Rao, Uma K - Jayalaxmi, A - Basic Electrical Engineering-Sanguine Technical Publishers (2015)

Basic Electrical Engineering
Basic Electrical Engineering

Revised Edition
Dr. K Uma Rao

Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering, R V College of Engineering,
Bangalore
Dr.A.Jayalakshmi
AssociateProfessor,
DepartmentofElectricalEngineering,
JNTU,Kukatpally,
Hyderabad
SANGUINE
Sanguine Technical Publishers

Accordingly reduce the stroke size also, for a proportionate reduction.
Bangalore.
2014
Price: `425.00
ISBN 978 9383506 23-1
9 789383 506231 >
Basic Electrical Engineering Revised Edition Dr. K Uma Rao & Dr. A
Jayalakshmi
T his book contains information obtained from authentic and highly

regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and
sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the
consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval
system, without prior remission in writing from the publishers.
The consent of SANGUINE TECHNICAL PUBLISHERS does not extend to

copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or
for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from
SANGUINE for such copying.
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Direct inquiries: E-mail info@sanguineindia.com. Visit our website at
www.sanguineindia.com
© 2014 by Sanguine Technical Publishers, Bangalore – 560 016.
Published by Lal Prasad for Sanguine. Production Editor:

R.Subramanian. Printed in India.
To umesh, arathi & amrutha
PREFACE
This book is primarily intended for a course in Basic Electrical
Engineering. A strong need was felt for such a book, which would address
the needs of Indian Students hailing from different backgrounds across the
country.
The book is written in two parts. Part A covers the important topics of
circuit analysis and basic instrumentation. Part B deals with the concepts of
Electrical Machines. Part A has six chapters. Chapter 1 of Part A ,
introduces the student to the two fundamental laws of Electrical
Engineering which form the premise for all other topics, namely Ohm’s law
and Kirchhoff’s laws. Chapter 2 deals with the fundamental concepts in
Electromagnetism—definitions of fundamental quantities, Biot-Savart’s
law, Faraday’s laws, Self Inductance and mutual Inductance. Chapter 3
covers the various methods of circuit analysis—nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, superposition theorem, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem,
maximum power transfer theorem, reciprocity theorem, star-delta
transformation—applied to simple dc circuits. Chapter 4 introduces the
students to the fundamentals of ac circuits. Solution of simple series and
parallel ac circuits is presented. Chapter 5 presents concepts of three phase
circuits. Solution of balanced three phase star and delta connected networks
is dealt with in this chapter. The chapter also discusses the various methods
for measurement of three phase power. Chapter 6 exposes the student to
common electrical appliances and electrical engineering practices we come
across in day to day life. The chapter covers the topics of methods of
electrical wiring, choice of cables, simple wiring schemes, working
principle of fuses, principle of MCBs, earthing methods, common lighting
sources, estimation of energy requirement for simple loads, causes and
prevention of electric shocks. Finally, chapter 7 covers basic concepts of
electrical measurement. Moving coil and moving iron instruments ,
dynamometer wattmeter and energy meter are discussed in detail.
Part B is devoted to the treatment of Electrical Machines. Chapter1 presents

the fundamental concepts of electric machines. Chapter 2 deals
withdcgenerators. The construction, principle of operation and derivation of
induced emf are presented in detail. Chapter 3
vii viii Preface
deals with the operation, types and characteristics of dc motors. It also

covers the important topics of testing and speed control of dc motors.
Chapter 4 is devoted to transformers. The constructional features, operation,
phasor diagram, testing, computation of efficiency and regulation are
discussed in detail. Chapter 5 deals with three phase induction motors,
which are the most rugged and widely used in the industry. Chapter 6
presents three phase alternators. The construction, emf equation and
different methods of regulation are covered in detail. Chapter 7 covers
single phase induction motors. Chapter 8 gives the experimental procedure
for some of the common experiments conducted in electrical machines
laboratory.
All chapters are presented in a simple and lucid manner to facilitate an easy
understanding of the subject. Important concepts are highlighted to
emphasize the need to remember them. Every chapter contains a number of
solved examples to strengthen the learning of the student and help the
student, apply the concepts in various contexts. The examples presented
help the students to relate abstract concepts in Electrical Engineering to
practical applications which they see in their daily lives. Every chapter also
gives a number of questions and unsolved problems for the student to work
out. The book can be used as a text book for a course in Basic Electrical
Engineering, a fundamental course in Electric circuits and also for a basic
course in Electrical Machines.
Dr. K. Uma Rao
CONTENTS
Part I Circuits and Measurements 1
1 Basic laws 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Basic definitions 4
1.2.1 Charge 4
1.2.2 Current 4
1.2.3 Voltage 5
1.2.4 Power 6
1.2.5 Energy 7
1.3 Ohm’s law 7
1.3.1 Resistances connected in series 9
1.3.2 Resistances connected in parallel 9
1.3.3 Division of current in parallel branches 10
1.3.4 Voltage division in series circuit 11
1.3.5 Conductance G (The unit is mhos or Seimens) 12
1.4 Nodes, branches and loops 13
1.5 Kirchhoff’s laws 13
1.5.1 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) 14
1.5.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) 14
ix x Contents
2 Electromagnetism 45
2.1 Introduction 46
2.2 Magnetic force 46
2.2.1 Biot-Savart Law 47
2.2.2 Force on a current carrying conductor 48
2.2.3 Force between two current carrying conductors 50
2.2.4 Magnetic flux 50
2.3 Magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength 52
2.4 Reluctance 55
2.5 Comparison of magnetic and electric circuits 56
2.6 Composite magnetic circuits 56
2.6.1 Composite series circuits 57
2.6.2 Composite parallel circuits 58
2.7 Electromagnetic induction—Faraday’s law 64
2.7.1 Fleming’s right-hand rule 65
2.7.2 Lenz’s law 65
2.7.3 Dynamically induced emf 67
2.7.4 Statically induced emf 67
2.7.5 Self induced emf 67
2.7.6 Inductance 67
2.7.7 Mutually induced emf 68
2.7.8 Mutual inductance 69
2.8 Energy stored in magnetic field 72
2.9 Dot convention 73
2.10 Inductance in series 75
3 Methods of Circuit Analysis 87 3.1 Introduction 88

Contents xi
3.2 Circuit Elements 88

3.2.1 Voltage source 89
3.2.2 Current Source 90
3.2.3 Source transformation 92
3.3 Nodal analysis 96
3.4 Mesh analysis 105
3.5 Linearity 110
3.5.1 Homogeneity 111
3.5.2 Superposition 111
3.6 Superposition theorem 112
3.7 Thevenin’s theorem 116
3.7.1 Thevenin’s resistance 117
3.8 Norton’s theorem 123
3.9 Maximum power transfer theorem 126
3.10 Reciprocity theorem 135
3.11 Star-Delta Conversion 137
4 Single Phase ac Circuits 151

4.1 Introduction 152
4.2 Sinusoids 153
4.3 Phasors 156
4.3.1 Transformation of derivatives into phasor domain 159
4.3.2 Complex number representation 159
4.3.3 Mathematical operations with complex numbers 162
4.4 Effective or RMS value 165
4.4.1 Effective value of an arbitrary current 168
4.4.2 RMS value of a complex wave 169
xii Contents
4.5 Average value 170

4.5.1 Average value of a sine wave 170
4.5.2 Average value of an arbitrary current 170
4.6 Form factor 171
4.7 Crest factor or peak factor or amplitude factor 171
4.8 Voltage current relationship in circuit elements 176
4.8.1 AC through pure ohmic resistance 176
4.8.2 AC through a pure inductance 179
4.8.3 AC through a pure capacitor 181
4.9 Impedance and admittance 183
4.10 Series ac circuits 186
4.10.1 Series R-L circuit 187
4.10.2 Series R-C circuit 198
4.10.3 Series R-L-C circuit 203
4.10.4 Parallel circuits 206
5 Three phase circuits 233

5.1 Balanced three-phase voltage 235
5.2 Star-connected system 236
5.2.1 Star-connected voltages 236
5.2.2 Phase and line quantities in star-connected systems 238
5.2.3 Power in star connected systems 240
5.3 Delta-connected system 242
5.3.1 Phase and line quantities in delta-connected systems 242
5.3.2 Power in delta connected systems 244
5.4 Measurement of three phase power 251
5.4.1 Measurement with one wattmeter 251
Contents xiii
5.4.2 Measurement with two wattmeter method 252 5.4.3 Three wattmeter
method 256
6 Electrical Wiring and Estimation 265

6.2 List of Symbols 266
6.3 Supply Voltages 268
6.4 Service Connection 269
6.5 Interior wiring 270
6.5.1 Cleat wiring 270
6.5.2 Wood Casing Wiring 271
6.5.3 Batten wiring 271
6.5.4 Conduit wiring 272
6.5.5 Cable Specification 273
6.6 Guidelines for sub-circuits and fittings 275
6.7 Simple Wiring Schemes 275
6.7.1 Control with one switch 275
6.8 Two way control of lamps 277
6.9 Three way control of lamps 278
6.10 Lighting Sources 281
6.10.1 Incandescent lamp 281
6.10.2 Fluorescent lamp 282
6.10.3 CFL Bulbs 283
6.10.4 Light emitting diode 284
6.10.5 Comparison of different light sources 284
6.11 Fuses 285
6.11.1 Advantages and disadvantages of fuses 286
6.11.2 Desirable properties of a fuse element 287 6.11.3 Important terms
related to fuse 287 6.11.4 Types of fuses 289 6.12 Miniature circuit breaker
292 6.13 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) 294 6.14 Earthing 294
6.14.1 Earthing systems 296 6.14.2 Methods of earthing 298 6.14.3 Uses of
earthing 301 6.15 Computation of Energy consumed 301 6.15.1 Typical
power ratings for appliances 303 6.15.2 Standard sockets and plugs 303
6.15.3 BEE star rating 304 6.16 Electric Shock 306 6.16.1 First aid for
electric shock 307 6.16.2 Causes for leakage currents 307 6.16.3 Prevention
to be taken to prevent electrical shocks 308
7 Electrical Instruments 311

7.2 Classification of instruments 312
7.2.1 Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments 312
7.2.2 Absolute and secondary instruments 313
7.2.3 Indicating, recording and integrating instruments 313
7.3 Principles of operation 313
7.4 Essential operating forces in indicating instruments 314
7.4.1 Deflecting or operating torque 314
Contents xv
7.4.2 Controlling or restoring torque 314

7.4.3 Damping Torque 317
7.5 Ammeters and voltmeters 320
7.5.1 Types of ammeters and voltmeters 321
7.6 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil instruments (PMMC) 321
7.6.1 Construction 321
7.6.2 Deflecting torque in PMMC meters 322
7.6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of PMMC 323
7.6.4 Extension of range as an ammeter 323
7.6.5 Extension of range as a voltmeter 324
7.7 Moving iron instruments 328
7.7.1 Attraction type instruments 328
7.7.2 Deflecting torque in attraction type MI instruments 329
7.7.3 Repulsion type MI instruments 330
7.7.4 Advantages and disadvantages of MI instruments 331
7.7.5 Extension of range 331
7.8 Errors in meters 332
7.8.1 Errors in PMMC meters 332
7.8.2 Errors in MI meters 333
7.9 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter 333
7.9.2 Deflecting torque 334
7.10 Energy meter 338
7.10.2 Deflecting torque 339
7.10.3 Errors in energy meters 340
Part II Electric Machines 343
1 Introduction to Electric Machines 345

1.1 Electric Energy 346
1.2 Basic principles of electric machines 347
1.3 Basic types and constructional features 347
1.3.1 D.C. machines 348
1.3.2 Synchronous machines 348
1.3.3 Induction machines 349
1.3.4 Single phase a.c. motors 349
1.3.5 Transformers 349
1.4 Losses in Machines 350
1.4.1 Copper losses 350
1.4.2 Iron losses 350
1.4.3 Mechanical losses 350
2 DC Machines — Generators 353
2.2 Principle of working 355
2.3 Construction of a d.c. generator 356
2.3.1 Yoke 358
2.3.2 Armature core 358
2.3.3 Armature windings 359
2.3.4 Pole Core and Shoe 361
2.3.5 Field coil (winding) 362
2.3.6 Commutator 362
2.3.7 Brushes and bearings 362
2.4 E.m.f. equation of d.c. generator 363
Contents xvii
2.5 Types of d.c. generator 366

2.5.1 Separately excited generator 366
2.5.2 Self-excited generator 366
2.5.3 Shunt generator 367
2.5.4 Series generator 368
2.5.5 Compound generator 369
2.6 Losses in d.c. generator 378
2.6.1 Iron loss 378
2.6.2 Copper losses 379
2.6.3 Mechanical losses 379
2.7 Power stages and efficiency 380
2.8 Armature reaction 386
2.9 Generator characteristics 386
2.9.1 Magnetisation characteristics 386
2.9.2 Load characteristics of d.c. shunt generator 387
2.9.3 Load characteristics of d.c. series generator 389
2.9.4 Load characteristics of d.c. compound generator 391
2.9.5 Critical resistance of a shunt generator 391
2.9.6 O.C.C. at different speeds 393
2.10 Voltage build-up of shunt generator 397
2.11 Application of DC generators 398
3 DC Motors 401
3.2 Generator action in a motor 403
3.3 Condition for maximum power 404
3.4 Torque developed in a motor 405
xviii Contents
3.5 Motor characteristics 413

3.5.1 Types of d.c. motors 413
3.5.2 Characteristics of motors 413
3.5.3 Characteristics of shunt motor 414
3.5.4 Characteristics of dc series motor 416
3.5.5 Characteristics of d.c. compound motors 419
3.5.6 Performance curves of shunt motor 419
3.5.7 Performance curves of d.c. series motor 420
3.5.8 Applications of d.c. motors 421
3.6 Losses and efficiency of d.c. motors 421
3.7 Testing of d.c. motors 431
3.7.1 Brake test 432
3.7.2 Swinburne’s test 435
3.8 D.C. motor starters 440
3.8.1 Three point starter 441
3.8.2 Series motor starter 443
3.9 Speed control of d.c. shunt motors 444
3.9.1 Flux control 445
3.9.2 Armature control 445
3.10 Speed control of series motors 453
3.10.1 Flux control 453
3.10.2 Rheostatic control 454
4 Transformers 459
4.2 Working principle of a transformer 460
4.2.1 Transformer ratings 460
4.3 Transformer construction 461 4.3.1 Core-type transformers 461 4.3.2
Shell-type transformers 462 4.4 Single phase transformer 463 4.4.1 Ideal
transformer on no-load 464 4.4.2 E.M.F. equation 464 4.4.3 Voltage
transformation ratio 467 4.5 Transformer with resistance and magnetic
leakage (Practical transformer) 469 4.5.1 Phasor diagram of transformer on
no-load 470 4.5.2 Transformer on load 473 4.5.3 Phasor diagram on-load
474 4.5.4 Equivalent resistance and reactance 476 4.6 Equivalent circuit
485 4.6.1 Approximate equivalent circuit 486 4.7 Performance of
transformers 486 4.7.1 Efficiency of transformer 487 4.7.2 Regulation of a
transformer 488 4.8 Transformer tests 490 4.8.1 Open-circuit test or no-load
test 490 4.8.2 Short-circuit text 492
4.8.3 Predetermination of efficiency and regulation from OC and SC test

data 493
4.8.4 Condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer 495

4.8.5 Separation of core losses 496
4.9 All-Day Efficiency 513
4.10 Auto transformer 515
xx Contents
5 Three phase induction motors 519

5.2 Construction 520
5.2.1 Squirrel - Cage rotor 520
5.2.2 Wound rotor or phase-wound rotor 521
5.3 Production of rotating magnetic field 522
5.4 Principle of operation 525
5.5 Frequency of rotor current 526
5.6 Torque developed 529
5.6.1 Starting torque 529
5.6.2 Condition for maximum starting torque 531
5.6.3 Torque under running conditions 531
5.6.4 Condition for maximum torque under running conditions 532
5.6.5 Break down Torque 533
5.6.6 Full load torque 533
5.7 Torque-slip characteristics (or Torque-Speed Characteristics) 542
5.8 Power stages in an induction motor 543
5.8.1 Relationship between various power stages 545
5.8.2 Synchronous watt 549
5.9 Starting of induction motors 554
5.9.1 Direct-on-Line [DOL] starting 555
5.9.2 Stator rheostat starter or primary resistor starter 556
5.9.3 Auto transformer starter 557
5.9.4 Star-delta starter 559
5.9.5 Rotor rheostat control 559
5.10 Equivalent circuit of induction motor 565
5.11 Tests on induction motor 567 5.11.1 No-load test 567 5.11.2 Blocked
rotor test 568
6 Alternators 573
6.2 Construction 574
6.2.1 Stator frame 574
6.2.2 Stator core 575
6.2.3 Salient pole rotor 575
6.2.4 Non-salient pole or smooth cylindrical rotor 575
6.2.5 Damper windings 576
6.2.6 Armature windings 577
6.3 Advantages of stationary armature 580
6.4 Induced e.m.f. in an alternator 583
6.5 Alternator on load 589
6.5.1 Armature resistance and leakage reactance 589
6.5.2 Armature reaction 589
6.5.3 Synchronous reactance 590
6.5.4 Phasor diagrams of a loaded alternator 591
6.5.5 Voltage regulation 591
6.5.6 Regulation by direct loading 592
6.6 Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method 593
6.6.1 Open circuit test 593
6.6.2 Short circuit test 593
6.6.3 Computation of synchronous impedance 594
6.6.4 Computation of regulation 594
6.7 Synchronization 603
xxii Contents
7 Single Phase Induction Motors 607
7.2 Single Phase Induction Motor 608
7.2.1 Double field revolving theory 609
7.3 Split-phase induction motor 612
7.4 Capacitor-start motors 614
7.5 Capacitor run motors 615
7.6 Shaded pole motor 616
7.7 AC Servomotors 618
7.8 AC tachometer 621
7.9 Synchros 622
7.9.1 Applications of synchros 624
7.10 Stepper motors 625
7.10.1 Variable reluctance stepper motor 626
7.10.2 Permanent magnet stepper motor (PMSM) 629
7.10.3 Parameters affecting stepper motors 630
8 Lab Manual—Electrical Machines Lab 633

8.1 D.C. Shunt Motor 634
8.2 D.C. Shunt Generator 635
8.3 Three Phase Induction Motor 636
8.4 Alternator 637
8.5 Transformer 637
8.6 Loading Rheostats 638
8.7 General Precautions 638
Index 679
Part I
Circuits and Measurements
CHAPTER - 1
Basic Laws
Learning objectives
Electric circuit
Definitions of charge, current, voltage, power and energy Ohm's law
Equivalent of resistors in series Equivalent of resistors in parallel Current
division
Voltage division
Kirchhoff's laws
1.1. Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental
theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built.
Advanced branches such as machines, control systems, power systems,
electronics, communications etc are based on electric circuit theory. Hence,
basic electric circuit theory is most important for a beginner in electrical
engineering.
Lets begin with the definition of an electric circuit.

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
A simple circuit is shown in Fig. 1.1.
BatteryLamp
Figure 1.1 Simple electric circuit. We now define some fundamental
quantities.
1.2. Basic definitions

1.2.1. Charge
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter is

made up of. It is measured in coulombs (C). The law of conservation of
charge states that charges can be neither created or destroyed. Electrons have
negative charge, protons have positive charge and neutrons are electrically
neutral.
1.2.2. Current
Electric current is the time rate of charge, measured in amperes (A).
i = dq ; 1ampere = 1coulomb/second (1.1)dt
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
Ι Dc currents (voltages) are generally represented by uppercase letters (I/V)

t
Figure 1.2 DC current
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies with time and reverses its
direction. Most common is sinusoidal variation.
A current which varies with time, but does not reverse its direction is called
unidirectional current.
i(t) Ac currents (voltages) are generally represented by lower case letters

(i/v)
Figure 1.3 Sinusoidal current

1.2.3. Voltage
The voltage between two points a and b, Vab, is the work done in moving a
unit positive charge from a to b.
The voltage is also called potential difference. A constant voltage is called
dc voltage. A sinusoidal varying voltage is called ac voltage.
dw (1.2)V
ab dq
1.2.4. Power
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts.
dw dw × dq = VI (1.3)P =
dt dq dt
P = VI
The power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage

across the element and the current through it. The power absorbed is
positive, when the current flows from a point of higher potential to lower
potential. This is called passive sign convention.
Example 1.1 Determine the power in each of the following elements

(i)3A (ii)5A (iii)1A (iv)2A
++−−
4VElement 6V 2V 3V
−−++
Solution:
(i) Here the current flows from positive to negative terminal through the
element.
P = 4× 3 = 12W (element absorbs power)
(ii) Here the current flows from negative to positive terminal through the
element.
P = 6× (−5) =−30W (element supplies power) power absorbed=− power

supplied+
−power absorbed=+ power supplied
(iii) P = 2×−1=−2W (iv) P = 3× 2 = 6W

The algebraic sum of power in a circuit is zero, at any instant of time.
1.2.5. Energy
The capacity to do work is energy.
1.3. Ohm’s law
Materials in general resist the flow of electric charge. This physical property
is called the resistance of the material and is represented by R.
R = ρ l (1.4)
A
Where ρ is called the resistivity of the material, l is the length of the
conductor, A is the area of cross section of the conductor.
George Simon ohm (1787–1854), a German Physicist found out the
relationship between current and voltage.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it, if the temperature is maintained constant.
V ∝ I or
V = IR (1.5) The resistance R of the element is the ratio of the voltage to the
current through it.
R = V (1.6)I
In (1.5) the passive sign convention is used. In a resistor the current flows
from a point of higher potential to lower potential. The resistance can vary
from 0 to∞.
In a short circuit the resistance is zero. In an open circuit the resistance is∞.
When the temperature increases the resistance of pure metals increases. The
resistanceRt at a temperature t◦C, is given by
Rt = R0(1+ αt)
where R0 is the resistance at 0◦C, α is the temperature coefficient of
resistance and is equal to1 for copper.234.5
Limitations of ohm’s law
There are a number of circuit elements which do not obey ohm’s law. It fails
under the following conditions:
• V–I characteristic is not linear (example diode)
• The relationship between V and I depends on the sign of V for same
absolute value of V (example diode).
• The relationship between V and I is not unique. This means that for the
same value of current I, there is more than one value of voltage V as in the
SCR characteristic shown below.
V
V2 V1
I
• When V is not a constant. For example a filament lamp may have a cold
resistanceI
of 5 . But as current passes through it, it gets heated up and resistance
increases drastically.
• Another example of nonlinear current is conduction through gases.
• Devices where current decreases with increase in voltage. The device is

said to have negative resistance. Example tetrode, SCR and tunnel diode.
1.3.1. Resistances connected in series
Consider three resistances connected in series as shown in Fig. 1.4.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
V = R = R1 + R2 + R3 (1.7)
eq I
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 R2 R3 Reg Ι
V1
V2
++− −V3 ⇒Ι
V V + − + − Figure 1.4 Resistances in series.
The equivalent resistance of resistances connected in series is the sum of the
resistances.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
1.3.2. Resistances connected in parallel
Consider three resistances connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 1.5.
V + V + V = V1 +1 +1I = I1 + I2 + I3 =
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
I =1 =1 +1 +1 (1.8)
V Req R1 R2 R3
Ι1 R1
Ι2 R2
Ι3 R3 ReqΙ ⇒
Ι
V + V −+−
Figure 1.5 Resistances in parallel.

