/sec will be less precise
than a rate of 10,000 conversions per sec.
The procedure for numerically coding sound
by processor was first industrialized in the year
of 1957 by Max Mathews of Bell Telephone
Laboratories in Murray Hill as stated by famous
Pulse-code modula- scientist Mathews, in the year 1963. Other
tion is a method used advances in digital electronics and microchips
to digitally represent spearhead to the growth of the first digital Pulse
sampled analog
signals. It is the stan-
Code Modulation which is the full form used
dard form of digital in place of PCM audio recorder in the year of
audio in computers, 1967 at the NHK Technical Research Institute
compact discs, digital as stated by Nakajima in the year 1983.
telephony and other
digital audio applica- This mechanism was a 12-bit commanded
tions. arrangement which is using a compression/
expansion of complete voice to improve
dynamic range with a 30 kHz specimen rate.
Information was recorded on a one-track, two-
head helical scan VTR which is the short form
of Video Tape Recorder. The first commercial
PCM/digital recording session was performed
by DENON in 1972 as stated by Takeaki in the
year 1989.
10.4.1. Digital Recording Principles

Throughout digital recording of the analog
signal, analog to digital (A to D) change
occurs in place from incessant time-amplitude
organizes to separate time-amplitude organizes.
The change amid the instantaneous analog sign
and de digital picture is digital error.
10.4.2. Digital Formats

• Common Coding Systems: There
is a short list of usually used digital
coding algorithms which is basically
using as an example a single network
numerical recording system with
swindling frequency fs = 44,100
Hz and 16-bit Analog to Digital and
Digital to Analog conversion. The
data density algorithms, which are
more efficient than PCM as it uses
less storage space, reservation of the
information gratified of the signal
(Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5: Digital recording equipment.
Source: https://live.staticflickr.
com/6153/6173776986_d0a8a75622_b.jpg
Not stated here are data discount/density

algorithms, which decrease data gratified of
the original signal which is arbitrarily or on the
basis of psychoacoustics research results.
Modulation is a
process of changing
• Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM):
the characteristics Itwas considered by the famous
of the wave to be scientist A.H. Reeves in the year
transmitted by 1939 as stated by American Patents
superimposing the 2272070, and was analyzed and
message signal on the
high frequency signal.
industrialized as a modulation
system from the point of view of
communication theory by C.E.
Shannon in the year 1949. Using
only two alternative beat values
which is the binary codes 0 and 1, a
sixteen- pulse train is produced which
designates the tested value which is
for instance, 1010 1111 0110 1101, a
binary coded sixteen-bit number.
During change, sixteen-bit bounties A1, A2,
A3 are made with a rate 44,100 per sec. The
request on the storing expedient and haste of
broadcast channel is 88,200 Bytes per sec. This
is a ‘brute force’ method, which is not the most
realistic way of by means of the storing device
and broadcast channel.
• Differential Pulse Code Modulation
(DPCM): Throughout change only
four bits for instance changes amid
successive amplitudes are made (A2-
A1), (A3-A2), (A4-A3) at the rate of
44,100 per sec. Request on the storing
device and haste of broadcast channel
is 22,050 Bytes per sec.
• Adaptive DPCM: Contingent on the
signal, the number of obtainable bits
to signify the change amid successive