When resistances are connected in parallel
1 =1 +1 +1 Req R1 R2 R3
1.3.3. Division of current in parallel branches

Consider two resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel as shown in Fig.
1.6.
I
1
=
Vand I2 = V
R 1 R2 I1 = R2
I2 R1
I = I1 + I2 =⇒ I2 = I − I1 I1 = R2
I − I1 R1
I1(R1 + R2) = IR2
I
1
=
I
R1 + R2 R2 (1.9)
Similarly,
I
2
=
I
R1 + R2 R1 (1.10)
Ι1 R1
ΙΙ2 R2 V
+− Figure 1.6 Division of current.
1.3.4. Voltage division in series circuit
Consider two resistors connected in series as shown in Fig. 1.7.
V = V1 + V2 =⇒ V2 = V − V1 V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2 V1 = R1

V2 R2
V1 = R1 =⇒ V1(R1 + R2) = VR1V − V1 R2
V
1
=
V
R1 + R2 R1 (1.11)
Similarly,
V
2
=
V
R1 + R2 R2 (1.12)
+ V1 − + V2 −
Ι R1 R2
V
+ − Figure 1.7 Division of voltage.
1.3.5. Conductance G (The unit is mhos or Seimens)
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
G = 1 (mhos)R
The unit can also be Seimens (S). 1S = 1 .
Example 1.2 In the circuit of Fig. 1.8, calculate the currentI, voltageV,
conductance G and power P.
Ι
10V
+
+
V 1ΚΩ − −
Figure 1.8
Solution:
I = 10V = 10mA1K
V = 10V same as source voltage
G = 1 =1 = 1m (or 1mS)R 1K
Power P = VI = 10V× 10mA = 100mW
or
P = (I R)I = I2R = (10× 10−3)2 × 1× 103 = 100mW or
P
=
(V )
V= V 2 102
R R =1× 103 = 100mW
P
=
VI
=
I
2R = V 2
R 1.4. Nodes, branches and loops A network is an interconnection of

elements.
A branch is a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A loop is a closed path in a circuit.
In Fig 1.9, a,b,c,d are nodes. The network has 6 branches. The loops
areabda;bcdb; abcda;acdaandacba.
ba• •c
•d
Figure 1.9 Nodes, branches and loops.
1.5. Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s laws were introduced by the German physicist Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff (1824–1887).
1.5.1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a
node is zeroN
in = 0 (N = number of nodes)
(n=1)
Consider Fig. 1.10 where i1, i2, i5 enter the node and i3, i4 leave the node. If
we assume currents entering the node as positive we get
i1 + i2 + i5 − i3 − i4 = 0 or
i1 + i2 + i5 = i3 + i4 Stated in other way,
i3i2
i1
i4 i5
Figure 1.10 KCL.
The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving a node.
1.5.2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path is zero.
+V2− +V3 − +
− V1 V +
4
−
Figure 1.11 KVL.
How do we apply KVL? Start at a node in the loop and travel from one
element to another around the loop adding the voltages across the elements
with correct signs. Consider Fig. 1.11.
Lets consider a clockwise loop. Then KVL can be written as

V1 − V2 − V3 + V4 = 0
V1 + V4 = V2 + V3
In writing the above equations we took a voltage rise across the element as
positive and voltage drop as negative.
Example 1.3 Find V1 and V2 in Fig. 1.12.
4Ω
+ + 10V 5V
−−
1Ω
Figure 1.12 Example 1.3.
Solution: Assume direction of I. The voltage drop in the resistors is in the
direction of the current.
+V1 −
Ι 4Ω
10V 5 V V 2
1Ω
KVL
10 − V1 − 5− V2 = 0
V1 = I × 4; V2 = I × 1 ∴ 10− 4I − 5− I = 0
I = 1A
V1 = 4V
V2 = 1V
Example 1.4 Find the currents and voltages in Fig. 1.13.

V1 Ι1 Ι2
+ 8Ω− Ι3
30V
+
+ + 3Ω V3 V2 6Ω− − −
Loop 1 Loop 2
Solution:
V1 = 8I1; V2 = 6I2; V3 = 3I3 I1 = I2 + I3
KVL for loop 1:
30 − 8I1 − 3I3 = 0
30− 8I1 − 3(I1 − I2) = 0
30− 11I1 + 3I2 =0(i)
KVL for loop 2:
− 6I2 + 3I3 = 0
−6I2 + 3(I1 − I2) = 0
−9I2 + 3I1 = 0 (ii)
We solve (i) and (ii) for I1 and I2.

3A; I2 = 1AI1 =
I3 = I1 − I2 = 2A
V1 = 8I1 = 24V; V2 = 6I2 = 6V; V3 = 3I3 = 6V.
Example 1.5 Find the currents in the network of Fig. 1.14(a).
4Ω
Ι1 Ι Ι2 Ι 3 1 4Ω
6Ω 3Ω12V 2Ω12V
(a) (b)
Figure 1.14 Example 1.5
Solution: 6 3 = 2 . The network is reduced to Fig. 1.14(b)
I1 = 12 2A6 =
I1 divides into two parallel branches of 6 and 3 .
Using current division,
I2 = I1 ×6+ 3 = 2× 6 = 3A
I3 = I1 ×6+
64
9
32
3
9 3 = 2× = 3A
Example 1.6 In Fig. 1.15, determine the (i) voltageV0 (ii) the power
supplied by the current source (iii) power absorbed by each element.
+ 6ΚΩ
60mAv0 9ΚΩ 12ΚΩ −
Solution: 6k and 12k are in series. So circuit reduces to
I2
I1
+
60mA v 0 9ΚΩ 18ΚΩ −
The current source delivers a constant current to the network. 18 I1 = 60×9+
18 = 40mA
9 = 20mAI = 60×
2 27
(i) V0 = 9k × I1 = (9× 103) × (40× 10−3) = 360V. (ii) Power supplied by
current source
P = (60× 10−3)(360) = 21.6W.
(iii) Power absorbed by 9k resistor
P9K = I2 × 9K = (40× 10−3)2 × (9× 103) = 14.4W1
P6K = I2 × 6K = (20× 10−3)2 × (6× 103) = 2.4W2
P12K = I2 × 12K = (20× 10−3)2 × (12× 103) = 4.8W2
Power supplied by current source = 21.6W
Total power absorbed by the resistors = 21.6W.
power supplied = power absorbed.
Example 1.7 Find Req for the circuit of Fig. 1.16.
o 4Ω 1Ω
2ΩReq 5Ω
6Ω 3Ω
o 8Ω
Solution: To get Req, we combine the resistors in series and in parallel. The
circuit is reduced in stages as shown in Fig. 1.17(a) to 1.17(d). The
equivalent resistance
Req 4Ω2Ω Req 4Ω 6Ω 4Ω 6Ω 2Ω
(a) 8Ω (b) 8Ω
Req 4Ω 2.4ΩReq 14.4Ω
(c) 8Ω Figure 1.17

Example 1.8 Find Req of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.18.
10Ωac d1Ω 1Ω
Req 3Ω6Ω 12Ω 4Ω 5Ω

b bb Figure 1.18 Example 1.18.
Solution: 3 and 6 are in parallel because they are connected across the same
two nodesc andb. Similarly 12 and 4 are in parallel because they are
connected across the nodes d and b. The network is reduced as shown in Fig.
1.19. The equivalent resistance
oo
10Ω 1Ω 10Ω 1Ω Req 2Ω 3Ω 6Ω Req 2Ω 2Ω
o o (a) (b)
ooo
10Ω 10Ω
Req 2Ω 3ΩReq 1.2ΩReq 11.2Ω
o o o (c)
Figure 1.19
Example 1.9 Find the equivalent conductance of Fig. 1.20(a).
5S 5S
Req 6S 8S 12SReq 6S 20SReq 6S 4S
(a) (b) (c) Figure 1.20 Example 1.9.
Solution: 8S and 12S are in parallel. The net conductance is 8S + 12S =

20S. The network reduces to Fig. 1.20(b). Now 5S and 20S are in series.
There net conductance is given by
or
1 =1 +1 G G1 G2
G =G1G2 = 5× 20 = 4S.G1 + G2 25
The network reduces to Fig. 1.20(c).
Geq = 6S + 4S = 10S. (1.13)
Example 1.10 What is the value of resistance R if the voltage drop across
500 resistor is 2.5V in Fig. 1.21.
+ Ι1 3 Ι2 50Ω550ΩΙ
+
12V V R 500Ω −
− Figure 1.21
Solution: Voltage drop across 500 = 500× I2 = 2.5V.
∴ I2 = 2.5 = 5× 10−3A500
Voltage drop across 50 = I2 × 50 = 5× 10−3 × 50 = 0.25V
Using KVL, voltage drop across R = V = 2.5+ 0.25 = 2.75V. Voltage drop
across 550 = 12− 2.75 = 9.25V
I1 = 9.25 = 0.0168A550
I3 = I1 − I2 = 0.0168− 0.005 = 0.0118A
V =2.75 = 233 .R =
I3 0.0118
Example 1.11 A resistance of 10 is connected in series with two resistances

each of 15 arranged in parallel. What resistor must be shunted across this
combination so that the total current taken is 1.5A with 20V applied?
Solution: The network is shown in Fig. 1.22(a) and reduced to Fig. 1.22(b)
and then Fig. 1.22(c).
I1 =20 = 1.14286A17.5
I2 = 1.5− 1.14286 = 0.35714A
20 = 56R = 0.35714
15Ω
10Ω 10Ω 7.5Ω Ι1 17.5Ω 1.5A
R
15Ω
1.5A R ⇔1.5A Ι R
2
20V
−
20V 20 V + − + −+
(a) (b) (c) Figure 1.22 Example 1.11
Example 1.12 Two coils are connected in parallel across a 100V supply
main. They take a total of 10A from the line. The power dissipated in one
coil is 600W. What is the resistance of the other coil?
10A Ι1 R1, 600W Ι2 R2

100 V−+
Solution:
P
1
=
V
2 1002
=R1 = 600WR1
(
100
)
2
R1 =600 = 16.66
100 = 6AI1 =
16.66
I2 = 10− 6 = 4A
100 = 25 .R2 =
4
Example 1.13 Calculate the effective resistance of the network shown in
Fig. 1.24(a) and the voltage drop across each resistance if the potential
across AB is 60V.
ΑΒ 3Ω 18Ω 8Ω
6Ω
(a) 5Ω Figure 1.24
Solution: The network is reduced in steps as follows. Step 1:
ΑΒ 2Ω 18Ω 8Ω 5Ω
(b)
Here we have reduced the parallel combination of 3 and 6 .
Step 2:
Α Β 20Ω 8Ω
5Ω
(c)
Step 3:
Α Β (d) 4Ω 8Ω
Step 4:
Α Β (e) 12Ω
∴ Effective resistance = 12 .
Total current = 60 = 5A12
Drop across 8 = 5× 8 = 40V
(or we can calculate it as 60 ×8 = 40V)12

Drop across 4 = 20V.
Now 4 is parallel combination of 20 and 5 . (Step 2) Therefore drop across
each is 20V. 20 is series combination of 2 and 18 .
Drop across 18 18 = 18V= 20×20

Drop across 2 = 20− 18 = 2V
2 is parallel combination of 3 and 6 . So drop across each is 2V.
Thus
V8 = 40V; V18 = 18V; V5 = 20V; V3 = V6 = 2V. Example 1.14 Two resistors

of 100 and 200 are connected in series across a 4V cell of negligible internal
resistance. A voltmeter of 200 resistance is used to measure the potential
difference across each, what is the voltage reading in each case?
100Ω 200Ω (a) +4V − Figure 1.25

Solution: Connect voltmeter across 100 .
V1 200Ω
100Ω200Ω
(b)+ 4 V−
The network reduces to
V1
(c) + 66.67Ω 200Ω−4V
V1 = 4× 66.67 = 1V.266.67
Now connect voltmeter across 200 .
200Ω V2
100Ω 200Ω (d)+ 4V −
The network reduces to
V2 100Ω 100Ω (e) + 4V−
V2 = 4× 100 = 2V.200
Now lets see the actual voltage if we consider an ideal voltmeter.
V1 = 4× 100 = 1.33V300
4× 200 = 2.67VV2 =300
The error in the voltmeter reading is because of the low resistance of the
voltmeter. The voltmeters in general should have high resistance.
Example 1.15 A resistanceR is connected in series with a parallel circuit
consisting of two resistors 12 and 8 respectively. The total power dissipated
in the circuit is 70W, when the applied voltage is 20V. Calculate the
unknown resistanceR.
IR 12Ω 8Ω20V
Figure 1.26 Example 1.15. Solution:
Total power dissipated = I2Req = 70W.
V
2
I2Req =Req
(
20
)
2
∴ 70 =Req eq = 5.714 .=⇒ R
Now R
eq
=
R
+
(
12
8
)
=
R
+
12 × 8
12+ 8 = R + 4.8
R + 4.8 = 5.714
R = 0.914
Example 1.16 A current of 20A flows through two ammeters A and B

connected in series. The potential difference across A is 0.2V and across B is
0.3V. Find how the same current will divide if A and B are connected in
parallel.
Solution:
Resistance of ammeter 0.2 = 0.01 A = RA =20
Resistance of ammeter B = RB = 0.3 = 0.01520
When connected in parallel,
IA = IRA + RB 0.01+ 0.015 = 12A= 20×0.015RB
IB = 20− 12 = 8A
Example 1.17 If 20V is applied acrossA − B in Fig. 1.27. Calculate the total
current and the power dissipated in 5 resistor.
(a) 2Ω 3Ω (b)
4Ω 0.96Ω 2Ω
6Ω
8Ω 6Ω I5Ω5Ω
A B AB
Solution:
2||4||6||8 = 0.96 3||6 = 2 . The network reduces to 1.27(b). The
equivalent resistance is
5
||
(
0.96
+
2
)
=
5× 2.96 7.96
= 1.859
VAB = 20V
20 = 10.758AI =
1.859
V
2 202 Power dissipated in 5 resistor = = = 80W.
R 5
Example 1.18 Two batteries A and B are connected in parallel and a load of
10 is connected across their terminals. A has an emf of 12V and an internal
resistance of 2 . B has an emf of 8V and an internal resistance of 1 . Use
Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the values and directions of currents flowing
in all branches. Also determine the potential drop across the 10 resistor.
bc Ι1+ Ι2 d Ι1 Ι
−2 − + 2Ω 1Ω10Ω + + − 12 V 8V
afe Figure 1.28 Example 1.18.
Solution: The connections are shown in Fig. 1.28. We write KVL for the
loops abcfa and cdefc.
12− 2I1 + I2 − 8 = 0 (for loop abcfa) −(I1 − I2) × 10+ 8− I2 = 0 (for loop
cdefc). The two equations give us
2I1 − I2 = 4 10I1 + 11I2 = 8
Solving
I1 = 1.625; I2=−0.75A; I1 + I2 = 1.625− 0.75 = 0.875A
The voltage drop across the 10 resistor is
0.875× 10 = 8.75V.
Note:What does a negative current imply? It implies the actual direction of
current through the branch is opposite to what you have assumed.
Example 1.19 Find the current in all the branches of the circuit shown in
Fig. 1.29(a).
80A
60AA B60A Ι − 60
0.02Ω 0.01Ω0.02Ω Ι 0.01Ω 0.02Ω
0.02Ω
C 30A 60A 30A F 60A 0.01Ω
0.03Ω
0.01Ω
0.03Ω Ι−50 0.01ΩDΙ E Ι−120 (a)
70A
0.01Ω
(b)70A
Solution: The current in the various branches are as shown in Fig. 1.29(b).
The currents are marked using KCL at all the nodes. Applying KVL to the
loop we get,
0.02(I ) + 0.01(I − 60) + 0.03(I ) + 0.01(I − 120) + 0.01(I − 50) + 0.02(I −
80) = 0 0.1I = 3.9 =⇒ I = 39A.
From this, current in all the branches can be found.
Example 1.20 Determine the direction and magnitude of current flowing
through the milliammeter in Fig. 1.30(a).
AB
2V 2V −
4V
A
1Ω25Ω −A 1Ω25Ω 4V+ + I Ι− Ι1 + − Ι1 D 100ΩC(a) 100Ω (b)
Solution: Mark the nodes and currents as shown in Fig. 1.30(b). Writing
KVL for loop ACDA we get,
I1 × 1+ I × 100− 4 = 0
or
I1 + 100I =4(i)
KVL for loop ABCA gives
−2+ 25(I − I1) − I1 × 1 = 0 or 25I − 26I1 = 2 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) we get I = 0.03962A = 39.62mA I 1 = 0.03809A =

38.09mA
The current through the milliammeter is 38.09mA.
Example 1.21 A 20V battery with an internal resistance of 5 is connected

across a resistor ofx. If an additional resistor of 6 is connected across the
battery, find the value of x so that the external power supplied by the battery
remains the same.
Ι1 Ι2
5Ωx 5Ωx 6Ω
20V 20V
(a) (b)
Solution: The two cases are shown in Fig. 1.31(a) and (b). In Fig. 1.30(a) 20
I1 =
5+ xA
P
1
=
202
5+ xxW
In Fig. 1.31(b)
I2 =20 = 20(6+ x)A. 5
+
6x 11x + 30 6+ x
20(6+ x) 2 6xP2 = 11x + 30 6+ x External power supplied in both cases is same.
202 202(6+ x)6x 5+ xx = (11x + 30)2 (11x + 30)2 = 6(6+ x)(5+ x)2
which reduces to 6x2 − 25x − 150 = 0
±√625+ 3600= 25± 65= 7.5 and − 3.33x = 25
12 12 The negative value is discarded and we getx = 7.5 .
Example 1.22 Find the potential drop across AB for the circuit shown in
Fig. 1.32.
10V AΙ1
+ 5Ω− 10V 2V +Ι2
5Ω+ 2Ω
− 2Ω 10V4Ω 5V− 2Ω
6Ω 1ΩB Figure 1.32 Example 1.22 Solution: 20 = 1AI1 = 20
5 = 1AI2 =
5
VAB=−5I1 + 10− 4I1 − 2− 2I2 − 5− 1× I2 =−5+ 10− 4− 2− 2− 5− 1=−9V.
This means potential of B is at higher value by 9V compared to A. Note that
no current flows in the branch connecting the two loops. Example 1.23
What is the equivalent resistance betweenA and D in Fig. 1.33(a)
A,C
C 9Ω 9Ω 9Ω
A 9Ω B 9Ω 9Ω D
(a) (b) B,D
Solution: Notice that nodes A and C are connected, as also nodes B and D.
Therefore essentially all the three resistors are between same pair of nodes as
shown in Fig. 1.32(b).
Req = 9 = 3 .3
Example 1.24 When a resistor of 60 is connected to a battery, the terminal
voltage across the battery is 98.4V. When a resistor of 90 is connected, the
terminal voltage is 98.9V. Find the emf and resistance of the battery. What
resistance must be connected across its terminals to get a terminal voltage of
90V.
Ι1 Ι2 Ι r + r + 0.92Ω+ 98.4V 60Ω 98.9V 90Ω R 90V − E − 99.9V −E

(a) (b) (c) Figure 1.34 Example 1.24
Solution: The two cases are shown in Fig. 1.34(a) and (b). From (a)
I1 = 98.4 1.64A60 =
From (b)
I2 = 98.9 1.099A90 =
In (a) E − I1 × r − 98.4 = 0
or E − 1.64× r − 98.4 = 0
In (b) E − I2 × r − 98.9 = 0
or E − 1.099× r − 98.9 = 0
We solve the two equation to get E and r.
E = 99.9V r = 0.92 .
We next calculate the load resistance which would give a terminal voltage of
90V (Fig. 1.34(c)).
99.9− I(0.92) = 90
9.9 = 10.7A.I =
0.92
90 = 8.411 .R =
10.7
Example 1.25 Find V12, V23, V34 in Fig. 1.34.
3
20V
15V
· + − ·124
+ 30V−
Solution: V12 = V14 + V42 = 30+ (−15) = 15V V23 = V24 + V41 + V13 =
15− 30+ 20 = 5V V34 = V31 + V14=−20+ 30 = 05V
Note: In the double subscript notation,Vab is positive ifa is at higher
potential thanb;it is negative ifa is at lower potential.
Example 1.26 Find the currents in all branches of the network shown in Fig.
1.36(a).
B C 1−Ι B 1−Ι1+Ι2 4Ω C 1
4Ω+ − 1Α 2Ω
+
1Α3Ω
3Ω5Ω 2Ω − 5Ω
1Α 1Α Ι2 Ι1−Ι2O
1Ω A O Ι1 +1Ω − A (a) (b)
Solution: The branch currents are marked as shown in Fig. 1.36(b). We
write two loop equations to solve for the two unknown currentsI1 and I2.
Loop OBAO: − 2(1− I1) + 3I2 + I1 × 1 = 0 Loop BCAB: − 4(1− I1 + I2) +
5(I1 − I2) − 3I2 = 0 The two equations are,
3I1 + 3I2 = 2 and
9I1 − 12I2 = 4 solving we get
I1 = 0.5714A
I2 = 0.0952A
The currents in the various branches are,
IOA = I1 = 0.5714A; IAC = I1 − I2 = 0.4762A I OB = 1− I1 = 0.4286A; IBC =

1− I1 + I2 = 0.5238A I AB = I2 = 0.0952A
Example 1.27 Find Req of the network shown in Fig. 1.37(a).
Solution: The network is reduced as shown from Fig. 1.37(b) to 1.37(e). In

Fig. 1.37(b) 6 is 1.5 + 4.5 ;30 = 25 + 5 ;8 is 10 40 . Req = 1+ 2+ 12 = 15 .
Example 1.28 Find Rab in Fig. 1.38(a).

1Ω 14Ω4Ω 1.5Ω 1Ω 14Ω4Ω5Ω
Req 18Ω4.5Ω Req 30Ω 18Ω6Ω 25Ω40Ω
10Ω 2Ω 5Ω8Ω2Ω 5Ω
(a) (b)
1Ω 14Ω 1Ω 14Ω 1Ω Req 30Ω18Ω 4ΩReq 30Ω 6ΩReq 12Ω
2Ω 5Ω 2Ω 2Ω
(c) (d) (e)
Solution: We mark nodes as shown in Fig. 1.38(b). Note that nodes c and c
are the same node as also d and d . Therefore we have 25 ,60 and 50
connected in parallel between d and c as shown in Fig. 1.38(c)
Rab = 22.5 .
a ac b 2Ω 15Ω b 2Ω 15Ω 10Ω 10Ω 8Ω 8Ω
d′ d
20Ω 10Ω 20Ω 40Ω10Ω30Ω 40Ω 30Ω
(a) c(c′)(b) c′
aa
2Ω 50Ω2Ω
25Ω50Ω 12.5Ω 8Ωb 8Ω
(c) b d(d′)(d)
Example 1.29 Find Rab in Fig. 1.39.

dc
a RRb
Solution: Nodesa andc are same as alsob andd. Hence, all the resistors are
connected between a and b. Hence, total resistance Rab = R as the three
resistors are in parallel.3
Example 1.30 Find VAB in Fig. 1.40.
+
10Ω 30Ω
−
Ι1 Ι
2 10V + A B −
20Ω 40Ω
Solution: I1 = 10 = 0.333A30
10= 0.1428AI2 =70
We now write KVL.
−10I1 − VAB + 30I2 = 0 VAB=−10I1 + 30I2 = 0.954V
Questions
(1) State Ohm’s law.

(2) State Kirchhoff’s laws.
(3) Define current and voltage.
(4) Calculate the total circuit conductance, resistance and all branch currents
in network of Fig 1.41.
Ι1 0.1Ω 0.4Ω
Ι2 0.2Ω12A
Ι3 0.3Ω
Figure 1.41
Ans: G = 0.24 ; R = 4.167 ; I1 = 2A; I2 = 4A; I3 = 6A. (5) Find RAB, RCD,
REF, RAF, RAC in Fig. 1.42.
A CE
2Ω 6Ω 4Ω
1Ω 2Ω
BDF
Figure 1.42
Ans: RAB = 5 ; RCD = 1.5 ; REF = 1.5 ; RAF = 5 ; RAC = 4 ;6 6 3 (6) Find V0
and I0 in Fig. 1.43
70ΩΙ 30Ω Ο50V+
− + 20Ω V0 5Ω −
Figure 1.43
Ans: 8V, 0.2A. (7) Find the equivalent resistance of the network and the
currentI in Fig. 1.44.
Ι 3Ω 2Ω 1Ω V+ 4Ω 6Ω 2Ω10
−
Figure 1.44
Ans: Req = 5 ; I = 2A.
(8) Find v, i, and power absorbed by 4 resistor in Fig. 1.45.
5Ω+ 4Ωi + V 10Ω 6Ω 20V− −
Figure 1.45 Ans: 10V, 1A, 4W
(9) Find v and i in Fig. 1.46.
i
+ 4S 6S v 1S 2S 3S9A
−
Figure 1.46 Ans: 3V, 6A

(10) If V0 = 4V, findR in Fig. 1.47.
20V
+
16Ω+ 6Ω R V0− −
Figure 1.47 Ans: 12 .
(11) Find Rab of Fig. 1.48.
a 2Ω 4Ω 5Ω b
5Ω 3Ω 10Ω 8Ω 4Ω
Figure 1.48
Ans: 5.818 .
(12) Find R in Fig. 1.49.
2Ω 8Ω
2.25A 5Ω R
+ 10V−
Figure 1.49
Ans: R = 3
(13) If a voltmeter with an internal resistance of 50K is used to measure V1
and V2,in Fig. 1.50 what would be the readings? They are measured one at a
time.
2.5kΩ 4kΩ +
V
1 − +V2 −
100V Figure 1.50
Ans: V1 = 37.3V; V2 = 59.7V (14) Find VXY in Fig. 1.51.
X
2Ω4V
2V3Ω 3Ω5Ω 4V
Y Figure 1.51
Ans: VXY=−3.7V
(15) The current through a battery is 48.3mA when a resistor of 25 is
connected across
its terminals and 25.9mA. When a resistor of 50 is connected. What is its
internal
emf E and the internal resistance r?
(1) Ans: E = 1.39r; r = 40 .
(16) Find Req in Fig. 1.52.
30Ω10Ω5Ωo
R
20Ω
eq 25Ω 60Ω 15Ω 10Ωo
Figure 1.52 Ans: 32.5

(17) Find Vab and I in Fig. 1.53.
−+
5Ω
+30V
Ι 3Ω 10V
+ + 8V− Vab −−
Figure 1.53 Ans: Vab = 28V; I = 4A.
(18) Determine the power absorbed by the 12 resistor in Fig. 1.54.
1Ω 1.2Ω
6Α 2Ω 4Ω 8Ω 12Ω
3Ω 6Ω
Figure 1.54
Ans: 1.92W
(19) Three bulbs are connected in series as shown in Fig. 1.55. What is the
current I?
Ι
30W 40W 50W 100V +
−
Figure 1.55
Ans: 1.2A
(20) Determine I in Fig. 1.56
I−+
5V 15Ω 25Ω
+ + 5V5V− −
5Ω
Figure 1.56 Ans: i = 111mA.
CHAPTER - 2
Electromagnetism
Learning objectives
Magnetic flux lines
Force on current carrying conductor Biot Savart's law
Magnetomotive force
Permeability and relative permeability Reluctance
Comparison of electric circuits
and magnetic circuits
Composite series magnetic circuits Leakage coefficient
Electromagnetic induction
Faraday's laws
Lenz law
Dynamically and statically induced emf Self and mutual inductance
Coefficient of coupling
Energy in a magnetic field
45
2.1. Introduction
We use magnetic forces in a number of applications. They are at the heart of

electric motors, TV picture tubes, microwave ovens, loudspeakers, computer
printers and disk drives. We are most familiar with permanent magnets that
attract unmagnetized iron objects and attract or repel other magnets. A
compass needle aligning itself with the earth’s magnetism is an example of
this interaction.
Magnetic phenomenon was first observed around 2500 years ago in

fragments of magnetized iron ore found near the ancient city of Magnesia
(which is now in western Turkey). These fragments are permanent magnets.
If a bar-shaped permanent magnet, is free to rotate, one ends point north.
This end is called the north pole or N pole; the other end is a south pole or S
pole. Opposite poles attract each other and like poles repel. It is important to
note that isolated magnetic monopoles do not exist. When a magnet is cut,
we get two magnets each with a N-pole and a S-pole. These interactions are
described in terms of magnetic field in the space around the magnet. The
magnetic field is simply the area around a magnet, where the magnetic force
is experienced.
Michael Faraday visualized the magnetic field as being made up of

imaginary lines of force called the magnetic flux lines. Each line of magnetic
flux forms a closed loop, emerging from a point at the N-pole and ending at
the S-pole as shown in Fig. 2.1. The flux lines never intersect.
NS
Figure 2.1 Magnetic flux lines.
We will discuss the phenomenon of magnetism and electromagnetism in
detail in the subsequent sections.
2.2. Magnetic force
The magnetic field is a vector field–it has a specific direction at each point in
space. The symbol B is used for magnetic field. B is also called the magnetic
flux density.
Coloumb first determined experimentally the quantitative expression for the

magnetic force between two isolated poles. In reality magnetic poles cannot
exist in isolation. Thus, the concept is purely theoretical. However, poles of
a long thin magnet may be assumed to be isolated poles. The force between
two magnetic poles placed in a medium is
(i) directly proportional to their pole strengthsm,

(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distanced between them (iii)
inversely proportional to the absolute permeability of the medium.
F
∝
m1m2or F = Km1m2 µd2 µd2
In SI system of units the value of K is

1 4π
F
=
m1m2 = m1m2
4πµ0µrd2N (2.1)4πµd2
where m1, m2 are the pole strengths, d is the distance in m, µ0 is
permeability of free space = 4π × 10−7H/m, µr is relative permeability of the
medium.
Thus, theoretically a unit magnetic pole may be defined as that pole which
when placed in vaccum at a distance of one meter from a similar and equal
pole repels it with a force of
1
4πµ0N. Oersted discovered in 1820 that a magnetic field is produced around a
current carrying conductor.
2.2.1. Biot-Savart Law
The expression for the magnetic field dB produced at a pointP by an

elemental lengthdl of a conductor carrying a current ofI amperes is given by
Biot-Savart’s law. Referring to Fig. 2.2.
d
B
=
µI dl sinθWb/m2 4πr2
or
dB = µI dl ×rWb/m2 (2.2)4πr2
I
dlar
θ P Figure 2.2 Biot-Savart’s law.
where ar is the unit vector along lines joiningdl toP. The direction ofdB is
perpendicular to the plane containing both dl and ar. The field at a distance r
due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying a current I amperes is
given by
B = µI Wb/m2.2πr
The flux lines are in the form of concentric circles around the conductor. If
the conductor is held with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current,
the encircling fingers give the direction of the magnetic field.
2.2.2. Force on a current carrying conductor
It was further observed that another current carrying conductor experiences a

force when placed in the field. Now we can recollect that current is nothing
but flow of electrons (charges!). Thus magnetic fields are produced by
moving charges (current carrying conductor) and exert a force on moving
charges. The characteristics of this magnetic force on a moving charge are as
follows:
• Its magnitude is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

• The magnitude of the force is proportional to the magnitude or strength of
the field.
• The magnetic force depends on the particle’s (charge’s) velocity v. This is

different from the electric field force which is the same whether the charge is
moving or not. A charged particle at rest experiences no magnetic force.
• By experiment it is found that the force is always perpendicular to both the

magnetic field B and the velocity v.
The above characteristics can be put compactly as,
F = qv × B (2.3)
Similarly the force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a

magnetic field is found to be proportional to the magnetic field B, the current
I and the length of the conductor and is perpendicular to the field and the
length of the conductor. Thus,
F = I l × B (2.4) Since, the direction of the conductor, fixes the direction of

the current (in space) (2.4) is more commonly written as
F = lI × B (2.5)
Let F be the force in Newtons,I the current in amperes andl the length of the
conductor in meters, at right amperes to the magnetic field. Then the
magnetic fieldB or flux density is the density of a magnetic field such that a
conductor carrying a current of 1 ampere at right angles to the field has a
force of 1 newton per meter acting upon it. The unit is Tesla (T), after the
scientist Nikola Tesla. The force on a current carrying conductor is given by,
F = lI B sinθ (2.6)
where θ is the angle between the magnetic field and the current carrying
conductor. Thus a current carrying conductor experiences a force in the
presence of a magnetic field. This principle is used in all electric motors.
The direction of the force may be found from Fleming’s left-hand rule as
shown in Fig. 2.3.
force F
magnetic
field B
current I
left hand
Figure 2.3
Hold out your left hand with the fore finger, middle finger and thumb at right
angles to each other. If the fore finger represents the direction of the field
and the middle finger the direction of the current, the thumb gives the
direction of the force on the conductor. From (2.5) it is obvious that no force
is exerted on the conductor when it is parallel to the magnetic field (θ = 0◦).
2.2.3. Force between two current carrying conductors

Consider two conductors carrying currents I1 andI2 respectively, separated
by a distance of dm. The force between the conductors is attractive if the
currents flow in the same direction and repulsive if the currents flow in
opposite directions. Let us consider the force on the second current due to
the first. The field produced by conductor 1 is given by
µI1
B=
2πdT
The force experienced by conductor 2, from (2.5) is given by
F = µlI2I1 N2πd
or the force per unit length is given by
F = µI1I2 N/m.2πd
2.2.4. Magnetic flux
For a magnetic field having a cross-sectional area Am2 and a uniform flux
density of B Teslas, the total flux in Webers (Wb) passing through a plane at
right angles to the flow is given by
φ = BA
(Webers) = (Tesla)× (m2)
or
B = φ (2.7)A
Hence the unit of B is also Wb/m2
1Tesla = 1Wb/m2
Example 2.1 A conductor carries a current of 500A at right angles to a

magnetic field having a density of 0.4T. Calculate the force per unit length
on the conductor. What would be the force if the conductor makes an angle
of 45◦ to the magnetic field?
Solution: F = lI × B = lI B sinθ When conductor is at right angles to the

magnetic field,θ = 90◦.
F = (1m)(500A)(0.4T) = 200N/m.
When θ = 45◦,
F = (1m)(500A)(0.4T) × sin 45◦ 141.42N/m.=
Example 2.2 A rectangular coil 100mm by 150mm is mounted so that it
rotates about the mid points of the 150mm sides. The axis of rotation is at
right angles to a magnetic field with a flux density of 0.02T. Calculate the
flux in the coil when
(i) Maximum flux links with the coil. What is the position at which this
occurs? (ii) The flux through the coil when the 150mm sides make an angle
of 30◦ to the direction of flux.
Solution:
(i) This is shown in Fig. 2.4(a). The maximum flux passes through the coil
when the plane of the coil is at right angles to the direction of the flux.
φ = BA = 0.02× (100× 10−3) × (150× 10−3) = 0.3mWb.
axis of rotation
30° 0.02T 0.02T (a) (b)
(ii) This is shown in Fig. 2.4(b).
φ = BAsinθ = (0.3× 10−3) × sin 30◦ 0.15mWb.=
2.3. Magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength
The magnetic flux is present in a magnetic circuit due to the existence of a

magnetomotive force (mmf), caused by a current flowing through one or
more turns. It is analogous to emf in an electric circuit which is responsible
for the electric current.
mmf = NI (2.8)
whereN is the number of turns.N is a dimensionless quantity. Hence, the unit
of mmf is actually Ampere, though more commonly the unit is said to be
ampere-turns (AT).
Consider a coil as shown in Fig. 2.5. If the magnetic circuit is homogeneous

and has a uniform cross sectional area, the mmf per metre length of the
magnetic circuit is called the magnetic field strength H.
H = NI AT/m (2.9)l
The unit of H in SI units is A/m.
The ratioB/H is the permeability, µ0, in free space
µ0 = B (2.10)H
N turns
Figure 2.5 Coil with N turns on a toroid.
This value is almost same when the conductor is placed in free space, air or
in any other non-magnetic material like water, wood, oil etc.
µ0 = 4π × 10−7H/m (2.11)
For magnetic materials,
H
=
B
µ
µ = µ0µr (2.12) where µr is the relative permeability.
The relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the flux density produced
in a material to the flux density produced in vacuum by the same magnetic
field strength. The relative permeability of non-magnetic materials is close
to 1. The relative permeability of magnetic materials is very high, as shown
in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Relative permeability of magnetic materials. Material µr
Application
Ferrite U60
Ferrite M33
Nickel (99% pure) Ferrite N41
Ferrite T38
Silicon steel
8 UHF chokes
750 Resonant circuit RM cores 600
3,000 Power circuits
10,000 Broadband transformers 40,000 Dynamos, mains transformer
When working with non magnetic materials, the permeability is close to µ0,
making it difficult to characterize them by permeability. We make use of
magnetic susceptibility defined as
ψm = µr − 1 (2.13)
Example 2.3 A coil of 100 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring
having a mean circumference of 500mm and a uniform cross sectional area
of 500mm2. If the current through the coil is 2.0A calculate
(i) the magnetic field strength

(ii) the flux density
(iii) the flux
(iv) mmf
Solution:
(i) Mean circumference = 500mm = 0.5m.
H = NI = 100× 2 = 400AT/m or A/ml 0.5
(ii) B = µ0H = 4π × 10−7 × 400 = 502.65µT (iii)
φ = BA = 502.65× 10−6 × 500× 10−6 = 0.2513µWb
(iv) mmf = NI = 100× 2 = 200AT.
Example 2.4 Calculate the mmf required to produce a flux of 0.01Wb across
an airgap 2mm long, having an effective area of 100cm2.
Solution: A = 100cm2 = 100× 10−4 = 0.01m2
0.01 = 1TB = φ =
0.01A
H
=
B= 1
4π × 10−7 AT/mµ0
l = 2mm = 2× 10−3m
2
×
10
−3
mmf = H × l =4π × 10−7 = 1591.55AT
2.4. Reluctance
Consider the toroid shown in Fig. 2.5, with a cross-sectional area A m2 and a
mean circumference of l metres, with N turns carrying a current I amperes.
We know
φ = BA mmf = Hl
∴
φ = BA = µ µ0A mmf Hl l or
r
φ
=
mmf = mmf l/µrµ0A S where
l
S= µ0µrA(2.14) S is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and is indicative of
the opposition of a magnetic circuit to creation of magnetic flux through it.
From (2.14) we can write
mmf = φS (2.15)
similar to Ohm’s law. Unit of S is AT/Wb. It is analogous to resistance in

electric circuits. The reciprocal of reluctance is called the permeance of the
magnetic circuit. Its unit is Wb/AT. It is analogous to conductance in electric
circuits.
2.5. Comparison of magnetic and electric circuits

Table 2.2 gives the analogous quantities between electric circuits and
magnetic circuits.
Table 2.2 Comparison of magnetic and electric circuits. Magnetic circuit
Electric circuit 1 φ-Flux (Webers)
2 B-Flux density (Wb/m2)
3l (At/Wb)S-Reluctance =µ0µrA
4 1 (Wb/AT)P-Permeance =S
5 mmf = φS (AT)
6 Permeability (µ)
1 7 Reluctivityµ
I-Current (Amperes)
J-Current density (A/m2)
ρl(Ohms)R-Resistance =A
G-Conductance =1 (mhos)R
emf = IR (Volts)
Conductivity (σ)
Resistivity (ρ)
There are however some differences between electric circuits and magnetic
circuits:
• The flux does not flow through the magnetic circuit like the current does in
an electric circuit.
• In electric circuits if the temperature is maintained a constant, the

resistance is a constant and independent of the current. In a magnetic circuit,
the reluctance depends on the flux established through it. The reluctance is
small for small values ofB and larger for larger values of B. This is because
the B–H curve is not a straight line.
• Flow of electric current requires continuous expenditure of energy but in a

magnetic circuit energy is expanded only in creating the magnetic flux but
not in maintaining it.
• A magnetic circuit stores energy in its field, while an electric circuit
dissipates its energy as heat.
2.6. Composite magnetic circuits

We will now discuss composite magnetic circuits; circuits connected in
series and parallel.
la
l1
l2
Figure 2.6 Composite series magnetic circuit.
2.6.1. Composite series circuits
Consider the composite circuit of Fig. 2.6, made up of two different sections
in series and an air gap. Each section is made of a different material and has
its own reluctance. The total reluctance is sum of the individual reluctances
ST = S1 + S2 + Sa
=
µ0µr1A1
l
1
+
µ0µ
l2 la (2.16) 2A2 + µ0A
r a
mmf (2.17)=
ST
To find the ampere-turns or the total mmf,
• Find the H of each section using
H = B (if it is air gap)µ0
B (for magnetic material)=
µ0µr
Find the mmf (AT) for each section by•
AT = Hl
Add these ampere-turns to get the total ampere turns. (Similar to adding
emf’s in series!)•
2.6.2. Composite parallel circuits Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.7(a).
I/2I I/2 φ/2 φ/2+ R V R
φ−
(a) (b) Figure 2.7 Parallel magnetic circuit.
It consists of two parallel paths. The flux produced by the central core
divides into two paths. The reluctance is given by
S
1
S
2
=
S
S1S2 . The analogous electric circuit is 1 + S2given in Fig. 2.7(b).
It is not possible to confine all the flux to the iron path only, unlike in an
electric circuit where the current path is confined to the conductor, since air
around it is a perfect insulator. However, air is not a perfect magnetic
insulator. Therefore, some flux leaks through the air. This is called leakage
flux. The total flux= useful flux+ leakage flux. It is characterized by the
leakage coefficient.
Leakage coefficient λ =total flux (2.18)leakage flux
Leakage flux is undesirable as it increases the weight and cost of electric

machines. Its value lies between 1.1 and 1.25 in modern electric machines.
Fringing is the phenomenon where the flux spreads out at the edges of the
air gap. It leads to an increase in the effective area of the air gap, as shown in
Fig. 2.8.
Example 2.5 A ring has a mean diameter of 20cm and a cross-sectional area
of 10cm2. It is made up of semicircular sections of cast iron and cast steel,
with relative permeabilities of 800 and 166 respectively. Each joint is having
a reductance equal to an air gap of 0.15mm. Find the ampere turns required
to produce a flux of 0.6mWb.
Leakage flux
Iron ringFringing
Flux lines (useful flux)
Air gap Figure 2.8 Leakage flux and fringing.
Solution: The circuit is shown in Fig. 2.9.
φ = 0.6× 10−3Wb A = 10× 10−4m2 0.6
×
10
−3
B = φ =10× 10−4A
= 0.6Wb/m2
Cast iron
20cm
0.15mm air gap
Cast steel
Air gap
H
=
B = 0.6
5
4π × 10−7 = 4.77× 10 AT/mµ0
Total air gap length = 0.15+ 0.15 = 0.3mm
= 0.3× 10−3m
AT required to set up flux in air gap = Hl

= 4.77× 105 × 0.3× 10−3 = 143.1AT
Cast iron section H =µ0µr 4π × 10−7 × 800 = 596.83AT/m=0.6B

length of the path
=
πr = πD= π × 20× 10−2 2 2 = 0.314m AT required = Hl = 596.83× 0.314 =
187.41AT
Cast steel section H =µ0µr 4π × 10−7 × 166 = 2876.29AT/m=0.6B
length of the path = πD = 0.314m2
AT required = 2876.29× 0.314 = 903.16AT Total AT required = 143.1+
187.41+ 903.16 = 1233.67AT.
Example 2.6 A mild steel ring having a cross sectional area of 600mm2 and
a mean circumference of 500mm has a coil of 300 turns wound uniformly
around it. Calculate
(i) the reluctance of the ring

(ii) the current required to produce a flux of 800µWb in the ring, if the
relative permeability is 400.
Solution:
(i) l
500
× 10
−3
S = µ0µrA = 4π × 10−7 × 400× 600× 10−6 6AT/Wb= 1.658× 10
(ii) mmf = φ × S
= 800× 10−6 × 1.658× 106 = 1326.4AT
I = mmf = 1326.4 = 4.42AN 300

Example 2.7 A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series as follows:
(a) A length of 60mm with a cross section area of 50mm2
(b) A length of 30mm with a cross section area of 80mm2
(c) An air gap of length 0.3mm and cross section area of 150mm2.
A coil of 2500 turns is wound on part (b) and the flux density in air gap is
0.3T. Assuming that there is no leakage, and the relative permeabilityµr =
1500, estimate the current required in the circuit to produce the flux density.
Solution:
φ = BcAc = 0.3× 150× 10−6 = 45× 10−6Wb
Fa = mmfa = φSa =45× 10−6 × 60× 10−3φla =4π × 10−7 × 1500× 50× 10−6µ0µrAa
= 28.6AT
φl
b
=
45
×
10
−6 × 30× 10−3 F = mmf = φS =
b b b µ0µrAb 4π × 10−7 × 1500× 80× 10−6 = 8.95AT φl
c
=
45
×
10
−6 × 0.3× 10−3 Fc = mmfc = φSc =µ0µrAc 4π × 10−7 × 1× 150× 10−6
= 71.62AT
F = Fa + Fb + Fc = 28.6+ 8.95+ 71.62 = 109.17AT
I = F = 109.17 0.04367A = 43.67mA.N 2500 =
(* Note the large mmf required to set up the flux through air gap as
compared to a magnetic material.)
Example 2.8 A wooden ring has a circular cross section of 200 sq mm and a
mean diameter of 200mm. It is uniformly wound with 600 turns. If the µr =
1, find (1) the field strength produced by a current of 2A (ii) magnetic flux
density (iii) current required to produce a flux density of 0.015Wb/m2.
Solution: (i)
mmf = NI = 600× 2 = 1200AT
Mean length = πd = π × 200× 10−3 = 0.628m
H = NI = 1200 = 1910.83AT/ml 0.628
(ii)
B = µ0µrH = 4π × 10−7 × 1× 1910.83 = 2.4× 10−3Wb/m2
(iii) The flux density is proportional to the current. A current of 2A produces