sixteen-bit examples is varied. For
instance, for the case of entire quiet
at the contribution (or small signal)
the change could be swapped off
completely or signified only by one
bit.
Request on the storing device and the haste
of transmission station could vary amid 0 Bytes
per sec and 88,200 Bytes per sec contingent on
signal difficulty. This is perhaps the most actual
way of coding. Alike income of coding could be
used for video signs since there is not abundant
change from frame to frame most of the time.
• M – Delta (Inflection): Throughout
coding only one-bit changes amid
successive breadths are made at a
high adaptation speed representative
whether the signal was augmented or
reduced.
Demand on the storage device and the
speed of transmission channel is very high
in comparison to the Pulse Code Modulation
system for the same quality of signal as stated
by Nakajima, in the year 1983.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are recorders?
2. Explain Different sound recorders.
3. What do you understand by Digital recording?
4. What do you mean by Analog recorders?
5. Explain Analog tape.
6. Define Alternating current bias in terms of Analog recorders.
7. Explain digital recorders.
8. Explain digital recording formats.
9. Which one is more preferred Analog or Digital Recorder?
10. List basic differences between Analog and digital recorders.
REFERENCES
1. Artsites.ucsc.edu. (n.d.). Analog Recording. [online] Available
at: http://artsites.ucsc.edu/EMS/music/tech_background/TE-19/
teces_19.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
2. Artsites.ucsc.edu. (n.d.). Digital Recorders. [online] Available at:
http://artsites.ucsc.edu/EMS/music/equipment/digital_recorders/
Digital_Recorders.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
3. Artsites.ucsc.edu. (n.d.). Digital Recording. [online] Available
at: http://artsites.ucsc.edu/EMS/music/tech_background/TE-16/
teces_16.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
4. Collectionscanada, (2010). Digital Recording - History -
The Virtual Gramophone - Library and Archives Canada.
[online] Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Available at: https://www.
collectionscanada.gc.ca/gramophone/028011-3021.4-e.html
5. Digital Recordings, (2014). Digital Recording Techniques. [online]
Digital-recordings.com. Available at: http://www.digital-recordings.
com/publ/pubrec.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
6. Eeeguide, (2014). Digital Recording Definition | Advantages |
Disadvantages. [online] EEEGUIDE. Available at: http://www.
eeeguide.com/digital-recording-definition/ (Accessed on 24 June
2019).
7. Keller, D., (n.d.).Analog Tape Recording Basics | Universal Audio.
[online] Uaudio.com. Available at: https://www.uaudio.com/blog/
analog-tape-recording-basics/ (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
8. Manian, D., (2016). Recorders (4thedn., p. 1). [eBook] Chennai: www.
academia.edu. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/5264068/
RECORDERS (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
9. Net Industries, (2019). Digital Recording - Analog versus
Digital Recording, Digital Recording Formats, Advantages and
Complexities of Digital Recording, the Future of Digital Recording.
[online] Science.jrank.org. Available at: https://science.jrank.org/
pages/2085/Digital-Recording.html (Accessed on 24 June 2019).
INDEX
A Circuit’s actual consumption 75

Common quantities 169
Absolute measuring instruments Complex instrument 60
26 Conductor 22
Accurate measurement 108, 121 Controller hardware 51
Aircraft stabilizing system 63 Coupling capacitor 74
Alphanumeric information 196 Current-carrying conductor 176
Alternating quantity 23 Current Transformers (CTs) 90
Amplitude modulation (AM) 181
Anti-skid braking system 61 D
Appropriate measurements 169 Database management 141
Artificial intelligence technologies Deflecting force 30
139 Determining circuit 97
Asynchronous 117 Dielectric strength 88, 101
Automation instrumentations 61 Dielectric strength oil-occupied
B enterprises 88
Digital circuits 75
Biomass energy 154 Digital magnetic 192
Bridge circuit 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, Digital protocols 181
41, 42 Digital thermometers 52
Bridge frequency 111 Direct measurements 13, 14
C E
Chemical reaction 80 Effective thermodynamic cycle
Circuit design 78, 81 134
Effective value 23 Frequency modulation (FM) 181,

Electrical circuitry 35 194
Electrical comparator, conversion
G
40
Electrical conductivity 81 Galvanometer 109, 112
Electrical energy 32, 73 General-purpose interface bus
Electrical environment 138 (GPIB) 181
Electrical equipment 108 Geothermal energy 151, 155
Electrical instrument 24, 38 Global positioning systems 63
Electrical instrument transformers Gravitational energy 151
86 Gravitational potential 153
Electrically resistive connection
H
178
Electrical network 132 Hydroelectric plants 148
Electrical parameters 22 Hydrogen 154
Electrical power 148, 162, 163
I
Electrical quantities 22, 24
Electrical quantity 31, 33 Indirect measuring system 15
Electrical resistance 65 Inertial navigation systems 63
Electrical signal 176 Information technology 89, 90
Electrical transformation 87 Initial energy 134
Electricity 70, 73 Instrumentation system 61, 64
Electricity works 70 Instrument transformer 86, 88, 89,
Electric power measurement 129 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99
Electric supply system 138 Integer quantity 115
Electronic circuits 73, 75, 80, 81, International system of units 22
82, 83 Ionizing radiation 53
Electronic devices 71
K
Electronic measurement 25
Energy measurement 137 Kinetic energy 147
Entire system 173
M
Essential frequency 128
Explosive atmosphere 49 Machine capacity 135
Magnetic compass 63
F
Magnetic field 22, 27, 30, 32
Frequency 48, 53, 67 Magnetic field flux 172
Frequency gratified 200, 202 Magnetic field instruments 167,
174, 176, 181
Index 213
Magnetic field instruments com- 92