0.0024Wb/m2. Therefore current required to produce 0.015Wb/m2 is
Example 2.9 A magnetic core in the form of a closed circular ring has a
mean length of 20cm and a cross sectional area of 1cm2. The relative
permeability of the material is 2200. What current is needed in the coil of
2000 turns wound uniformly around the ring to create a flux of 0.15mWb in
the iron? If an air gap of 1mm is cut through the core in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of this flux, what current is now needed to
maintain the same flux in the air gap?
2× 0.015
= 12.5A.0.0024
Solution: Reluctance of core
l
20
× 10
−2
S= µ0µrA = 4π × 10−7 × 2200× 1× 10−4 = 723431.5 AT/Wb
−3Wbφ = 0.15× 10
mmf = φS = 0.15× 10−3 × 723431.5 = 108.5AT mmf = NI
I = mmf = 108.5 = 0.05425AN 2000

1
×
10
−3
Reluctance of 1mm air gap =4π × 10−7 × 1× 1× 10−4 = 7957747.1 AT/Wb
mmf required to set up flux in air gap = 0.15× 10−3 × 7957747.1 =
1193.66AT Total mmf = 108.5+ 1193.66
= 1302.16AT
Current required = 1302.16 = 0.65108A2000
Example 2.10 An iron ring of mean diameter 20cm, having a cross section
area of 3 sq cm is required to produce a flux of 0.45mWb. Ifµr = 1800 find
the mmf required. If an air gap of 1mm is made in the ring, how many extra
ampere turns are required to maintain the same flux?
Solution:
Length of the mean path = πd = π × 0.2
= 0.6283m
φ = 0.45× 10−3Wb
B = φ/A = 0.45× 10−3/3× 10−4 = 1.5Wb/m2
B =4π × 10−7 × 1800 = 663.154AT/mH =1.5
µ0µr
mmf = Hl = 663.154× 0.6283 = 416.65AT
An air gap of 1mm will need extra mmf.
H
g
=
Bg = 1.5 4π × 10−7µ0
mmf
=
H
g
×
l
g
=
1.5× 1× 10−3 4π × 10−7 = 1, 193.66AT
So additional mmf required when a 1mm air gap is cut is 1,193.66AT.
2.7. Electromagnetic induction—Faraday’s law
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic
induction.Twoof his experiments are well known. The first experimental
setup is shown in Fig. 2.10(a).
S
A B G SNG
(a) (b) A Figure 2.10 Electromagnetic induction.
Two coils A and B are wound on a steel ring. Faraday found that when the
switch S was closed, the galvanometer G deflected. Further, when the switch
was opened G deflected in the reverse direction.
The second experiment is as shown in Fig. 2.10(b). When a permanent

magnet N-S was moved relative to coil A, the galvanometer G deflected in
one direction, as the magnet was moved towards the coil. The direction
reversed as the magnet was moved away from the coil.
From these two experiments Faraday inferred that an electric current is

produced by the movement of magnetic flux relative to a coil. Further
experiments showed that the induced e.m.f. in the coil is proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux. Thus Faraday’s law can be stated as
follows:
First law: Whenever the magnetic flux linking with a conductor (coil)
changes an emf is induced in it.
Second law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkages.
This phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil by changing the magnetic

flux linking with it is called electromagnetic induction.
The direction of this induced emf can be found out from Fleming’s right-
hand rule or by Lenz’s law.
2.7.1. Fleming’s right-hand rule
The forefinger, middle finger and the thumb of the right hand are stretched
to point in three mutually perpendicular directions. Now if the forefinger is
pointed in the direction of the flux, the thumb in the direction of motion of
the conductor relative to the magnetic field, the middle finger represents the
direction of the induced emf, as shown in Fig. 2.11.
2.7.2. Lenz’s law
Heinrich Lenz, in 1834, stated that the direction of the induced emf is always
such that it tends to set up a current opposing the motion or the change of
flux responsible for inducing the emf. If the flux is decreasing, the current
will flow so that its field adds to the original flux. If the flux is increasing,
the current will flow the opposite way. Note that it is only the change in flux
the induced current opposes-not the flux itself.
Magnetic Motion of the conductor field Thumb

Forefinger
Induced current
Middle finger
Figure 2.11 Fleming’s right hand rule.
Consider a coil of N turns. Let the flux linking the coil change fromφ1 Wb
toφ2 Wb int seconds. Now,
Initial flux linkage ψ1 = Nφ1 Wb turns Final flux linkage ψ2 = Nφ2 Wb turns
emf induced, Nφ2 − Nφ1volts e =t
=
N(φ2 − φ1) t
The above relationship can be written as

e = Ndφ = dψ volts (2.19)
dt dt
To incorporate Lenz’s law we often writee =−Ndφ , meaning the induced emf
is set updt
in a direction such that it opposes the rate of change of flux.
The emf can be induced in two ways
(i) Dynamically induced emf (or motional emf) (ii) Statically induced emf
(or transformer emf)
2.7.3. Dynamically induced emf
The emf induced in a conductor when there is relative motion between the
conductor and the magnetic field is called dynamically induced emf. This is
the principle used in all electric generators. It is also called motional emf, as
there is relative motion between conductor and field.
2.7.4. Statically induced emf
When an ac voltage is applied to a coil, an alternating current flows through

the coil, producing a time varying flux. Hence, an emf is induced in the coil,
called the statically induced emf. It is also called transformer emf.
Induced emf can also be classified as

(i) Self induced emf
(ii) Mutually induced emf.
2.7.5. Self induced emf
Consider a coil of N turns. A change in current through the coil is

accompanied by a change of flux, which produces an emf in the coil. This is
called self induced emf. The direction of the emf is to oppose the change of
flux. The self induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of current
and is given by
di Ldi(2.20)dt dt
e∝ =
L is called the self inductance or simply inductance of the coil. The unit is
Henry, after the American physicist, Joseph Henry.
A circuit has an inductance of 1H, if an emf of 1volt is induced in it when
the current varies at the rate of 1 ampere per second.
2.7.6. Inductance
Let us consider a coil with N turns in which the current is uniformly
increased from 0 to I amperes in t seconds. The average rate of change of
current is I A/s.t
Average induced emf in the coil is LI volts. This current also produces a
change in flux,t
from 0 to φ . From Faraday’s law the induced emf φWb whose average rate is
given byt
= Nφ . Thus, we havet
LI= Nφ t t or
L = Nφ= ψ(2.21)I I
Thus inductance is nothing but the flux linkage per ampere. An alternative
expression is
L = Ndφ
dI
We can also define 1H as the inductance of a coil when a current of 1
ampere through the coil produces a flux linkage of 1Wb turn. Now from
(2.15)
φ
=
mmf = NI= NI
reluctance S l/µ0µrA
Nφ= N NI = N2µ0µrAH (2.22)∴ L = I I(l/µ0µrA) l

Equation (2.22) gives the expression forL from the geometric parameters of
the coil.
2.7.7. Mutually induced emf
Consider two coils A and B placed as shown in Fig. 2.12. When the switch S
is closed, some flux produced by A, also links with B. This produces an
induced emf in coil B and a current flows through circuit of B, as indicated
by the galvanometer deflection. Since a change of current in one coil is
accompanied by a change of flux linked with the other coil inducing an emf
in it, it is called mutually induced emf. The two coils are said to have a
mutual inductance.
GS
A B Figure 2.12 Mutually induced emf.
2.7.8. Mutual inductance
The unit of mutual inductance is also Henry. Two coils have a mutual
inductance of 1H if an emf of 1volt is induced in one coil when the current
through the other coil varies uniformly at the rate of 1A/s.
Again consider the two coils of Fig. 2.12.
Let I1 be the current flowing through coil A, which produces a flux φ1. All
this flux does not link with coil B. The flux φ11 which links only with coil A
is called the leakage flux. The flux φ12 which also links with coil B is called
the mutual flux.
φ1 = φ11 + φ12 (2.23) Coefficient of coupling,‘K’ is defined as the ratio of

mutual flux to total flux.
K1 = φ12 (2.24)φ1
K ≤ 1. The induced emf in coil B is given by
e
2
=
MdI
1
.
dt
Also
e
2
=
N
2
dφ12 dt ∴
M
=
N
2
dφ12 dI1 If we assume constant relative permeability, then
dφ12 φ12 K1φ1 dI1 =I1 =I1
Thus
M = N2K1φ1(2.25)I1
Similarly, when we pass a current I2 through coil B, then the flux φ2 is given
by
φ2 = φ22 + φ21
where φ22 is the leakage flux and φ21 is the mutual flux linking both the
coils.
φ21 = K2φ2
This induces an emf in coil A.
2
e1 = MdI
dt
dφ21= N1K2φ2e1 = N2 dt dt
M = N1K2dφ21 N1K2φ2 (2.26)dI2 =I2
From (2.25) and (2.26)
M
×
M
=
N1K2φ2× N2K1φ1 I2 I1
If K1 = K2 = K, then
M
2 = K2N1φ1× N2φ2
I1 I2
M = K L1L2 (2.27) whereL1,L2 are the self inductances of coil A and coil B
respectively. IfK1 = K2, then in (2.27) we use the geometric mean of K1 and
K2;
K = K1K2
0 ≤ K ≤ 1. Larger values of coefficient of coupling are obtained with coils

which are physically closer, which are wound or oriented to provide a larger
common magnetic flux or which are provided with a common path through a
material which serves to concentrate and localize the magnetic flux. Coils
withK close to unity are said to be tightly coupled.
Example 2.11 A coil consists of 750 turns. A current of 10A in the coil
gives rise to a magnetic flux of 1200µWb. Determine the inductance of the
coil and the average induced emf in the coil when the current is reversed in
0.01sec.
Solution:
N = 750; I = 10A; φ = 1200× 10−6Wb Nφ
=
750
×
1200
×
10
−6
L =I 10 = 0.09H
Current reverses from 10A to −10A.
∴ dI = 10− (−10) = 20A
LdI = 0.09×20 = 180V.e =0.01dt
Example 2.12 An air cored solenoid has a length of 50cm and diameter of
2cm. Calculate its inductance if it has 1000 turns.
Solution:
L
=
N2µ0µrA
l
πd2 π × (2× 10−2)2 4m2A = 4 = 4 = 3.14× 10− l = 50× 10−2m
(
1000
)
2 × 4π × 10−7 × 1× 3.14× 10−4 L = 50× 10−2
5H = 0.7892mH= 78.9× 10−
2.8. Energy stored in magnetic field
In an electric field energy is continuously dissipated. The energy cannot be

stored. In a magnetic field on the other hand, we need energy only to set up
the initial flux and no energy is required to maintain it. Magnetic field stores
the energy which has been used to create the flux.
Let the current flowing through a coil of constant inductance L Henrys grow
at an uniform rate from zero to I amperes in t seconds. The average value of
current is I and
the emf induced in the coil is

L
×
I2 t
volts. The average power absorbed by the magnetic field is
1I × LI Watts
2t
and the total energy absorbed is
average power× time = 1I × LI × t2 t
or
W = 1LI2Joules (2.28)2
Now lets consider a more general case where the instantaneous current i
increases in a coil having a constant inductanceLH. The rate of increase can
be uniform or non-uniform. If the current increases bydi amperes indt
seconds, the induced emf is given by
e= Ldi Volts
dt
The energy absorbed is
W = i Ldi dt = Li · di Joules.
dt
The total energy absorbed by the magnetic field when the current increases
from 0 to I amperes is given by
I 1[i2]I = 1LI2 JoulesW = Li · di = L ×
2 0 20
2 A
From (2.22) L = N µ H. The energy per cubic meter Wf isl
W
f
=
1
I
2
N
2
µ
=
1
µH
2
=
1
BH
=
1
B
2
Joules (2.29)2 l2 2 2 2 µ
Equation (2.29) can be used only if µr is a constant.
Now when the inductive circuit is opened, the current has to reduce to zero
and the stored energy released. If there is no resistor in the circuit the energy
will be mostly dissipated in the arc across the switch. If there is a resistor,
the energy is dissipated as heat in the resistor.
2.9. Dot convention
In an inductor, which is a two terminal element, if the current enters the

terminal used as positive reference, the induced voltage Ldi is positive, as
shown in Fig. 2.13(a). If itdt
enters the coil at the terminal used as negative reference, it is negative, as in
Fig. 2.13(b).
The dot convention is used to fix the polarity of the voltage induced in a coil
due to mutual inductance. A dot is placed on each of the coils. The sign of
the voltage due to mutual inductance is as follows:
A current entering the dotted terminal of one coil produces a voltage with a
positive reference at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
ii −
v=
Ldiv Ldiv dtv = − dt
(a)− (b)+
Figure 2.13 Induced voltage.
Consider Fig. 2.14(a), i1 enters the dotted terminal of L1 and v2 is referenced

positive at the dotted terminal of L2. Hence, v2 = Mdi1 . In Fig. 2.14(b), the
dotted terminal is
marked negative. Hence,

v
2
=−
M
di
dt
1 .dt
+ +i1 •i1 •
L
1
L
2
v
2
=
M
di1 L L v = −Mdi1 dt dt
1 2 2
(a)− (b)− Figure 2.14 Current enters at dotted terminal.
A current entering the undotted terminal of one coil induces a voltage that is
positively referenced at the undotted terminal of second coil.
In Fig. 2.15(a), i1 enters at undotted terminal. Since v2 is referenced positive
at the dotted terminal, v2=−Mdi1 . The reverse is true for Fig. 2.15(b).dt
i1 i1
++
L
1
L
2
v
2
=
−
M
di1 L L v = Mdi1 dt dt
1 2 2
••
(a)− (b)− Figure 2.15 Current enters at undotted terminal.
Example 2.13 For the coils of Fig. 2.16, determine (i) v1 if i2 = 10 sin 314t
and i1 = 0 (ii) v2 if i1=−8e−tA and i2 = 0.
M = 2H
i1 i2
++
•
v1 L1 L2 v2
− − Figure 2.16 Example 2.13
Solution: (i)i2 enters undotted terminal ofL2. Hence, mutually induced emf
is positive at the undotted terminal of L1. However, v1 is referenced positive
at the dotted terminal. Therefore,
v1=−Mdi2 2)(314)(10 cos 314t)

dt
=− (
6280 cos 314tV=−
Since i1 = 0, there is no self induced emf.
(ii) i1 enters the dotted terminal of L1. Hence, v2 is positive at the dotted
terminal of L2. However, it is referenced positive at the undotted terminal.
∴ v2=−Mdi1 2)(−1)(−8e−t)
dt
=−(
16e−tV.=−
2.10. Inductance in series
Consider two inductances connected in series as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). Each
of the coils has self induced emf and mutually induced emf.
di1 Mdi2v1 = L1 +
dt
dt
i1 = i2 = i
di
∴ v1 = dt(L1 + M)
M M i L1 i L2 i• L1 i L2 •
•• v1 − + v2 −+ v1 − + v2 − +
(a) v (b) v Figure 2.17 Inductances in series.
Similarly
di
v2 = dt(L2 + M)
di
v = v1 + v2 = 2M)dt(L1 + L2 +
di= L
eqdt
Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M (2.30) This is called series-aiding connection, where
the mutual flux and leakage flux aid each other.
In Fig. 2.17(b) M is negative
di
v1 = dt(L1 − M)
di
v2 = dt(L2 − M)
di
v = v1 + v2 = 2M)dt(L1 + L2 −
2M (2.31)Leq = L1 + L2 −
This is called series-opposing connection.
The instantaneous energy stored in a coupled circuit is given by
1L1i2 + 1L2i2 ± Mi1i2 (2.32)W =
2122
√
As derived earlier√L1L2. M = K
Example 2.14 Two coils with a coefficient of coupling of 0.5 between them,
are connected in series. When the fluxes aid the total inductance is 1.8H and
when the fluxes opposed, the total inductance is 0.7H. Find the mutual
inductance between them and the self inductances of the two coils.
Solution:
L 1 + L2 + 2M = 1.8H (i) L1 + L2 − 2M = 0.7H (ii) 4M = 1.1 or M =

0.275H
L1 + L2 = 1.25H (iii)
Also, M = K L1L2
0.275 = 0.5 L1L2
or L1L2 = 0.55 or L1L2 = (0.55)2 (iv) 0.3025L1 = L2

substituting in (iii) we get
0.3025 + L2 = 1.25
L2
L2 − 1.25L2 + 0.3025 = 02
solving the quadratic equation we get
L2 = 0.92 or 0.32815
The solutions are,

L2 = 0.92, L1 = 0.3288
L2 = 0.32815, L1 = 0.9218
Example 2.15 The equivalent of two inductances connected in series is 0.6H

or 0.1H, depending on the connection. If L1 = 0.2H find (i) M (ii) K.
Solution: L1 + L2 + 2M = 0.6 (i)
L1 + L2 − 2M = 0.1 (ii) 4M = 0.5 or M = 0.125H

L1 = 0.2H
From (i) L2 = 0.6− 0.2− 0.125× 2 = 0.15H
K = M/ L1L2 = √0.125 = 0.722.0.2× 0.15
Example 2.16 Two identical air cored solenoids have 200 turns, length of
25cm and cross section area of 3cm2 each. The mutual inductance between
them is 0.5µH. Find the self inductance of each coil and the coefficient of
coupling.
Solution:
L
=
N2µ0µrA= (200)2(4π × 10−7)(1)3× 10−4
l 0.25 = 60.318µH
L1 = L2 = L
M= −3 0.5× 10−6
(60.318× 10−6)2 = 8.289× 10 .K = √
L1L2
Example 2.17 A closed iron ring of mean diameter 12cm is made from
round iron bar of 2cm diameter. It has a winding of 1000 turns. Calculate the
current required to produce a flux density of 1.5Wb/m2 given the relative
permeability is 1250. Hence find the self inductance.
Solution:
l
π
×
12
× 10
−2
S = µ0µrA = 4π × 10−7 × 1250×π(2×10−2)2
4
4= 76.3944× 10
φ = BA
=
1.5
×
π × (2× 10−2)2
4
= 4.71× 10−4Wb
mmf= NIS = φ φ
SφI = N
76.3944
×
10
4 × 4.71× 10−4
=1000 = 0.36A 1000
×
4.71
×
10
−4
L = Nφ =0.36 = 1.3083H.I
Example 2.18 An iron rod 2cm in diameter and 30cm long is bent into a
closed ring and wound with 250 turns. When a current of 0.5A is passed
through the coil a flux density of 0.5Wb/m2 is produced. Find
(i) the permeability of the iron

(ii) inductance of the coil
(iii) voltage induced across coil if the flux drops to 10% of its value in 0.001
second?
Solution:
H = NI = 250× 0.5 = 416.67AT/ml 30× 10−2
2B = 0.5Wb/m
(i)
µ
=
B =0.5 = 1.2× 10−3 H 416.67
µ
=
1.2
×
10
−3
µr =µ0 4π × 10−7 = 954.9
(ii)
L
=
Nφ; φ = B × A = 0.5× π(2× 10−2)2 I 4 = 1.57× 10−4Wb
250
×
1.57
×
10
−4
L =0.5 = 0.0785H
(iii)
φ1 = BA = 1.57× 10−4Wb
φ2 = 10% of φ1 = 0.157× 10−4Wb
dφ = φ1 − φ2 = 1.413× 10−4Wb
Ndφ
=
250
×
1.413
×
10
−4
e =0.001 = 35.325V
dt
Example 2.19 When a voltage of 220V is applied to a coil with a resistance

of 50 , the flux linking with the coil is 0.005Wb. If the coil has 1000 turns
find the inductance of the coil and the energy stored in the magnetic field.
Solution: Current = V = 220 4.4AR 50 = L = Nφ= 1000× 0.005= 1.136HI 4.4
Energy stored = 1LI2 = 1 × 1.136× 4.42 = 11J2 2

Example 2.20 A mild steel ring has a mean diameter of 160mm and a cross
section area of 300mm2. Calculate
(a) the mmf to produce a flux of 333µWb
(b) reluctance
(c) relative permeability.
The B-H data is given in table below.
B(T) 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3
H(AT/m) 260 450 600 820
Solution: B
=
φ = 400× 10−6
A 333× 10−6 = 1.2T
(a) From Table, H = 600AT/m
mmf = Hl = 600× π × (160× 10−3) = 301.59AT
(b) mmf = φS
S = mmf =301.59 = 9.057× 105AT/Wbφ 333× 10−6
(c) 1.2 = 2× 10−3µ = B =
600H
µ
=
2
×
10
−3
µr =µ0 4π × 10−7 = 1591.5.
Example 2.21 A steel circuit has a uniform cross sectional area of 5cm2 and
a length of 25cm. A coil of 120 turns is wound uniformly over it. When the
current in the coil is 1.5A, the total flux is 0.3mWb. Find (i)H (ii) µr.
Solution:
mmf = NI = 120× 1.5 = 180AT mmf = Hl
∴
H
=
NI= 180
2.5× 10−2 = 720AT/ml
φ = 0.3× 10−3 2B =
A 5× 10−4 = 0.6Wb/m B 0.6 B = µ0µrH or µr =µ0H =4π × 10−7 ×
720 = 663.145
Example 2.22 A steel ring has a mean circumference of 750mm and a cross
sectional area of 500mm2. It is wound with 120 turns (a) Using the table of
example 2.20 find the current required to set up a magnetic flux of 630µWb
in the ring (b) If the air gap in a magnetic circuit is 1.1mm long and
2000mm2 in cross section, calculate the reluctance of the air gap and the
mmf required to send a flux of 700µWb across the air gap.
Solution: (a)
B
=
φ = 630× 10−6
A 500× 10−6 = 1.26 From table, using interpolation, H = 732AT/m.
I
=
Hl = 732× 750× 10−3
N 120 = 4.575A
(b)
B
=
φ = 700× 10−6 2 A 2000× 10−6 = 0.35Wb/m
H
=
B = 0.35
5
4π × 10−7 = 2.785× 10 AT/mµ0
mmf = Hl = 2.785× 105 × 1.1× 10−3 = 306.35AT
mmf =306.35 = 0.486× 106AT/Wb.S =
φ 630× 10−6
Example 2.23 A coil of 300 turns is wound on a core of non-magnetic

material, with an inductance of 10mH. Calculate (i) the flux produced by
current of 3A (ii) average value of emf induced when current reverses in
8ms.
Solution:
L
=
Nφ I
(i)
φ = LI = 10× 10−3 × 3 = 0.1mWbN 300
Ldi = 10× 10−3 × (3− (−3)) = 7.5Vemf = 8× 10−3dt
Example 2.24 Two coils A of 12,000 turns and B of 15,000 turns lie in
parallel planes so that 45% of flux produced by coil A links coil B. A current
of 5A in A produces 0.05mWb, while the same current in B produces
0.075mWb. Calculate (a) the mutual inductance (b) self inductance of the
two coils (c) coefficient of coupling.
Solution: (a)
M
=
N2φ12 = 15, 000× (0.45× 0.05× 10−3) I1 5
= 0.0675H = 67.5mH
(b)
L
1
=
N1φ1 = 12, 000× 0.05× 10−3
5 = 0.12HI1
N
2
φ
2
=
15, 000
×
0.075
×
10
−3
L2 =I2 5 = 0.225H
(c)
K = √M = √0.0675 = 0.411L1L2 0.12× 0.225
Example 2.25 Two coupled coils of self inductances 0.6H and 0.16H have a
coefficient of coupling 0.8. Find mutual inductance and turns ratio.
Solution:
M = K L1L2 = 0.8√0.6× 0.16 = 0.248H

N1φ1I1 = L1
N2Kφ1= N2Kφ1 = N2L1KM = I1 N1φ1/L1 N1

N2 =M =0.248 = 0.516∴
N1 KL1 0.8× 0.6
Questions
(1) Define magnetic flux.

(2) What is Biot-Savart’s law?
(3) What is the force between two current carrying conductors? (4) Explain
mmf and its analogy with emf.
(5) Define relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility.
(6) Derive the expression for reluctance of a magnetic circuit.
(7) Compare the electric circuit and the magnetic circuit.
(8) Define leakage coefficient.
(9) Clearly explain the principle of electromagnetic induction.
(10) Explain Faraday’s laws.

(11) State Lenz’s law.
(12) Explain Fleming’s left hand rule and right hand rule.
(13) What is motional emf?
(14) Explain the concept of mutual inductance.
(15) An iron ring of mean length 100cm with an air gap of 2mm has a
winding of 500 turns. The relative permeability is 600. When a current of 3A
flows in the winding, determine the flux density.
Ans: 0.523Wb/m2.
(16) A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative
permeability 900, having a mean circumference of 40mm and cross sectional
area of 50mm2.Ifa current of 25A is passed through the coil find mmf,
reluctance of the ring and flux.
Ans: 7500AT; 0.7× 106AT/Wb; 10.7mWb.
(17) A series magnetic circuit has an iron path of length 50cm and an air-gap
of 1mm. The cross sectional area of iron is 6cm2 and the exciting coil has
400 turns. Determine the current required to produce a flux of 0.9mWb in
the circuit. The B-H data is given below.
B 1.2 1.35 1.45 1.55 H 500 1000 2000 4500
(18) The length of a magnetic circuit is 25cm and cross sectional area
6.25cm2. The length of the air-gap is 0.2mm. Calculate the mmf required to
produce a flux of 1.25mWb in the air gap. The relative permeability is 200.
Calculate the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Ans: 2307AT.
(19) A metal ring of mean diameter 80cm is made out of two semi-circular
pieces of cast iron and cast steel separated at junctions by pieces of copper
each of 1mm thickness. If the ring is uniformly wound with 1000 turns,
calculate the value of current required to produce a flux density of
0.85Wb/m2 in the ring. Relative permeability of cast iron is 200, cast steel
1200 and copper 1.
(20) A conductor of active length 30cm carries a current of 100A and lies at
right angles to a magnetic field and strength 0.4Wb/m2. Calculate the force
in newtons exerted on it. If the force causes the conductor to move at a
velocity of 10m/s. Calculate (a) induced emf in the coil (b) power developed
in Watts.
Ans: 12N; 1.2V; 120W.
(21) A coil of 150 turns is linked with a flux of 0.01Wb, when carrying a
current of 10A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If this current is
uniformly reversed in 0.1 second calculate the induced emf. If a second coil
of 100 turns is uniformly wound over the first coil, find the mutual
inductance between the coils.
Ans: L1 = 0.15H; M = 0.1H; e = 30V.

(22) Two identical coils A and B of 750 turns lie in parallel planes. A current
changing at the rate of 1500A/s in A induces an emf of 11.25V in B.
Calculate the mutual inductance of the arrangement. If the self-inductance of
each coil is 15mH. Calculate the flux produced in coil A per ampere and the
coefficient of coupling. Ans: M = 7.5mH; φ = 2× 10−5Wb/A; K = 0.5.
(23) Two coils are wound close to each other on the same core. Current is
passed through the first coil and is varied at a uniform rate of 500mA/s,
inducing an emf of 0.1V in the second coil. The second coil has 100 turns.
Calculate number of turns of first coil if its inductance is 0.4H.
Ans: 200 turns.
(24) When two coils are connected in series their effective inductance is
found to be 10.0H. When one connection is reversed the effective inductance
is 6.0H. K = 0.6, find L1, L2 and M.
Ans: L1 = 0.37 or 7.63H; L2 = 7.63 or 0.37H; M = 1.0H.

(25) What is the value of emf induced in a circuit having an inductance of
700µH when the current varies at a rate of 5000A/s?
Ans: 3.5V
+VR− +VL VC+−−
CHAPTER - 3Ι R L C
Methods of
V
+
−
Circuit Analysis(a)
Learning objectives
Circuit elements
Voltage and current sources Source transformation
Nodal analysis
Mesh analysis
Superposition theorem Thevenin's theorem
Norton's theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Reciprocity theorem
Star-delta transformation
87
3.1. Introduction
In Chapter 1 we have studied the fundamental laws—Ohm’s law and

Kirchhoff’s law. These two laws form the basis for developing other
powerful tools of circuit analysis. What do we mean by analysis? Given the
circuit interconnections and some minimum set of parameters, we should be
in a position to determine any electrical parameter, like current, voltage,
power etc, in any branch of the circuit. Two most important analytical tools
are the nodal analysis method and the mesh current analysis. With these,
any linear circuit can be solved by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations
which are then solved to obtain required values of current or voltage. To
handle more complex circuits some theorems have been developed.
Important amongst these are the superposition theorem, Thevenin’s theorem
and Norton’s theorem. The maximum power transfer theorem is used to
determine the conditions under which maximum power can be transferred
to the load from the source. We will learn these methods in this chapter and
apply them to dc circuits.
3.2. Circuit Elements
An element is essentially a two terminal device which forms the basic
building block of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection
of the elements. Elements can be classified in different ways:
(i) Active and passive elements An active element is capable of generating

energy for a very long period. A battery and electric generator are examples
of active elements. A passive element does not generate energy. It either
dissipates or stores energy. The stored energy can be released to do work.
Examples of passive elements are resistors, inductors and capacitors.
(ii) Unilateral and bilateral elements Abilateral elementhas the same

voltage-current relationship, for the two possible directions of current
through it, Example, R, L and C. Their value does not change, if the
direction of current is reversed. On the other hand a unilateralelement has
different voltage-current relationship for the two possible directions of
current. For example a diode.
(iii) Linear and nonlinear element A circuit element is linear if the

relation between the voltage and current involves a constant coefficient. For
example,
V = IR; v = Ldi ; v = 1 idt
dt c
we will see more of linearity later in the chapter.
3.2.1. Voltage source
One of the most important type of active elements is a voltage source.
An ideal independent voltage source is an active element that provides a
specified voltage that is completely independent of the load and other
circuit elements.
Consider the battery shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Here E is the internal voltage of
the battery and V is the terminal voltage. The terminal voltage V = E. It
does not depend on the current drawn from the battery and remains a
constant as shown in Fig. 3.1(b). Practical sources like batteries and
generators are not ideal, because of their internal resistances. A practical
voltage source is represented as shown in Fig. 3.2(a). It is an ideal voltage
source with a resistance connected in series.
+ V=EEV
−
(a) (b) I Figure 3.1 Ideal voltage source.
Rs I + V = E
EV
− E/Rs(a) (b)
I
Figure 3.2 Practical voltage source.
The terminal voltage V = E − IRs (3.1) If I = 0, V = E (3.2)
If E , V = 0 (3.3) I =Rs
when I = 0, we call it the open circuit condition. When V = 0, we call it the
short circuit condition. The V − I characteristic of the practical voltage
source is as shown in Fig. 3.2(b). As Rs → 0, the practical voltage source
becomes an ideal voltage source.
+V−
Figure 3.3 Dependent voltage source.
A dependent voltage source is one whose value is controlled by voltage or

current in another branch. Dependent sources are designated by diamond-
shaped symbols as shown in Fig. 3.3. Since the control of the dependent
source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the
circuit, we have two types of dependent voltage sources.
(i) A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) (ii) A current-controlled

voltage source (CCVS)
Practically, dependent sources are used to model electronic components like

transistors, operational amplifiers etc. In a voltage source, we know the
voltage but not the current supplied by it. A source can also absorb power if
it draws current. A typical example is charging of a battery, where the
battery absorbs power, drawn from the mains.
3.2.2. Current Source

The other important active element is the current source.
An ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a
specified current that is completely independent of the load and other circuit
elements.
It is represented as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The V–I characteristic is shown in

Fig. 3.4(b). The current supplied to the load connected at the terminals is Is
and does not depend on the load.
+
Is VV
(a)− Is I Figure 3.4 Current source.
Practical current sources are represented as shown in Fig. 3.5(a). It is an

ideal current source with a resistance connected across it. TheV–I
characteristic is shown in Fig. 3.5(b). If the terminals are short circuited,I =
Is, andV = 0. When terminals are open circuited I = 0 and V = IsRP.
(Note thatI andV are the current and voltage across the load connected at
the terminals). As RP→∞, the practical current source becomes an ideal
current source. + V I IsRp Rp V LoadIs
(a) − (b)Is I Figure 3.5 Practical current source.
We have dependent current sources whose value depends on the voltage or
current in another element in the circuit. We have two types of dependent
current sources:
(i) A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
(ii) A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
A dependent current source is designated as shown in Fig. 3.6. In any
current source we know the current supplied by it but not the voltage across
it.
Is
Figure 3.6 Dependent current source.
Example 3.1 Calculate the power absorbed by each element in Fig. 3.7.
I = 5A(P2)
+ 12V− I1
+
20V +(P3) 8V 0.2I (P1) − (P4) −
Figure 3.7
Solution:
P1: The current leaves the positive terminal. Hence (remember passive
convention of chapter 1)
P1 = 20(−5) =−100W supplies power
P2: The current flows into positive terminal.
P2 = 12× 5 = 600W absorbs power
P3: The current I1 enters the positive terminal. What is I1? Applying KCL at
the node
I1 = 5A + 0.2I = 5+ 0.2(5) = 6A ∴ P 3 = 8× 6 = 48W absorbs power
P4: The dependent current source is in parallel across element 3. Hence, the
voltage across it is 8V. The current flows out of the positive terminal
P4 = 8×−1=−8W supplies power
3.2.3. Source transformation
Source transformation means transforming a voltage source into a current
source or vice versa. Consider Fig. 3.8(a) and (b),
R
+
sI + I
E V RL Is Rp V RL
− − (a) (b)
Figure 3.8 Source transformation.
In Fig. 3.8(a) we have a voltage source connected to a load RL and in Fig.

3.8(b) we have a current source connected to the load. If both the sources
drive the same current I through the load RL, then the terminal voltage
across load, V = IRL, would also be the same. We say the two sources are
equivalent. By measuring V and I, we cannot distinguish between the two
sources. To obtain the equivalent of one source to the other, how do we
relateES andRs toIs andRP so thatV andI remain the same? Lets consider the
two extreme cases: RL = 0 (short circuit) and RL=∞ (open circuit). The
values of V and I are tabulated in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Voltage source
Current source RL=∞ RL = 0 (open circuit) (short circuit)

VI V I
EE 00
RS
IsRP 00 IS
If the voltageV and currentI have to be same with both sources then we
have the following constraints
E = ISRP (3.4) E = IS (3.5)RS
The two equations are satisfied when
RS = RP = R
E = ISR (3.6)
Equation (3.6) gives the relationship for source transformation. When

performing a source transformation, remember that the head of the current
source arrow corresponds to the ‘+’ terminal of the voltage source.
Example 3.2 What is the equivalent current source of Fig. 3.9(a).

25V 2Ω 12.5A 2Ω
(a) (b) Figure 3.9 Example 3.2. Solution:
RS = 2 = RP E
25 =2 = 12.5AIS =RS
The current source is shown in Fig. 3.9(b).
Example 3.3 A voltage source of 12V with an internal resistance of 0.5 is

connected to a 1.5 resistor. What is the voltage across the resistor? What is
the equivalent current source?
Solution: The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.10(a).

12 = 6AI = 0.5+ 1.5 V = 1.5× 6 = 9V
0.5Ω I
12V 1.5Ω 24A 0.5Ω 1.5Ω
(a) (b) Figure 3.10 Example 3.4.
The equivalent current source is shown in Fig. 3.10(b).
IS = E = 12 = 24A; RP = Rs = 0.5 .Rs 0.5
We can verify the current I in Fig. 3.10(b) using current division. I = 24×
0.5= 6A.2
This is same as that obtained with the voltage source, proving that the two
are equivalent!
Example 3.4 Combine the sources shown in Fig. 3.11 into a single (i)
voltage source (ii) current source.
A
3Ω
5A 2Ω 3Ω 2Ω 1Ω + 15V 10A−
B Figure 3.11 Example 3.4
Solution: We convert the voltage source into current source in Fig. 3.12(a)
and redraw the circuit as in Fig. 3.12(b). In 3.12(a) all the elements are
connected across A and B. Hence, they can be redraw as in Fig. 3.12(b).
The current sources can be combined into a single source of 5+ 5+ 10 =
20A. The resistances can be combined into a single value.
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 R 2 3 2 1 R = 0.4286
AA
5A 2Ω 3Ω 2Ω 1Ω 20A 0.4286Ω 5A 10A
(a) B (c) B A A 0.4286Ω
5A 2Ω 3Ω 2Ω 1Ω+ − 8.572 5A 10A
(b) B (d) B Figure 3.12 Example 3.4 solution.

The current source and voltage source are shown in Fig. 3.12(c) and (d). We
will now see the methods of analysis.
3.3. Nodal analysis
A node is a junction of two or more elements. When only two elements are
connected to a node they will be in series. A node with three or more
elements is called a principal node. Nodal analysis provides a general
procedure to analyze circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.
The steps involved in nodal analysis are explained with reference to Fig.
3.13.
Step 1 : Identify the principal nodes in the circuit. Let there be ‘n’ nodes.
Choose one node as the reference node also called the ground node. The
potential of this node is taken as zero.
R212
R4 Is R1 R3
+Vs−
Reference node Figure 3.13 Nodal analysis.
Step 2 : At the remaining n − 1 nodes write the KCL, in terms of the node
voltages. In writing KCL remember that the current flows from higher
potential to lower potential. When writing the KCL for a particular node,
always assume that the node is at higher potential compared to all other
nodes. Now, referring to Fig. 3.13, the reference node is marked; 1 and 2
are the principal nodes. Consider elements connected to node 1 as in Fig.
3.14(a). V1 and V2 are the node voltages with respect to the reference node.
i1 = V1 − 0 (reference node voltage is 0)R1

V1 − V2 (current flows from higher potential to lower potential)i =
2 R2
KCL at node 1 gives
Is = V1 + V1 − V2 (current entering = current leaving).R1 R2
Similarly, Fig. 3.14(b) shows the elements connected to node 2. i1 = V2 − V1
(note direction of i1)R2
V2 − 0i2 = R3
V2 − Vsi3 = R4
V
i
12 V2V1 i' V2 i'1 3
i
1
R
2
R
2
i
'
2
R4 Is R1 R3
+ V (a) (b)−
s
Figure 3.14 KCL at node 3.
KCL at node 2 gives
V2 − V1+ V2 + V2 − Vs= 0R2 R3 R4
We solve the simultaneous linear equations for the unknown variables V1

and V2. From that, the currents in all branches can be computed. The
equations can be solved by the method of elimination or by using Cramer’s
rule, to be discussed by an example.
Example 3.5 Calculate the node voltages and the branch currents of the
circuit shown in Fig. 3.15(a).
5A 5A 5A i' 1 2 1 11 2 4
2
Ω
i
2
i
1
4
Ω
4
Ω
i
'2
2Ω6Ω 10A
2Ω 6Ω 10A
(a) (b) (c) Figure 3.15 Example 3.5.
Solution: KCL at node 1. Refer Fig. 3.15(b) i1 + i2 =5(i)
i
1
= V1 − V2 4 V1i2 =2 V1 V1 − V2− 5 = 0∴ 2 + 4
or
3V1 − V2 − 20 = 0 (ii)
KCL at node 2. Refer Fig. 3.15(c)
i1 + i2 + 5 = 10
i
1
=
V2 − V1
4
V2i =
2 6
V2 V2 − V1− 5 = 0∴ 6 + 4
−3V1 + 5V2 − 60 = 0 (iii)
we solve equations (ii) and (iii) for V1 and V2.
Method 1: By elimination technique
Adding (ii) and (iii) we get
4V2 − 80 = 0 =⇒ V2 = 20V
substituting in (i) we get
40 3V1 − 20− 20 = 0 =⇒ V1 =3 = 13.33V.
Method 2: By Cramer’s rule Write the equations in matrix form.
3 −1 V1 = 20
−35 V2 60
Determinant3 −1 = 15− 3 = 12=−35
20 −1
1 =60 5 = 100+ 60 = 13.33VV1 =
12
320
2 =−360 = 180+ 60 = 20VV2 =
12
We can calculate currents in all branches.

i1 = V1 − V2 = 13.33− 20 =−1.667A4 4
V1 13.33 = 6.666Ai2 = =
2 2
V2 20 3.333Ai = = =
2 6 6
Note that the directions are important. Here it refers to the directions shown
in Fig. 3.15(b) and (c). Lets take up another example.
Example 3.6 Obtain the node voltages V1 and V2.
1 6Ω2 1A 2Ω 7Ω 4A
Solution: KCL at node 1. V1 V1 − V2= 12 + 6
4V1 − V2 =6(i)
KCL at node 2. V2 V2 − V1+ 4 = 07 + 6
−7V1 + 13V2 + 168 = 0 (ii)
(i) × 13 gives 52V1 − 13V2 = 78 (iii)
Add (iii) and (ii) to get 45V1=−90V
or V1=−2V
Substituting in (i) we get V2=−14V.
What is the meaning of these negative values for voltages? It just means
that the nodes are at a lower potential to the reference node.
Example 3.7 Obtain V0 in Fig. 3.17.
V1
30V+ 20V+ +− − V0 4KΩ
−2KΩ 5KΩ
Solution: Choose bottom node as reference. V0 = V1. There is only one

equation to be solved.
V 1 − 30 + V1 − 20 + V1
4× 103 = 02× 103 5× 103
0.5V1 − 15+ 0.2V1 − 4+ 0.25V1 = 0 V1 = 20V
V0 = 20V.
Example 3.8 Find the node voltages Va and Vb in Fig. 3.18.
Va Vb 20Ω
+10V 30Ω 10Ω
− 5Ω + 12V− 15Ω − 9V+
Solution: KCL at node a.
Va − 10+ Va + Va − Vb = 030 15 10
1 + 1 + 1 − Vb = 10Va 30 15 10 10 30
6Va − 3Vb = 10 (i) KCL at node b. Vb − Va + Vb − 12+ Vb + 9= 010 20 5

Va + Vb + 1 + 1 = 12 − 9−1
10
10 20 5 20 5
−2Va + 7Vb=−24 (ii) Multiply (ii) by 3 and add to (i) we get
18Vb=−62
Vb=−3.444V.
substituting in (i) we get Va=−0.05533V.
Example 3.9 Find the voltages V1, V2 and V3 in Fig. 3.19.
2Ω
123
3Ωix 4ix
10A 4 Ω 6Ω
Solution: KCL at node 1.
V1 − V2+ V1 − V3= 103 2
0.833V1 − 0.333V2 − 0.5V3 = 10 (i)
KCL at node 2. V2 V2 − V1= 4ix4 + 3
Now 4ix is a dependent current source. ix is the current through the 4
branch. ix = V2 .4
∴
V2 V2 − V1= 4× V2 4 + 3 4 V
1
24 + 1 − 1 − V1 03 3 = −0.4167V2 − 0.333V1 = 0 (ii)
KCL at node 3.
V3 V3 − V1+ 4ix = 06 + 2
V3 V3 − V1+ 4V2= 06 + 2 4
−0.5V1 + V2 + 0.6667V3 = 0 (iii)
In matrix for we get
0.833 −0.333 −0.5 V 1 10 −0.333 −0.4167 0 V2 = 0
−0.5 1 0.6667 V3 0
Solving we get
0.833 −0.333 −0.5

= −0.333 −0.4167 0 =−0.03467
−0.5 1 0.6667
10 −0.333 −0.5
1 = 0 −0.4167 0 =−2.778 0 1 0.6667
0.833 10 −0.5
2 = −0.333 0 0 = 2.22
−0.5 0 0.6667
0.833 −0.333 10
3 = −0.333 −0.4167 0 =−5.4135
−0.5 1 0
1 =−2.778 = 80.13VV1 =−0.03467
V
2
=
2 = −2.22
−0.03467=−64V V3 =3 = −5.4135 = 156.14V − 0.03467
3.4. Mesh analysis
This is another powerful method for analysis of electric circuits. Nodal

analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit while
mesh analysis applies KVL. Mesh analysis, is applicable only to planar
circuits. A planar circuit is one which can be drawn in a plane without
branches crossing one another. If it is not planar, it is called a non planar
circuit, as shown in Fig. 3.20.
++−−
(a) Planar (b) Non planar Figure 3.20 Planar and non planar circuits.
When we move from one node to another in a circuit, such that no node is
encountered more than once, we have a path traced. If the starting node is
same as the ending node, we have a closed path called a loop.A mesh is a
loop which does not contain other loops within it. The current through a
mesh is known as mesh current. The steps involved in solving a circuit with
n meshes, as follows:
(1) Assign mesh currents i1,i2,...,in to the n meshes.