prise 174, 180 Potentiometer 38, 39, 42, 43
Magnetic fields 27 Power supply system 138
Magnetic flux 22, 172 Power transform 128
Magnetic force 167, 168, 169 Primary-level thermometry 120
Magnetic quantities 169
R
Magnetism 114
Magneto diodes 176 Reactive electricity 136
Magnetometers 167, 174, 176, 177 Refrigerators consume 137
Manufacturing electronics equip- Remote monitoring 62
ment 38 Renewable energy 95, 145, 150,
Measurement system 2 151
Measurement Systems analysis 15 Renewable energy resources 150,
Measurement system technology 164
123 Resistance 170
Mechanical energy 146, 147
S
Mechanical measurement 25, 26
Microcontroller 76, 77, 83 Scientific Committee on Health,
Misrepresentation 194, 202, 203 Environmental, and Emerg-
Modern automobile 60 ing Risks (SCHEER) 186
Semiconductor physics 80, 81
N
Sensitive magnetometer 178
Natural gas 148, 149, 156, 158, Serial communication 76
159, 164 Signal processing technology 139,
Non-renewable energy 145, 155 140
Non-Return Zero system 193 Significance of transformer 98
Normal resistance 129 Specific operation 76
Nuclear energy 148, 149, 160 Superconducting quantum interfer-
ence device (SQUID) 178
O
Superconductors 178
Original accretion 154 Synchronous digital recorder 192
Oscillator 110, 112, 121
T
P
Temperature-sensitive resistor 130
Pneumatic transmitter 48 Thermodynamics 147, 150
Potential energy 147, 151, 164 Transformation of instrumentation
Potential instrument transformers
49 V
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)
Variable resistor 113
181
Vibration galvanometers 107, 110,
Transmit signals 57, 58
111
Tune transistor amplifier electri-
Voltage regulator 142
cally 111
W
U
Wide-ranging community 184
Unit measurement 150

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL

e-book Edition 2020

ISBN: 978-1-77407-408-4 (e-book)

© 2020 Arcler Press

ISBN: 978-1-77407-323-0 (Softcover)

SachchidaNand Shukla, is presently working as Professor, Department of Physics

List of Figures ........................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1 The Concept of Measurement Systems ..................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Principles Of Electrical Measurements .................................................... 21

Chapter 4 Electronic Circuits ................................................................................... 69

Chapter 5 Instrument Transformers ......................................................................... 85

Chapter 6 AC Bridges ............................................................................................ 107

Chapter 8 Energy And Its Measurements ............................................................... 145

Chapter 9 Magnetic Force ..................................................................................... 167

Chapter 10 Analog Recorders And Digital Recorders .............................................. 191

Index ..................................................................................................... 211

Figure 1.1. The concept of measuring system

In this chapter, you will learn about:

• Continuous data • Nominal level

Figure 1.1: The concept of measuring system.

consist of these types of aspects or parameters

impartially actual, for example, measuring the

1.2. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Figure 1.2: Units of measurement in field of mea-

1.2.1. Units of the SI System

• The mole (mol), for the amount of a

Figure 1.3: The fundamental SI units and the com-

1.3. DATA LEVELS OF

First of all, determining the level of

Figure 1.4: Data levels of measurement.

• Ratio: Let the “o” in ratio remind you

1.3.1. Nominal Level

1.3.2. Ordinal Level of Measurement

student would be allocated at the first rank. At

1.3.3. The Interval Level of Measurement

1.3.4. Ratio Level of Measurement

having equal number of breaks or intervals, can

1.3.5. Continuous and Discrete Data

age recorded in years but evaluated in terms of

1.4. UNDERSTANDING THE

Never the less, it is still a good concept to

Figure 1.5: Difference between the measurement

1.4.1. Measuring Methods

1.4.1.1. Direct Measurement

requirement to know any type of information

1.4.1.2. Indirect Measurement

gauge block researcher would then, with the

Figure 1.6: Significance of six sigma in the field of

• Measurements Forms the Core

10. MTI Sales, (n.d.). The History of Measurements | 14th Century to

In this chapter, we will learn about:

• AC voltage • Electronic watt-hour meter

2.1.2.1. Effective Value

2.1.2.2. Peak Value

2.1.2.3. RMS Value

2.2. TYPES OF MEASURING

2.2.1. Electrical Measuring Instruments

Disadvantages of Electrical Measurements:

2.2.2. Electronics Measuring Instruments

2.2.3. Mechanical Measuring Instruments

Advantages of Mechanical Measurements:

2.3. TYPES OF ELECTRICAL

Galvanometer is an 2.3.1. Absolute Measuring Instruments

In tangent galvanometer, the tangent