(2) Apply KVL to each of then meshes: Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of mesh currents.
(3) Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to obtain the mesh
currents.
The method is illustrated with an example. Example 3.10 Solve the circuit
of Fig. 3.21 using mesh current analysis.
I1 I2
5ΩI3 6Ω
10Ω
15V+ 4Ω−
i1 − + 10Vi2
Solution: Choose mesh currents i1 and i2 as shown. Remember that these

currents are only hypothetical currents. If there are elements common to
two meshes then we have to correctly determine the current through them,
in terms of the mesh currents. For example, consider the 10 resistor. The
currents through it are shown in Fig. 3.22. The current through the branchI3
= i1− i2. We have to be careful about the directions of the assumed mesh
currents. Through the 10 , we can assume a current of (i1 − i2) in the
downward direction or (i2 − i1) in the upward direction. The other branch
currents are given by I1 = i1 and I2 = i2.
10Ω
i1 i2
Figure 3.22 Currents through a common branch.
KVL for mesh 1.
− 15+ 5I1 + 10I3 + 10 = 0

i.e. − 15+ 5i1 + 10(i1 − i2) + 10 = 0
or 3i1 − 2i2 =1(i)
KVL for mesh 2.
6 I2 + 4I2 − 10− 10I3 = 0

i.e. 6i2 + 4i2 − 10+ 10(i2 − i1) = 0
−i1 + 2i2 = 1 (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) we get

2i1 = 2 =⇒ i1 = 1A
Substituting in (i)
i2 = 1A.
Now we obtain the branch currents:
I 1 = i1 = 1A I2 = i2 = 1A I3 = i1 − i2 = 0A
Example 3.11 Solve for the mesh currents in Fig. 3.23. What are the
currents supplied by the two sources and the current through 12 resistor?
2Ω 9Ω
12V+ 12Ω+ 8V− i1 i −
2
4Ω 3Ω
Figure 3.23 Example 3.11 Solution: KVL for mesh 1.
−12+ 2i1 + 12(i1 − i2) + 4i1 = 0
or 3i1 − 2i2 =2(i)
KVL for mesh 2.
8+ 3i2 + 12(i2 − i1) + 9i2 = 0
or − 3i1 + 6i2=−2 (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) 4i2 =0or i2 = 0A. Substituting in (i)
2
i1 = 3A
Example 3.12 Find I0 in Fig. 3.24 using mesh current method.
6Ω
I0 i1
4Ω 8Ω− 20V+ 2Ω 10I0− +i2 i3
Solution: I0 = i1 KVL for mesh 1.
6i1 + 8(i1 − i3) + 4(i1 − i2) = 0
or 9i1 − 2i2 − 4i3 =0(i)
KVL for mesh 2.
4(i2 − i1) + 2(i2 − i3) − 20 = 0
or − 2i1 + 3i2 − i3 = 10 (ii)
KVL for mesh 3.
8(i3 − i1) − 10I0 + 2(i3 − i2) = 0
Substituting for I0 we get
−9i1 − i2 + 5i3 = 0 (iii) 0 −2 −4
10 3 −1
0 −15 140=−5A.I0 = i1 =9 −2 −4 =−28
−23 −1
−9 −15
Example 3.13 Consider the circuit of Fig. 3.25. Solve for the two loop
currents. What are the currents in all the branches.
ab c
6Ω 10Ω 2Ω
20V+ 4Ω− +
Vx 6A
i1 − i2
d Figure 3.25 Example 3.13.
Solution: We can see that the current through the center limb isi2− i1
(upward direction). However, there is a current source of 6A in the limb.
∴ i2 − i1 =6(i)
Now lets write the two mesh equations. To do so we assume the voltage
drop across the current source to be Vx with polarity shown.
KVL for mesh 1.
−20+ 6i1 + 2(i1 − i2) + Vx = 0
or − 20+ 8i1 − 2i2 + Vx = 0 (ii)
KVL for mesh 2.
10i2 + 4i2 − Vx + 2(i2 − i1) = 0
−2i1 + 16i2 − Vx = 0 (iii)
Adding (ii) and (iii) we get
6i1 + 14i2 = 20 (iv)
Solving (i) and (iv) for i1 and i2 we get
i1=−3.2A; i2 = 2.8A
current through 20V source = i1=−3.2A (which means that it is actually
flowing from + terminal to − terminal, indicating that the battery is
charging)
I6 = i1=−3.2A; I2 = 6A
I10 = I4 = i2 = 2.8A
3.5. Linearity
There are a number of theorems which help us solve complex circuits.

These theorems are applicable to linear circuits. We will discuss the
property of linearity in this section. Linearity is the property of an element
describing a linear relationship between excitation and response. This
property is a combination of the property of homogeneity (scaling) and
superposition (additive).
3.5.1. Homogeneity
This property requires that if the input (excitation) is multiplied by a
constant, the output (response) is multiplied by the same constant. In a
resistor we have
v = iR (Ohm’s law)
If the applied voltage is increased by K times, the current also increases by
K times.
Kv = KiR
3.5.2. Superposition
The second property to be satisfied for linearity is that of superposition or

the additive property. This requires that the response to a sum of inputs is
the sum of the responses to each input applied separately. Again if we have
linear resistor, to which we apply voltages v1 and v2 individually, then
v1 = i1R v2 = i2R
on applying (v1 + v2)weget
v1 + v2 = (i1 + i2)R
Thus a linear element has to satisfy both the properties of additivity and
homogeneity. A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear
dependent and independent sources.
Example 3.14 Consider Fig. 3.26, the linear circuit does not contain any
independent sources. If a voltage of 20V drives a current of 5A through the
resistor R, what would be the current when a voltage of 60V is applied.
+ LinearRVs circuit
−
Solution: We need not know the actual linear circuit. By the property of
homogeneity, when the input is multiplied by a constant, the output also is
multiplied by the same constant. Therefore a voltage of 60V (20×3) will
drive a current of 15A (5×3). However, if the linear circuit had any
independent sources, we cannot know the answer, since we have no
information on the scaling of the sources in the linear circuit.
3.6. Superposition theorem

This theorem is applicable to linear circuits.
Superposition theorem states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
The steps in applying superposition theorem are as follows.
(1) Consider only one independent source at a time. The other independent
sources are turned off. This means independent voltage sources are short
circuited and independent current sources are open circuited.
(2) Find the response due to the source.

(3) Repeat for all sources.
(4) The total response is the algebraic sum of the responses due to
individual sources.
Remember that superposition is based on principle of linearity. Hence, it

cannot be used for power, because the power absorbed by a resistor is
proportional to the square of the voltage. To find power, we first use
superposition to find current or voltage and then calculate power.
Example 3.15 Solve for voltage V in Fig. 3.27(a) using superposition

theorem. Verify your result using nodal analysis.
8Ω + 8Ω+ 1 8Ω+ i2i
+ V 4Ω 6A + V1 4Ω V2 4Ω− 12V −− 12V
− − 6A (a) (b) (c)
Solution: First consider the 12V source and open circuit the 6A current
source as shown in Fig. 3.27(b).
i1 = 12 = 1A12
V1 = i1 × 4 = 4V Next consider the 6A source and short circuit the 12V
source as shown in Fig. 3.27(c).
6× 8 = 4Ai2 =
12
V2 = 4× 4 = 16V
Now the total response is sum of the response due to individual sources. V
= V1 + V2 = 20V
Lets now write the nodal equation
V + V − 12= 64 8
0.25V + 0.125V = 7.5
7.5 = 20V.V =
0.375
Example 3.16 Find I in the circuit of Fig. 3.28(a) using superposition
theorem.
2ΩI 2ΩI1
6Ω 8Ω 6Ω 8Ω+ 16V + + 16V
4A 12V −−−
(a) (b)
2ΩI2 2ΩI3 6Ω 8Ω6Ω8Ω+ 4A 12V− (c) (d)
Solution: Current due to 16V source (Fig. 3.28(b)). Open circuit 4A and
short circuit 12V.
I1 = 16 = 1A16
Current due to 4A source (Fig. 3.28(c)). Open circuit both voltage sources.
4× 2 I2 =8+ 6+ 2 = 0.5A
Current due to 12V source (Fig. 3.28(d)).
I3=−12=−0.75A16
I = I1 + I2 + I3
= 1+ 0.5− 0.75 = 0.75A Example 3.17 Find the voltage across 2 in Fig.
3.29(a), using super position theorem.
A v A i 1 v1
10Ω + 2Ω −5Ω + Ω − + 3
10Ω + 2 Ω 3Ω 20Ω+ 10V 20Ω 5Ω − 10V 2A 20V −
(a) − (b)
i
v v 22 i33 10Ω −2Ω + 10Ω −2Ω +
3Ω 3Ω 5Ω 20Ω5Ω 20Ω + 2A 20V −(c) (d)
Solution: Consider 10V source (Fig. 3.29(b)). Write nodal equation forA
VA + VA + VA − 10= 020 7 10
[0.05+ 0.143+ 0.1]VA = 1
VA = 3.4146
VAi1 =
7
2× i1 = 2× 3.4146 = 0.9756Vv1 =7
Consider 2A source (Fig. 3.29(c)).
10||20 = 6.667 2× 5 i2 =5+ 6.667+ 2 = 0.7317A v 2 = 1.4634V Consider 20V
source (Fig. 3.29(d)).
20 = 1.4634Ai =
3 5+ 2+ 6.667
v3 = 2.9268V
v = v1 − v2 − v3 = 0.9756− 1.4634− 2.9268=−3.4146V (negative signs are
taken because the polarities ofv2 and v3 are opposite to that of v1.)
3.7. Thevenin’s theorem
Very often it is not necessary to find the response in all branches of the
circuit. We may need to compute the response through one element, called
the load, which varies, with the rest of the circuit remaining same as shown
in Fig. 3.30(a).
a IL IL Rth + Linear two+ a

terminal circuitVL Load RL Vth + VL Load RL −−
b− (a) (b)b Figure 3.30 Thevenin’s theorem
According to Thevenin’s theorem the linear two terminal circuit can be
replaced by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3.30(b).
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source Vth in series with a
resistor Rth. Vth is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and Rth is the
equivalent resistance of the two terminal circuit at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
Two circuits are said to be equivalent if they have the same voltage-current
relation at their terminals. What this means is the current IL through the
load and the voltage VL across it in Fig. 3.30(a) are same as that obtained in
Fig. 3.30(b). The application of this theorem is very useful when the load is
varying. Each time it is varied, it is not necessary to analyze the entire
circuit. The current drawn by the load can be obtained from Fig. 3.30(b) as
follows:
I
L= Rth + RL Vth (3.7)
V
Vth (3.8)
L = RLIL = RLRth + RL
To find the current through a load, the following steps are followed. (1)
Open circuit the load and find the voltageVth, at the terminals. (2) Find the
Thevenin’s equivalent resistanceRth at the load terminals. (3) Calculate load
current using (3.7).
3.7.1. Thevenin’s resistance

To apply Thevenin’s theorem we need to calculate Thevenin’s resistance. It
is the equivalent resistance of the passive linear circuit at terminalsa − b in
Fig. 3.30(a). How do we compute this? It can be done in more than one
way, depending on the linear circuit.
(1) If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources in the network and find the equivalent resistance at terminals a − b.
In turning off, we short circuit all independent voltage sources and open
circuit all independent current sources.
(2) If there are dependent sources in the network, we cannot use the above
procedure. Dependent sources are not to be turned off. Turn off all
independent sources and retain the dependent sources. Apply a known
voltageV0 at the terminalsa − b and determine the resulting currentI0 as
shown in Fig. 3.31(a). An alternative is to apply a currentI0 using a current
source connected ata − b and determine the voltageV0. In either case,
Rth = V0 (3.9)I0
I0
Circuit with + independent sources
set to zero − (a) a a Circuit with + V0 independent sources V0 I0 set to zero
− b b (b)
Figure 3.31 Thevenin’s resistance with dependent sources
(3) A third method to determineRth involves finding the short circuit current
at terminals a − b in Fig. 3.30(a), as shown in Fig. 3.32(a).
a Rth
Linear twoI +
sc −Vth Iscterminal circuit
b
(a) (b) Figure 3.32 Short circuit current
The equivalent is shown in Fig. 3.32(b). It can be seen that
I
sc
=
Vth
Rth
or
Rth = Vth (3.10)Isc
Thevenin’s theorem is very useful in analyzing large circuits, which may be
replaced by a single voltage source in series with a resistor.
Example 3.18 Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 3.33
at terminals a − b. Find the current through RL if RL = 7 .
a 3Ω 7Ω
+ 6ΩRL12V
−
b Figure 3.33 Example 3.18.
Solution: Remove RL and find Vth as shown in Fig. 3.34(a).
Here no current flows through 7 because the terminals are open circuited.
Therefore,
12 Vth =3+ 6 × 6 = 8V
To findRth we turn off the voltage source and calculate the equivalent
resistance ata − b as shown in Fig. 3.34(b).
Rth = 3||6+ 7 = 9
To find current through RL = 7 , we use (3.7) (Fig. 3.34(c))
IL = R + R 9+ 7 = 0.5A= 8Vth
th L
12V− a a
3
Ω
7
Ω
+
3
Ω
9 7ΩΩ a +6Ω Vth = Voc 6Ω Rth 8V 7Ω
−
b b b (a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.34 solution of Example 3.18.
Example 3.19 Find the current through the 2 resistor in Fig. 3.35.
4Ω 5Ω
9V+ 4Ω 2Ω− 6Ω
Solution: We can treat the 2 resistor as load. Remove the 2 resistor to find
Vth as shown in Fig. 3.36(a)
9 Vth =4+ 4+ 6 × 4 = 2.571V
We next calculate Rth using Fig. 3.35(b).
Rth = (4+ 6)||4+ 5 = 7.857
We find IL using Fig. 3.36(c)
IL =2.571 = 260.83mA7.857+ 2
aa
4Ω 5Ω + 4Ω 5Ω7.857Ω a
IL
9V
+
−4Ω Vth 4Ω Rth 2.571V 2Ω
− b bb (a) 6Ω (b) 6Ω (c)

Figure 3.36 Solution of example 3.34.
Example 3.20 Find the Thevenin’s equivalent of the network of Fig. 3.37 at
the terminals of the 1k resistor. Find the current through it.
2kΩ 3kΩ
+ 2mA 1kΩ
4V −
Solution: We open circuit the 1k as shown in Fig. 3.38(a). The open circuit
voltage is calculated using nodal analysis. since no current flows through 3k
,Vth = VA,wehave,
VA − 4 = 2mA
2K
VA = (2× 10−3) × (2× 103) + 4 = 8V
4V− A a a
5kΩ2k+ 2kΩ 3kΩ aΩ 3kΩ
+ 2mA V
th Rth 8V 1kΩ
− b bb (a) (b) (c) Figure 3.38 Example 3.21
From Fig. 3.38(b),Rth = 5k . Here, we have short circuited the voltage
source and open circuited the current source.
8 IL =5K + 1K = 1.33mA (Refer Fig. 3.38(c)) Example 3.21 Find current I in
Fig. 3.39 using Thevenin’s theorem.
aI
12V+ 6Ω 6Ω 4Ω 1Ω− 2A
b
Solution: We find Vth using nodal analysis from Fig. 3.40(a)
Vth = VB
VA − 12 + VA − VB = 2 or 0.333V − 0.1667V =4(i)
A B 66
VB − VA + VB =0or − 0.1667V + 0.4167V = 0 (ii)
A B 64
solving (i) and (ii) for VB we get VB = Vth = 6V. We obtain Rth from Fig.
3.40(b).
Rth = 12||4 = 12× 4 = 312+ 4
Vth = 6
3+ 1 = 1.5AI =
Rth + RL
12V− VA VB a a
+ 6Ω 6Ω+6Ω 6Ω
+ 2A 4Ω V 4Ω
th Rth
b b
− − (a) (b) Figure 3.40 Solution of Example 3.21
3.8. Norton’s theorem
Norton’s theorem was proposed by E.L.Norton in 1962.
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a current sourceIN in parallel with a
resistorRN, whereIN is the short circuit current through the terminals and RN
is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources
are turned off.
The equivalent of Fig. 3.41(a) is shown in Fig. 3.41(b).

Linear twoa
terminal network
IN RN b
(a) (b)b Figure 3.41 Norton’s theorem
It can be seen that the Norton’s equivalent can be obtained from Thevenin’s
equivalent by source transformation.
I
N
=
I
sc
=
Vth
Rth (3.11) RN = Rth
To determine the Thevenin’s or Norton’s equivalent of Fig. 3.38(a) we find:
(i) The open-circuit voltage Voc across the output terminals a − b
(ii) The short-circuit current Isc at terminals a − b
(iii) The equivalent resistance Rin at terminals a − b with all independent
sources turned off.
The relationships are,
Vth = Voc IN = Isc
Rth = RN = Voc = RinIsc

Example 3.22 Find the Norton’s equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig.
3.42(a)
a VA a
8Ω 8Ω 4Ω 4Ω
2A2Ω 2A2Ω Isc 12V
+ 12V+
− 8Ω − 8Ω
b (b)b(a)
VA a 8Ω 8Ω 4Ω
2A I sc 4Ω 2Ω Rth 2A 12V
+
− 8Ω 8Ω
b
(c) (d) Figure 3.42 Example 3.22
Solution: The short circuit current is shown in Fig. 3.42(b). sincea − b is

short circuited the 2 resistor is short circuited and the circuit reduces to Fig.
3.42(c). We write the nodal equation for VA,
VA − 12+ VA = 24 16
0.3125VA = 2+ 3 = 5
VA = 16V
VA = 1AIsc =
16
RN is calculated using Fig. 3.42(d) which is the circuit with independent
sources turned off.
RN = (8+ 4+ 8)||2 = 1.818 the Norton’s equivalent and the Thevenin’s
equivalent are shown in Fig. 3.43.
Rth = RN = 1.818
Vth = IscRth = 1.818V
a a 1.818Ω
1A 1.818Ω 1.818V
(a) b (b) b Figure 3.43 Equivalent circuits of Example 3.22
Example 3.23 Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for Fig. 3.44(a).
a VA a
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω 3Ω + 4A6Ω 15V+ 4A6Ω Isc15V− −
(a)b (b)b
aa
3Ω 3Ω 6Ω 4.5A 3Ω
(c)b (d)b
Solution: The short circuit current is found from Fig. 3.44(b).
VA − 15+ VA 43 3 =
VA = 13.5V
VA 4.5AI = =
sc 3
RN is found from Fig. 3.44(c).
RN = 6||6 = 3
The Norton’s equivalent is shown in Fig. 3.44(d)
3.9. Maximum power transfer theorem
In many applications it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to the

load. Consider a voltage source delivering power to a load resistorRL as
shown in Fig. 3.45. In the figure, Rs is the source resistance.
IL
V RS
+R
L−
Figure 3.45 source supplying RL.
From the figure,
VIL = RS + RL For a given source V and Rs are fixed. To find the load at
which maximum power is transferred we differentiate PL with respect to RL
and equate to zero.
V
2
PL = I2RL =RS + RLL RL
∂PL = V 2 (RS + RL)2 − 2RL(RS + RL)= 0∂RL (RS + RL)4
i.e., V 2 RS + RL − 2RL= 0(RS + RL)3
or Rs − RL = 0 =⇒ Rs = RL (3.12)
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals
the source resistance
If we consider a general circuit, then the source is replaced by the

Thevenn’s equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 3.45. In this case maximum
power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Thevenin’s resistance as seen at the load terminals.
The maximum power transferred is given by

P
max
=
V2
4
R
L
(3.13)
Note: Maximum power transfer theorem cannot be applied if the source
voltage/resistance varies. It is applicable only when source is fixed and load
is variable.
Example 3.24 Find the value ofRL in Fig. 3.46 for transfer of maximum
power. Also find the maximum power transferred.
6Ω 3Ω 2Ωa 12V+ 12Ω 2ARL−
b
Solution: We find the Thevenin’s equivalent at a − b. Remove RL to get
circuit of Fig. 3.47(a).
VA − 12+ VA = 26 12
0.25VA = 4 VA = 16V Vth = Voc = Vab = VA + 3× 2 = 22V
Rth can be found from Fig. 3.47(b)
Rth = 12||6+ 3+ 2 = 9
The Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in Fig. 3.47(c).
VA − + a a
6Ω 3Ω 2Ω + 6Ω 3Ω 2Ω + 12Ω 2A V th 12Ω12V−
−
(a) b (b) b
9Ω
22V+ RL−
(c) Figure 3.47 Solution of Example 3.24
The maximum power is transferred whenRL = 9
P
max
=
V 2 (22)2
4 RL 4× 9= 13.44W=
Example 3.25 Determine the maximum power delivered to the load in the
circuit of Fig. 3.48(a).
10 Ω 2Ω 10Ω 2ΩI1 + + 50V5Ω3Ω RL + 50V5Ω3Ω Voc− −
− (a) (b)
10Ω 2Ω
5Ω 3ΩReq
(c)
Solution: The open circuit voltage across the load can be found from Fig.
3.48(b). The total resistance is given by [10+ 5||(2+ 3)]= 12.5
50 = 4AI =
12.5
I × 5 = 2AI1 =
10
Voc = I1 × 3 = 6V
The Thevenin’s resistance can be found from Fig. 3.48(c)
Req=[(10||5+ 2)||3]= 1.92 . Maximum power is transferred when the loadRL
= 1.92
P
max
=
V 2 62
= 4.6875W=
4 RL 4× 1.92
Example 3.26 Determine the load resistance which will draw maximum
power from the source, in Fig. 3.49(a). What is the maximum power
drawn?
20Ω 40Ω20Ω 40Ω

A B A B 200V
+−200V RL 60Ω Voc 80Ω
60Ω 80Ω
(a) (b)
20Ω 40Ω
A 60Ω 80ΩB (c)
Solution: The Thevenin’s voltage is found from Fig. 3.49(b). We can find
VA and VBusing voltage divider principle.
VA = 200× 60 150V20+ 60 =
200× 80 133.33VV =
B 40+ 80 =
VAB = 150− 133.33 = 16.67V
The Thevenin’s resistance is found from Fig. 3.49(c), got by short circuiting
the source. Rth = (20||60) + (40||80) = 15+ 26.67 = 41.67
Maximum power is transferred to the when RL = 41.67 . Maximum power

transferred is given by,
P
max
=
(16.67)2
4× 41.67 = 1.667W. Example 3.27 Consider the circuit of Fig. 3.50(a)
(i) If Rout = 3K , find the power delivered to it.
(ii) What is the maximum power that can be delivered to anyRout? (iii)
What two values of Rout will have exactly 20mA delivered to them?
+−
VA +− +−VA
I +−+
20V+ 40V 20V+ 40V
2k
Ω
− − 30V30VRout 2kΩ + Voc 2kΩ 2kΩ Rth2kΩ 2kΩ
−−
(a) (b) (c)
Solution:
(i) From Fig. 3.50(a) we can write the following nodal equation: VA − 30 +
VA + 20 + VA − 40 = 02× 103 2× 103 3× 103
solving,
VA = 13.75V
VA − 40 8.75mAIout =
3× 103 =−
2 × Rout = (−8.75× 10−3)2 × (3× 103) = 229.6875mW.Pout = I
out
(ii) To find maximum power that can be transferred, we find the Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage from Fig. 3.50(b).
(20+ 30)
I=− 12.5mA4× 103 =−
Voc = 30+ (2× 103)I − 40 =−35V
Rth is found from Fig. 3.50(c).
Rth = 2K||2K = 1K.
Maximum power is transferred when Rout = 1K.
(
−
35
)
2
Pmax =4× 1× 103 = 306.25mW
(iii) From Thevenin’s equivalent the current through anyRout (Rout in k
)isgivenby
−35 mAIout = 1+ Rout Pout = I2 RoutmW
out
−
35
2
=1+ Rout Rout
352Rout = R2 + 2Rout + 1out
Given
Pout = 20mW
(35)2Rout = 20∴ R2 + 2Rout + 1
out
20R2 − 1185Rout + 20 = 0out +√11852 − 4× 20× 20
Rout = 1185
2× 20
1185± 1184.32= 59.2 or 0.017k= 40
∴ Rout = 59.2K or 17
Example 3.28 For the circuit of Fig. 3.51(a) find the Thevenin’s and
Norton’s equivalent.
2 2+ aa − 4Ω− Ω+ 4Ω− Ω+
2Vx Vx 5Ω 2Vx Vx 5Ω1A + − + −
(a) b (b) b Figure 3.51 Example 3.28.
Solution: Since the circuit has only dependent sources, Voc and Isc are zero.
This is because without independent sources, there can be no current in the
circuit. To find the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance we can apply a voltage
of 1V at terminals a − b and determine current through it or inject a current
of 1A to the network through a current source as shown in Fig. 3.51(b), and
determine the resultant voltage across it. We write the nodal equation for
Fig. 3.51(b) as
Vx 2Vx= 15 + Vx +
2
0.2Vx + 0.5Vx + Vx =1or Vx = 0.588V
Vab = Vx + 4 = 4.588V
Vab = 4.588 .R =
th 1
Both the Thevenin’s equivalent and Norton’s equivalent are simply a
resistance of 4.588 .
Example 3.29 The current through a branch in a linear network is 5A when
the input voltage is 20V. If the voltage polarity is reversed, and the voltage
is reduced to 2V, what is the current through the branch? Justify.
Solution: The current would be in opposite direction if the voltage polarity

is reversed. Since it is a linear network, the output will be scaled by the
same factor as input. current is now − 0.5A.∴
Example 3.30 In Fig. 3.52(a) find the current through the Galvanometer.
1.5k Ω 200Ω 1.5kΩ 200Ω +110V ab +110V a b
−
20Ω
G − +− 300Ω 0.5kΩVoc 300Ω0.5kΩ
(a) (b)
a
495Ω 20Ω1.5kΩ 200Ω +
a
0.5k
Ω
300
Ω
b
− IG −38.5VG(c) (d) b

Solution: The Thevenin’s voltage across a − b is found from Fig. 3.52(b).
Va = 110× 0.5 = 27.5V1.5+ 0.5
110× 300 = 66VVb = 300+ 200
Vab = 27.5− 66=−38.5V
Rth is found from Fig. 3.52(c)
Rth = (1500||500) + (200||300) = 495 .
The current through the Galvanometer is found from Fig. 3.52(d).
IG =−38.5 =−74.76mA.495+ 20
The negative sign means that current flows from terminal b to a in Fig.
3.52(a).
3.10. Reciprocity theorem
Reciprocity theorem is applicable to bilateral networks. A bilateral
networks is made up of bilateral elements. The theorem is stated as follows:
The interchange of an ideal voltage source and an ideal ammeter in any
passive, linear, bilateral network, will not change ammeter reading.
Similarly, The interchange of an ideal current source and an ideal voltmeter
in any passive, linear, bilateral circuit, will not change voltmeter reading
Consider Fig. 3.53. Here, N is a passive linear network. Suppose an ideal

voltage source, V1 volts, is inserted in branch 1 and it produces a current I2
in branch 2, then if the voltage source is inserted in branch 2, with V2 volts,
and the current in branch 1, I1, is measured, it will satisfy the following
relationship:
V1 = V2 I2 I1 Reciprocity theorem cannot be applied when dependent

sources are present.
N12
Figure 3.53 Reciprocity theorem.
Example 3.31 Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown in Fig.
3.54(a)
Solution: Let us calculate I2 in Fig. 3.54(a) 20 I =10+ (10||10) = 1.333A
I2 = I = 0.667A2
I
I I' 10Ω 5Ω2 I1 10Ω 5Ω 5Ω +5Ω V1 = 20V 10Ω A 10Ω
A
+ − 20V(a)− (b)

Now the source and ammeter are inter changed, as in Fig. 3.54(b). 20I = 5+
5+ (10||10) = 1.333A I1 = I = 0.667A2
; Hence reciprocity theorem is verified.I1 = I2
Example 3.32 Verify reciprocity theorem for circuit of Fig. 3.55(a).
I2
10Ω 5Ω+ + 10ΩI1 5Ω

10Ω 5ΩV2 V1 10Ω 5Ω 10A− − 10A
(a) (b) Figure 3.55 Example 3.32
Solution: In Fig. 3.55(a),
I2 = 10× 10 = 5A20
V2 = 5× 5 = 25V In Fig. 3.55(b), the current source is shifted to branch 2.
5 = 2.5AI1 = 10× V = 2.5× 10 = 25V Since V = V , reciprocity theorem
20 1 1 2
is verified.
3.11. Star-Delta Conversion
In many networks, we find elements connected in either of the two ways
shown in Fig. 3.56.
A
C
A
R
AC
C
RA RC
RABRBC
RB
(a) B (b) B Figure 3.56 Connection of three elements.
The connection in Fig. 3.56(a) is called Star (or Wye or T) connection and
that of Fig. 3.56(b) is called Delta (or mesh) connection. The two
connections are equivalent if their equivalent resistance between any pair of
terminals are the same. In Fig. 3.56(a), the resistance between terminals A
and B is given by,
RAB(Y ) = RA + RB (3.14) Similarly,

RAC(Y ) = RA + RC (3.15) RBC(Y ) = RB + RC (3.16) Similarly, in Fig.
3.56(b), the resistance between terminalsA and B is given by,
RAB(RAC + RBC) (3.17)R () = R ||(R
AB AB AC + RBC) =RAB + RAC + RBC Similarly,
RAC() = RAC||(RAB + RBC) = RAC(RAB + RBC) (3.18)RAB + RAC + RBC
RBC(RAB + RAC) (3.19)RBC() = RBC||(RAB + RAC) =
RAB + RAC + RBC
Equating the resistance of the two networks,
RAB(RAC + RBC) (3.20)RA + RB = RAB + RAC + RBC
RAC(RAB + RBC) (3.21)RA + RC = RAB + RAC + RBC
RBC(RAB + RAC) (3.22)RB + RC = RAB + RAC + RBC
Subtracting (3.21) from(3.19) and adding to (3.20) we get
RABRAC (3.23)RA = R
AB + RAC + RBC
Similarly,
R
B= R
AB +
RABRBC(3.24) RAC + RBC
RACRBC (3.25)RC = R
AB + RAC + RBC
Thus a delta connection with resistances RAB, RAC and RBC can be replaced
by a star connection with values RA, RB and RC given by (3.23) to (3.25).
We can like wise manipulate the equations to get the value of the
resistances in delta connection in terms of resistances in star connection.
RAB = RARB + RARC + RBRC (3.26)RC

RARB + RARC + RBRC (3.27)RAC = RB
RARB + RARC + RBRC(3.28)RBC = RA
In Fig. 3.57, the two networks are shown together.
A
R
AC
R CRA
C
RAB RBC
RB
B
Figure 3.57 Star-delta conversion.
Y − conversion
Any resistance in the delta circuit, is equal to the sum of all the possible
products of two resistances in star divided by the opposite resistance in star
circuit.
− Y conversion
Any resistance of the star circuit is equal to the product of the two adjacent
resistances in delta circuit divided by the sum of all resistances in delta
connected circuit.
Example 3.33 Obtain the star equivalent of the delta connected circuit in
Fig. 3.58(a)
A CA C
10Ω
6Ω 8ΩRA RC
RB
(a)B D (b) B
Solution: In Fig. 3.58(a) note that nodes B and D are the same. This is
another way of drawing the circuit and is called the configuration. The
equivalent star resistances of Fig. 3.58(b) are calculated as follows:
RA =10× 6 = 2.510+ 6+ 8
6× 8 = 2RB =
10+ 6+ 8
10× 8 = 3.33RC =
10+ 6+ 8
Example 3.34 Convert the star connected circuit of Fig. 3.59(a) to delta.
AA
10
Ω
10Ω
RAB RAC
(a) 5Ω 20Ω
20
ΩB
5Ω RBC CB C (b)
Solution: The delta equivalent is shown in Fig. 3.59(b). RAB = 10× 5+ 10×
20+ 20× 5= 17.520
10× 5+ 10× 20+ 20× 5= 35RBC = 10
10× 5+ 10× 20+ 20× 5= 70RAC = 5
Example 3.35 Determine Req in Fig. 3.60
6Ω 4Ω
A B 5Ω 3Ω
Req 4Ω 8Ω 10Ω
C Figure 3.60 Example 3.35
Solution: We can see that we have two star circuits (5 ,3 ,4 ) and (6 ,4 ,8 )

connected between pointsA,B andC. We convert both to delta. First
consider one star shown in Fig. 3.61(a).
R1 = 5× 3+ 4× 3+ 5× 4= 11.754
5× 3+ 4× 3+ 5× 4= 15.67R2 = 3
5× 3+ 4× 3+ 5× 4= 9.4R3 = 5
The second star is shown in Fig. 3.61(b).
R1 = 6× 4+ 4× 8+ 8× 6= 131 8
1 = 6× 4+ 4× 8+ 8× 6= 26R2 4
1 = 6× 4+ 4× 8+ 8× 4= 17.3R3 6
A
R
1
R
'
1
5Ω 3ΩB A 6Ω 4Ω B
R
2
4Ω R R ''8Ω R
3 2 3
(a) C (b) C
13Ω
AB A B
11.75Ω 6.17Ω 26Ω 15.67Ω 9.4Ω 17.3Ω 10Ω Req 9.78Ω 3.78ΩReq
CC
(c) (d)
Figure 3.61 Solution of example 3.35
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.61(c). The resistors in parallel are
combined to give circuit of Fig. 3.61(d).
Req = 9.78||(6.17+ 3.78) = 4.93
Example 3.36 Calculate the current supplied by the voltage source in Fig.
3.62(a).
Solution: We can see that it is not possible to reduce the network by just
using seriesparallel equivalents. We convert the upper delta to star as shown
in Fig. 3.62(b).
12× 18 = 6RA =
12+ 6+ 18
12× 6 = 2RB =
12+ 6+ 18
18× 6 = 3RC =
12+ 6+ 18
I I RA 6Ω
12Ω 18Ω 2Ω 3Ω 10VRB RC 6Ω 10V
18Ω 12Ω
18Ω 12Ω
(a) (b) Figure 3.62 Example 3.36.
The equivalent resistance across the source is
Req = 6+[(2+ 18)||(3+ 12)]= 14.571 10 = 0.686AI =14.571
Questions
(1) How are circuit elements classified?

(2) What are dependent sources? What are the different types of dependent
sources? (3) Derive the equivalent current source for a practical voltage
source.
(4) Define linearity. In the context of linearity explain the concepts of

superposition and homogeneity.
(5) State superposition theorem.

(6) Give an example of a nonlinear element.
(7) State Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem.
(8) Determine the current I in Fig. 3.63 using superposition theorem.
28V 4ΩI 1Ω7V2Ω

Figure 3.63
Ans: 4A
(9) Determine I in circuit of Fig. 3.64, using superposition theorem.
3ΩI
10V2Ω 2A
Figure 3.64
Ans: 0.8A
(10) Determine IL in Fig. 3.65 using (i) Thevenin’s theorem (ii) Norton’s
theorem.
2Ω2Ω 10VIL 20V
2Ω 1Ω
Figure 3.65 Ans: (i) Voc = 20V; Rth = 3 ; IL = 5A
(ii) Isc = 20 A; RN = 3 ; IL = 5A3
(11) Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent at A − B for the circuit of Fig. 3.66. A +
1Ω 3Ω+ 4V 0.2Vx Vx
− −B Figure 3.66
Ans: Vth = 5V; Rth = 5 (12) Using source transformation findV0 in Fig.
3.67
3Ω+ 3Ω
4
Ω
2A
V
+ 0 − 12V −
Figure 3.67
Ans: V0 = 3.2V.
(13) Find the current through RL if RL is (i) 6 (ii) 36 , using Thevenin’s

theorem in Fig. 3.68. For what value of RL will maximum power be
transferred to it? What is this power?
32V12Ω 3Ω 1Ω
2ARL
Figure 3.68
Ans: (i) Vth = 30V; Rth = 4 ; IL = 3A
(ii) IL = 0.75A; maximum power is transferred whenRL = 4 ; Pmax =
56.25W (14) Find the Norton’s equivalent for circuit of Fig. 3.69
a 3Ω 3Ω
4A 6Ω15V
b Figure 3.69
Ans: Isc = 4.5A; RN = 3 . (15) Solve for Ix using Thevenin’s theorem in Fig.
3.70
Ix
10Ω 6Ω
20V10Ω5Ω2A
Figure 3.70
Ans: Vth = 0V; Rth = 10 ; Ix = 0A
(16) Find Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent at terminalsa − b of Fig. 3.71.
a 14V 14Ω
1A 6Ω 3A 5Ω
b Figure 3.71
Ans: Vth=−8V; Rth = 4 ; IN=−2A
(17) Find the Norton’s equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.72. 3A
a 10Ω 20Ω
40V 40Ω
b Figure 3.72
Ans: IN = 3.286A; RN = 2.8 . (18) Determine the relationship betweenV0
and I0 in Fig. 3.73.
I0
4Ω 2Ω+ 32V 12Ω V0

− Figure 3.73
Ans: V0 = 24− 5I0;
Hint Voc = 24V; Rth = 5
(19) Determine Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent of Fig. 3.74
10Ω 20Ω 8A ab
50Ω 40Ω
Figure 3.74
Ans: Voc = 40V; IN = 1.778A; Rth = RN = 22.5
(20) Find the maximum power that can be dissipated inRL of Fig. 3.75.
4Ω 30V6Ω R
L
12Ω 8Ω
Figure 3.75
Ans: RL = 7.2 ; Pmax = 1.25W (21) The measurements taken between two
terminals of a resistive network are as follows. V 12V 0V
I 0A 1.5A
Find Thevenin’s equivalent of the network.
Ans: Vth = 12V (Voc is voltage when current is zero)

Rth = 8
(22) Fins Va and Vb in Fig. 3.76 using nodal analysis.
10V ab
30Ω 10Ω5Ω 12V15Ω
9V
Figure 3.76 Ans: −0.556V; −3.444V
(23) Using nodal analysis solve for V1 and V2 in Fig. 3.77 V1 V2
2Ω 2V
8Ω 4Ω 3A
Figure 3.77 Ans: V1 = 8V; V2 = 8V
(24) Find I1 and I2 in Fig. 3.78 using mesh analysis.
10Ω I1 20Ω 30Ω I2
24V+ 40Ω5A 20Ω−
Figure 3.78 Ans: 1.072A; 2.041A.
(25) Calculate the power absorbed by the 8 resistor using mesh analysis, in
Fig. 3.79
4Ω 8Ω 5Ω
12V2Ω 2Ω + 20V 8V−
Figure 3.79 Ans: 6.52W
CHAPTER - 4U U
D
Single PhaseR ac Circuits
Learning objectives
Alternating current and direct current
Sinusoids
Frequency, time period and phase
difference
Phasors
Complex number representation and
arithmetic
Rms value and average value
v-i relationship in circuit elements
Impedance and admittance
Series R−L, R−C and R−L−C circuits
Series resonance
Active power, reactive power and
apparent power
Parallel ac circuits151
4.1. Introduction
DC sources were the main means of providing electric power until late
1800s. Today the ac source or the alternating current source is widely used.
An alternating current /voltage has both positive and negative values. Some
periodic ac currents are shown in Fig. 4.1.
i(t) i(t) i(t)

t t t (a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.1 AC periodic currents.
We can have non-periodic ac currents as shown in Fig. 4.2. i(t)
t Figure 4.2 Non periodic ac current.
If the current is time-varying, but does not reverse, it is called
unidirectional current, shown in Fig. 4.3.
i(t) i(t)
(a) t (b) t Figure 4.3 Unidirectional currents
The most commonly used ac signal is the sinusoidal signal.
A sinusoid is a signal which has the form of the sine or cosine function A
sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit. It is the form of voltage
generated throughout the world and supplied to homes, industries, labs etc.
It is predominantly used in communications and electric power. In this
chapter we will discuss the sinusoidal ac wave form and the phasor
representation for it. We will also deal with simple circuits and their
solution for ac.
4.2. Sinusoids
A sinusoidal voltage is represented by
v(t) = Vm sinωt (4.1)
where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid

ω = the angular frequency in rad/sec
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid.
ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency in Hz or CPS (cycles per second)
The sketch of (4.1) is shown in Fig. 4.4.

v(t) v(t)
Vm V
m
0 π2π 3πωt TT 2T t 2 2 (a) (b)
Figure 4.4 Sinusoid.
In Fig. 4.4(b) the sinusoid is shown as a function of time. It repeats after

every T seconds.T is called the period of the sinusoid. Comparing Figures
4.4(a) and (b), we can see that
ωT = 2π or
T = 2π (4.2)ω
or
T = 1 (4.3)f
T is the time of one complete cycle. The reciprocal ofT is the frequency. Let
us now consider two sinusoids as follows:
v1(t ) = v1m sinωt; v2(t ) = v2m sin(ωt − φ) (4.4)
The plots of v1(t ) and v2(t ) are shown in Fig. 4.5
v(t)
V2m V
2m sin(ωt − φ)V1m
0 π2π 3π ωt
V1m sinωt Figure 4.5 Two sinusoids with phase displacement

.
We note the following points.

• v1(t )andv2(t )do not reach maximum values at same time. They are said to
be displaced in phase or out of phase.
• φ is called the phase difference between the two sinusoids.
• The starting point of v2(t ) (the point when its value is zero) occurs
afterv1(t ). Hence, v2(t ) is said to lag v1(t ) in time. We can also say v1(t )
leads v2(t ). Two sinusoids in-phase are as shown in Fig. 4.6.
v(t)
V2m V1m
ωt
Figure 4.6 Two sinusoids in-phase.
A sinusoid can be expressed either in sine or cosine form. When comparing
two sinusoids, both must be expressed in sine or cosine.
This is done by using following identities:
sin(ωt ± 180◦) =−sinωt
sin(ωt ± 90◦) =±cosωt(4.5)cos(ωt ± 180◦) =−cosωt
cos(ωt ± 90◦) =∓sinωt
Example 4.1 Ifv(t) = 20 cos(50t +25◦)find amplitude, phase, period and
frequency.
Solution: Compare with standard form vm sin(ωt + φ) Amplitude vm = 20V

phase φ = 25◦
Angular frequency ω = 50rad/s. Frequency f = ω = 7.958Hz2π
Time period T =1 = 0.1257s.f
Example 4.2 Calculate the phase angle between v1(t ) =−10 cos(ωt + 30◦)
and v2(t ) = 20 sin(ωt − 10◦).
Solution: To compare we need to express both in the same form.
v 1(t ) =−10 cos(ωt + 30◦) = 10 cos(ωt + 30◦ − 180◦)

= 10 cos(ωt − 150◦) = 10 cos(ωt + 210◦) (4.6)
v2(t ) = 20 sin(ωt − 10◦) = 20 cos(ωt − 10◦ − 90◦)
= 20 cos(ωt − 100◦) = 20 cos(ωt + 260◦) (4.7)
Comparing (4.6) and (4.7) we can see thatv2(t ) leads v1(t ) by 50.
Example 4.3 Find the phase angle between i1(t ) =−4 sin(377t + 25◦) and
i2(t ) = 5 cos(377t − 40◦).
Solution:
i1(t ) =−4 sin(377t + 25◦) = 4 sin(377t + 25◦ − 180◦)

= 4 sin(377t − 155◦) = 4 sin(377t + 205◦) (4.8)
i2(t ) = 5 cos(377t − 40◦) = 5 sin(377t − 40◦ + 90◦)
= 5 sin(377t + 50◦) (4.9)
Comparing (4.8) and (4.9) we can see that the phase difference is 155◦
andi1(t )leadsi2(t ).
4.3. Phasors
Sinusoids are expressed as phasors which are more convenient to use than
trignometric functions.
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a
sinusoid.
The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity,
e±jφ = cosφ ± j sinφ (4.10) Therefore
cosφ = Re(ejφ)(4.11)sinφ = Im(ejφ)
where Re and Im stand for the real part of and imaginary part of. Given a
sinusoid v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ), We can write
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ) = Re(Vmej(ωt +φ))
= Re(Vmejφejωt)
= Re(Vejωt) (4.12)
V is the phasor representation of the sinusoidv(t) and is given by

V = Vmejφ = Vm∠φ (4.13)
From 4.13 we can see that the phasor contains the amplitude (Vm) and the
phase (φ) of the sinusoid. It however contains no information of the
frequency.
One way of interpretation of (4.12) and (4.13) is to consider the plot of the
sinor Vejωt = Vmej(ωt +φ) on the complex plane. As time increases, the sinor
rotates on a circle of radius Vm at an angular velocity ω in the counter
clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.7(a).v(t) can now be viewed as the
projection of the sinor Vejωt on the real axis as shown in Fig. 4.7(b).
Im Vm
Vm φ
Re 0 t
(a) (b) Figure 4.7 Rotating sinor.
We can see that at φ = 0 (assuming that t=0 at that instant) the projection
onto real axis isVm.Atφ = 90◦, the projection is zero and so on. To obtain the
sinusoid corresponding to a given phasor, multiply the phasor by ejωt and
take the real part. The phasor can be represented graphically as shown in
Fig. 4.8.
Im
Vm
φ
Re Figure 4.8 Graphical representation of a phasor.
We can plot more than one phasor on a single plot as shown in Fig. 4.9.
Im Vm
φ1 Re
φ2
Im Figure 4.9 Phasor diagram.
In Fig. 4.9, V = Vm∠φ1 and I = Im∠ − φ2. We can see that V leads I by an
angle (φ1+φ2)or we can say thatIlagsVby an angle(φ1+φ2). The time-
domain representation is given by Vm cos(ωt + φ1) and Im cos(ωt − φ2)
respectively.
v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + φ1) ⇐⇒ V = Vm∠φ1 (Time domain) (Phasor)

We can only plot phasor of sinusoids with same frequency on the same
phasor diagram. Thus we note
• v(t) is the instantaneous or time-domain representation, while V is the
phasor-domain or frequency domain representation.
• v(t) is time dependent while V is not.
• v(t) is always real with no complex term while V in general is complex.
4.3.1. Transformation of derivatives into phasor domain Consider
(4.12),
v(t) = Re(Vejωt) = Vm cos(ωt + φ)
Now
dv(t ) sin(ωt + φ) = ωVm cos(ωt + φ + 90◦) =−ωVm
dt
jωt jφ j90◦
= Re(ωVme e e ) = Re(j ωVe ) jωt
[we have used the fact ej90◦ = cos 90◦ + j sin 90◦ = j and Vmejφ = V]. This
shows that the derivatives ofv(t) is transformed to the phasor domain
asjωV.
dv(t ) ⇐⇒ jωV
dt
(Time domain) (Phasor domain)
Similarly, the integral ofv(t) is transformed to the phasor domain as V/j ω.
vdt
⇐⇒
V
jω (Time domain) (Phasor domain)
The phasor which is a complex number representation of the sinusoid can
be represented in different forms.
4.3.2. Complex number representation
A complex number may be written in rectangular form as
A = a1 + ja2 (4.14)
wherej = √−1.a1 is the real part anda2 is the imaginary part. We write asa1 =
Re(A) and a2 = Im(A)
• The complex number A may also be represented in polar form as
A = A∠θ (4.15)
Where A is the magnitude and θ is the phase angle.
• To convert from rectangular to polar form we use
A
=
a
2 + a2
1 2 (4.16)
θ
=
tan
−1 a2
a1
• To convert from polar to rectangular form we use
a1 = Acosθ(4.17)a2 = Asinθ
In calculating angles θ we must take care of the correct quadrant depending

on signs of a1 and a2. We have four possibilities where in a1 and a2 can
assume either positive or negative values.
A = a1 + ja2; θ = tan−1 a2 (1st quadrant)a1

A=−a1 + ja2; θ = 180− tan−1 a2 (2nd quadrant)a1 (4.18)
A=−a1 − ja2; θ = 180+ tan−1 a2 (3rd quadrant)a1
A−1 a2 (4th quadrant) = a1 − ja2; θ = 360− tana1
• A third way of representing the complex number is the exponential form.
A = Aejθ (4.19)
• A fourth way is the trignometric form
A = Acosθ + jAsinθ (4.20) Example 4.4 Express the following numbers in

exponential and polar forms (i)A1 = 6+ j8 (ii) A2 = 6− j8 (iii) A3=−6+ j8(iv)
A4=−6− j8.
Solution: (i)
A1 = 6+ j8 (1st quadrant) 62 + 82 = 10A1 =
θ
1
=
tan
−1 8 = 53.13◦
6
A1 = 10∠53.13◦ = 10ej53.13◦
(ii) A = 6− j8 (4th quadrant) 2 + 82 = 10A2 = 6
2
θ
2
=
360
◦ − tan−1 a2 = 360◦ − 53.13◦ = 306.87◦ a1
A2 = 10∠306.87◦ = 10∠ − 53.13◦ = 10ej306.87◦ = 10e−j53.13◦

(iii) A3=−6+ j8 (2nd quadrant) 62 + 82 = 10A3 =
θ
=
180
◦ − tan−1 8 = 126.87◦ 6
A3 = 10∠126.87◦ = 10ej126.87◦
(iv) A4=−6− j8 (3rd quadrant) 2 + 82 = 10A4 = 6
θ
=
180
◦ + tan−1 8 = 233.13◦ 6
A4 = 10∠233.13◦ = 10ej233.13◦ Example 4.5 Convert the following to

rectangular form (i) 12∠ −60◦ (ii)−50∠285◦ (iii) 8ej10◦ (d) 20e−jπ/3.
Solution: (i)
12∠ − 60◦ = 12(cos(−60◦) + j sin(−60◦)) = 6− j10.39
(ii)
−50∠285◦=−50(cos(285◦) + j sin(285◦)) =−12.94+ j48.3
(iii)
8ej10◦ = 8(cos 10◦ + j sin 10◦) = 7.878+ j1.389
(iv)
20e−jπ/3 = 20 cos(−π/3) + j20 sin(−π/3) = 10− j17.32
4.3.3. Mathematical operations with complex numbers
EQUALITY: Two complex numbers A and B are equal if and only if their
real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. If,
A = a1 + ja2 = A∠θ1 and

B = b1 + jb2 = B∠θ2 then (4.21) A = B if a1 = b1 and a2 = b2.
CONJUGATE: The complex conjugate A∗ of A is given by A∗ = a1 − ja2

or A∠ − θ. SUM: It is easy to add or subtract two complex numbers when
they are represented in rectangular form. Using (4.21)
A+ B = (a1 + b1) + j(a2 + b2) (4.22)A−
B = (a1 − b1) + j(a2 − b2)
MULTIPLICATION: Multiplication and division are easy to perform
when the complex numbers are represented in polar form.
A× B = AB∠θ1 + θ2 A
= A∠θ1 − θ2B B
(4.23)
Example 4.6 If A = 2 + j5 and B = 4 − j6 find (i) A + B (ii) A∗ (iii) A × B
(iv) (A+ B)/(A− B).
Solution: (i)
A = 2+ j5 = 5.385∠68.2◦ B = 4− j6 = 7.211∠56.31◦ A+ B = (2+ 4) + j(5− 6)

= 6− j
(ii)
A∗ = 2− j5
(iii)
A× B = 5.385× 7.211∠68.2◦ − 56.31◦ = 38.831∠11.89◦ = 38+ j8. We can
also perform in rectangular form.
A∗ B = (2+ j5)(4− j6)
= 8+ j20− j12+ 30 = 38+ j8
(iv)
A+ B = 6− j
−
2
+
j
11
=
6.083∠ − 9.46◦ ◦ A− B 11.18∠100.30◦ = 0.544∠ − 109.76 =−0.184− j0.512
Example 4.7 Transform into phasors: (i) i(t) = 8 cos(40t − 40◦)
(ii) v(t) =−3 sin(20t + 50◦)
Solution:
(i) i(t) = 8 cos(40t − 40◦) has a phasor
I = 8∠ − 40◦ (ii)
v(t) =−3 sin(20t + 50◦) = 3 cos(20t + 50◦ + 90◦) = 3 cos(20t + 140◦)
V = 3∠140◦
Example 4.8 Represent as sinusoids the following phasors: (i) I=−3+ j4

(ii) V = 6∠30◦
Solution:
(i)
I=−3+ j4 = 5∠126.87◦ i(t) = 5 cos(ωt + 126.87◦)A
(ii)
V = 6∠30◦ v(t) = 6 cos(ωt + 30◦)
Example 4.9 Ifi1(t ) = 4 cos(ωt +30◦) andi2(t ) = 5 sin(ωt −20◦) findi1(t ) +
i2(t ).
Solution:
I1 = 4∠30◦ i2(t ) = 5 sin(ωt − 20◦) = 5 cos(ωt − 20◦ − 90◦) = 5 cos(ωt − 110◦)
∴ I2 = 5∠ − 110◦
I 1 + I2 = 4∠30◦ + 5∠ − 110◦
= 3.464+ j2− 1.71− j4.698
= 1.754− j2.698 = 3.218∠ − 56.97◦A
We now transform this to time-domain,

i(t) = 3.218 cos(ωt − 56.97◦)A.
4.4. Effective or RMS value
The effective value is used to measure the effectiveness of a voltage or

current source in delivering power to a resistive load.
The effective value of a periodic current is the dccurrent that delivers the
same average power to a resistor as the periodic current.
In Fig. 4.10, the circuit in (a) is ac while that in (b) is dc. The objective is to
find Ieff that will transfer the same power to resistorR as the sinusoidi(t)
a • i(t)a • Ieff
V(t)+ R Veff R−
b• b•
(a) (b)
Figure 4.10 Finding effective current (a) ac circuit (b) dc circuit.
In Fig. 4.10(a) the polarities are used to indicate the instantaneous relative
polarities of the two terminals. The voltagev(t) itself is a sinusoid.
In the positive half cycle a is at a higher potential compared tob.

Hencev(t)has positive values. In the negative half cycle a is at a lower
potential compared to b. This is unlike the dc voltage source where the
terminal marked positive is always at a higher potential with respect to the
other.
The average power absorbed by the resistorR in the ac circuit of Fig.

4.10(a) is
P = 1 T 2Rdt = R T 2dt. (4.24)T i i
0T0
The power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is
2 R (4.25)P = I
eff
Equating (4.24) and (4.25) we get,
I2 R = R T 2dt oreff T 0 i
Ieff =1 T 2dt (4.26)T 0 i
The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current and is
given by
Veff =1 T 2dt (4.27)T 0 v
The effective value is the (square) root of the mean of the square of the
periodic signal. Hence, it is called the root-mean-square or rms value. For
sinusoidi(t) = Im cosωt, the effective value from (4.26) is
Irms =1 T 2dtT 0 (Im cosωt)
=
I
2 T 2ωt dtT
m cos
0
=
I
2
m T 1(1+ cos 2ωt) dtT 0 2
=
I
2 1 t + sin 2ωtT
m
T ×2 2 0
=
I2 Imm
2T × T =√2
(we have used the fact that sin 2ωT = sin 2ω × 2π = 0)ω
Irms = Im = 0.707Im (4.28a)√2
Vm = 0.707V (4.28b)V
m rms =√2
Normally an upper case letter V or I implies rms value and a lower case
letter v or i implies instantaneous value.
4.4.1. Effective value of an arbitrary current
Consider an arbitrary current which is non sinusoidal as shown in Fig. 4.11.
i(t) i5 i4
i6i3
i2 i7
i1
t t nt
Figure 4.11 Non sinusoidal current
To find the rms value, we divide the time ‘ t’ into n equal intervals each of
duration t seconds. Let the average values of instantaneous currents during
these intervals ben
respectivelyi1,i2,·in (these values are the ordinates at the mid point). Now let
this current be passed through a resistor of R ohms. Then,
The heat produced in 1st interval = Ki2R t1 n The heat produced in 2nd
interval = Ki2R t2 n .
The heat produced in nth interval = Ki2R tn n
(k is a constant and depends on unit of heat used).
Total heat produced in
t
seconds
=
KRt
i2 + i2+ ··· + i21 2 n n
Now if a direct currentI produces the same heat through the same resistor in
the same time t seconds, it is the effective current Ieff.
∴
KI
2
Rt
=
KRt
i
2 + i2+ ··· i2
1 2 neff n
2 2 2
Ieff = i + i + ··· i 1 2 n (4.29)n
(square root of the mean of the squares). Similarly
2 + v2+ ··· v2
Veff =v1 2 n. (4.30)n

4.4.2. RMS value of a complex wave
Lets consider a complex wave with fundamental frequency, third harmonic

(frequency is three times the fundamental) and fifth harmonic
components.i(t) = 8 sinωt +6 sin(3ωt − π/6) + 4 sin(5ωt + π/4). The heating
effect due to each component (using 4.28) is as follows:
8
2
Due to fundamental = √2 RT Watt.
6
2
Due to 3rd harmonic = √2 RT Watt.
4
2
Due to 5th harmonic = √2 RT Watt.
Total heating effect
=
RT
122 62 42 √2 + √2 + √2
If the rms value of the complex wave is Irms, then

12
26 24 2
I
2
rmsRT = RT √2 + √2 + √2
I
rms
=
122 62 42 √2 + √2 + √2
Thus the rms value of a complex current wave is equal to the square root of
the sum of the squares of the rms values of its individual components.
4.5. Average value
The average value Iav of an alternating current is expressed by that steady

current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred
by that alternating current during the same time.
In symmetrical alternating currents the average value over one cycle is zero.
Hence, we take the average value over half a cycle. However, for
unsymmetrical currents, the average value must be taken over the whole
cycle.
4.5.1. Average value of a sine wave Let

I = Im sinωt = Im sinθ
π
I
π Im sinθ dθ = Im π I m −cosθ) =
av π − 0 π 0 π ( 0 sinθdθ =
0
Im 1− (−1)) = 2Im orIm= π (
π π/2
Iav = 2Im = 0.637Im (4.31)π
4.5.2. Average value of an arbitrary current Referring to Fig. 4.11,
Iav = i1 + i2+ ··· in.n
This method is useful for non sinusoidal waveforms.
4.6. Form factor
The form factor is defined as
Kf = rms value = 0.707Im = 1.1 (4.32)average value 0.637I
m
This value is only for sinusoidal current or voltage.
4.7. Crest factor or peak factor or amplitude factor
The crest factor is defined as
maximum value= Im = 1.414 (4.33)Kc = rms value 0.707Im
Example 4.10 An ac current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50Hz

has an rms value of 10A. What is the expression for the instantaneous
current? What is its value 0.0125 seconds after the maximum value has
been reached? At what time after the maximum value will the amplitude be
8.3A?
Solution: (Refer Fig. 4.12)

Im = Irms ×√2 = 10×√2 = 14.14A
i(t) = 14.14 sin(2π × 50t)
= 14.14 sin 100πt
The time specified is from point A when current maximum is reached.
Therefore we can write the equation referred to point A as
i(t) = 14.14 cos 100πt
when t = 0.0125s, i(t) = 14.14 cos 100π(0.0125) =−10A
i(t)
14.14 8.3
A B wt
When amplitude is 8.3A, at point B, we can write
8.3 = 14.14 cos 100πt
cos 1008.3 = 0.587πt =14.14
100πt = cos−1(0.587) = 0.943rad t = 3× 10−3s.
Example 4.11 Calculate the rms value, average value, form factor and peak
factor of a periodic voltage having the following values at equal intervals of
time changing in a step like manner: 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, 0,...
what would be the rms value of sine wave having the same peak value?
Solution: The wave form is shown in Fig. 4.13

rms value
=
02 + 52 + 102 + 202 + 502 + 602 + 502 + 202 + 102 + 52 10
= √965 = 31.064V
Average value
=
0+ 5+ 10+ 20+ 50+ 60+ 50+ 20+ 10+ 5 10
= 23V
Form factor = rms value = 31.064= 1.35Average value 23
Peak value Maximum value= 60 = 1.931 = rms value 31.064
60 V(t)50
40
30
20
10

rms value of sine wave with same peak would be
60
√ = 42.2V.2
Example 4.12 Find the rms value, average value and form factor of a half
rectified voltage.
Solution: The half rectified voltage is shown in Fig. 4.14.
π i2dθ I2
=
Irms =m sin π 2θdθ 0 2π 2π 0
=
I
2 π 1− cos 2θ 2 π
dθ = I sin 2θ
mm
2π0 2 4πθ − 20
v(t)
0 π 2π 3π θ(wt) Figure 4.14 Half rectified voltage
I
2
m Im = 0.5I . × π =
m 4π 2
The average value is given by
π
I
π idθ =Im sinθdθ =
av
0 2π 0 2π
Im cosθ)|π = Im × 2 = Im= π(−
2 0 2π π
Form factor =rms value = Im/2 = π = 1.57.average value Im/π 2 Crest factor Im
maximum value= Im/2 = 2 = rms value
Example 4.13 Compute the average and the effective values of the square
voltage wave form shown in Fig. 4.15.
v(t)
20V
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t(s) Figure 4.15 Example 4.13
Solution:
V = 20V; 0<t < 0.1 = 0V; 0.1<t < 0.3 The time period is 0.3s.
V 2 = 1 T 2dt =1 0.1 2dt =1 (400× 0.1) = 133.3rms T v 20
0 0.30 0.3
Vrms = √133.3 = 11.545V.
1 T 1 0.1 1 (20× 0.1) = 6.67VV =
av T 0 vdt =0.3 20
0 dt =0.3
Example 4.14 Find the form factor and crest factor of the waveform shown
in Fig. 4.16.
i(t) Amps 25
24t(s) Figure 4.16 Example 4.14
Solution:
I2 = 1 T 2)dtrms T i(t
0
T = 2s; i(t) =25 t2
1
2 252
I2 =2 0 2 t dtrms
=
1 ×25 2 2 2dt = 78.125t3 2
2 2 0 = 208.33A t3 0
Irms = √208.33 = 14.43A
I
av
=
1 T 12 25 T
i(t)dt =
0 2 0 2tdt
=
25 t2 2
×2 0
4 = 12.5A.
Form factor is,
rms value = 14.43 1.1544average
value 12.5 =
Crest factor = maximum value= 25 = 1.732.rms value 14.43
4.8. Voltage current relationship in circuit elements
We will study the phase relationship between the voltage and current in the
three elements Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.
4.8.1. AC through pure ohmic resistance
i(t)
+
v(t) R −
Figure 4.17 AC through pure ohmic resistor
Consider an ac voltage applied to a pure resistor as shown in Fig. 4.17. Let
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + φ) (i) v(t)= Vm sin(ωt + φ)i(t) = R R
= Im sin(ωt + φ) (ii) where
I
m
=
Vm
R
From (i) and (ii) we can see thatv(t) andi(t) are in phase as shown in Fig.
4.18(a)
Vm V
Im I φ
ωt
φ (a) Waveform (b) Phasor diagram Figure 4.18 V − I relationship in a
pure resistor.
In phasor domain
V = IR (4.34)
Since the two phasors are in phase, they are shown parallel to each other in
the phasor diagram, Fig. 4.18(b).
V = Vm∠φ
I = Im∠φ
Vm (4.35)Im = R
I
rms
=
Vrms
R
Let us next see the power absorbed by the resistor. The instantaneous power
p(t) = v(t)i(t) = VmIm sin2(ωt + φ) 1− cos 2(ωt + φ)= VmIm 2
= VmIm − VmIm cos 2(ωt + φ)2 2
The instantaneous power has two components
(i)
VmIm = Vm I m = VI Watts
2 √2√2
where V = rms voltage, I = rms current.
(ii) A pulsating component VmIm cos 2(ωt +φ)which has twice the frequency
of the voltage2
and current. Since it is a cosine wave, the average value over one cycle is
zero. Hence, power for one cycle
P = VI W (4.36)
The power diagram is shown in Fig. 4.19.
p(t) p(t) = ImVm sin(ωt + φ)
VmIm + + + Vm sin(ωt + φ) Im sin(ωt + φ)2
φ wt
Figure 4.19 Instantaneous power in a resistor.
From the figure it can be observed that the power never becomes negative.
Example 4.15 A 50Hz voltage, 230V (rms) is applied to a 100 resistor.
write the time equations for voltage, current and find the power consumed
by the resistor.
Solution: Generally the value of voltage specified in an ac circuit is the rms
value unless otherwise mentioned.
V
= 230V
= √2V = 230×√2 = 325.27VVm
Im = Vm = 325.27 = 3.2527A.R 100
Im = V = 2.3AI =
√2 R
v(t) = 325.27 cosωt
i(t) = 3.2527 cosωt
or we can also write
v(t) = 325.27 sinωt = 325.27 sin 2π50t = 325.27 sin 314t i(t) = 3.2527 sin
314t
P = VI = 230× 2.3 = 529W.
4.8.2. AC through a pure inductance
Whenever an acvoltage is applied across a purely inductive coil (a coil with

zero resistance) a back emf is induced due to the self-inductance of the coil.
This back emf opposes the rise or fall of current through the coil. The
voltage drop across the inductor is given by
vL(t ) = Ldi(t )(4.37)

dt
i(t)
+ + v(t) VL(t) R − −
Figure 4.20 AC voltage applied to a pure inductor.
(We can neglect the argument (t) in subsequent equations and understand
that v and i imply sinusoidally varying quantities). Let
v = vL = Vm sinωt. Then
Ldi = Vm sinωt
dt
or
i
=
V
m
sin
V
ωt =m −cosωt)L Lω(
= Vm sin(ωt − 90◦) = Vm sin(ωt − 90◦) = Im sin(ωt − 90◦)Lω XL
where XL = Lω is called the inductive reactance.
v = Vm sinωt
i = Im sin(ωt − 90◦)
V
m
(4.38) Im =Lω
XL = Lω
Thus in pure inductor the current lags the voltage by 90◦. In phasor notation
V = Vm∠0◦ I = Im∠ − 90◦) (4.39)

V = jωLI = jIXL
Recollect that time derivative translates into multiplication byjω in phasor

domain.
vL(t ) = Ldi(t ) (time domain)
dt
VL = jωLI (phasor domain) (4.40)
The wave forms and the phasor diagram are shown in Fig. 4.21.
The inductive reactanceXL = Lω, plays the part of resistance. It has a unit of
ohms if L is in Henry and ω is in rad/sec.
XL = 2πf L
Vmsinωt I sin(ωt − 900)VL
m
90
0
wt
ΙL
(a) Waveform (b) Phasor diagram
Figure 4.21 v − i relationship in a pure inductor.
The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency. Now lets
see what happens to the power. The instantaneous powerp(t) is given by
p(t) = Vm sinωt ×−Im cosωt
= −VmIm sin 2ωt =−VI sin 2ωt2
The average value of p(t) over a cycle is zero. Thus the power absorbed by
an inductor is zero. A pure inductor does not absorb power. The
instantaneous power is shown in Fig. 4.22
p(t) = −VIsin2ωt Vmsinωt 900 Imsin(ωt − 900) wt
Figure 4.22 Power in an inductor.
It can be seen that the instantaneous power has equal positive and negative
half cycle, giving an average value of zero.
4.8.3. AC through a pure capacitor
Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a capacitor it gets charged
first in one direction then in the reverse direction. Ifq is the instantaneous
charge, andv = Vm sinωt,
q = Cv
= CVm sinωt
i(t)
v(t)
+
~
V
+ C C −−
Figure 4.23 AC voltage applied to a capacitor.
i
=
dq
d
= dt(CVm sinωt) = cdv ,dt dt
cosωt =1/cw sin(ωt + 90◦)mωVm= cV
= Im sin(ωt + 90◦) where Vm Im = 1/cω 1XC =cω
XC is called the capacitive reactance.
v = Vm sinωt
i = Im sin(ωt + 90◦)
Vm (4.41)Im = Xc
1X =
c Cω
Thus in a pure capacitor the current leads the voltage by 90◦. In phasor
notation
V = Vm∠0◦ I = Im∠90◦ 1
(4.42) V = jωCI =−jIXc The waveforms and phasor diagram are shown in
Fig. 4.24.
Imsin(ωt + 90°)Vmsin ωt ΙC
VC (a) Waveform (b) Phasor diagram Figure 4.24 v − i relationship in a
capacitor.
The capacitive reactance XC =1 is in ohms when C is in Farad and ω in
rad/s. It isCω
inversely proportional to the frequency. The instantaneous power is given
by
p(t) = VmIm sinωt cosωt = 1VmIm sin 2ωt2
The average power over a cycle is zero. A pure capacitor does not absorb
power. The instantaneous power is shown in Fig. 4.25.
p(t) Vmsinωt
Imsin(ωt + 900)
wt
Figure 4.25 power waveform
It can be seen that the instantaneous power has equal positive and negative
half cycles, giving an average value of zero.
4.9. Impedance and admittance
The voltage-current relationship in phasor domain, for the three circuit
elements is given by
V = RI (resistor)
V = jωLI (inductor)
V1 I (capacitor) (4.43) =jωC
We can write the above equations in terms of the ratio of phasor voltage to
phasor current as
V (resistor) = R
I
V (inductor) = jωL
I
V 1 (capacitor) (4.44) =
I jωC
The ratio of the voltage phasor to current phasor is called the impedanceZ
V or V = ZI (4.45)Z =
I
is measured in ohms. It is important to note that though Z is a complex

number it isZ
not a phasor, since it is not a sinusoidally varying quantity. It represents the
opposition to flow of sinusoidal current.
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance.
Y = 1 = I (4.46)Z V
The unit of admittance is or Siemens. For the three elements, the admittance
is given by
1 (resistor)Y =
R
1
Y = (inductor)jωL
Y = jωC (capacitor) (4.47)
For an inductor ZL = jωL. When ω =0(dc) ZL = 0. Therefore, the inductor

acts like a short circuit for dc. When ω →∞ (very high frequencies) ZL→∞
or open circuit. Similarly, XC =1 . When ω = 0, XC=∞, implying that the
capacitor acts like anjωC
open circuit for dc.As ω →∞, XC → 0 or the capacitor acts like a short
circuit at high frequencies. The above results are tabulated in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Impedance and admittance of circuit elements. Element
Resistor Inductor Capacitor Impedance Admittance Z at Z at
Z ( ) Y ( ) ω = 0 ω =∞
R
jωL1
1 jωL
jωC jωC
1 RR
R 0 (short circuit) ∞ (open circuit)
∞ (open circuit) 0 (short circuit)
Example 4.16 A triangular current of amplitude 1A and time period 2s is

applied to an inductor of 1H. sketch the voltage across the inductor. What is
the rms value of the voltage?
Solution: The current waveform is shown in Fig. 4.26(a)

i(t)1VA
1A
0 1 2 3 4 5 t(s) 123 4 5t(s)
-1V
(a) Current waveform (b)
The instantaneous currenti(t) is given by
i(t) = t;0<t < 1 = 2− t;1<t < 3 = t − 4; 3<t < 4
The voltage
v
L
(t )
=L
di dt
vL(t ) = 1V; 0<t < 1 =−1V; 1<t < 3 and the signal is repetitive as shown in
Fig. 4.26(b)
Example 4.17 A50µF capacitor is connected across a 230V, 50Hz supply.

Calculate the reactance offered by the capacitor, the maximum current and
the rms value of the current drawn by the capacitor.
Solution:
X
C
=
1 =1
50× 10−6× 2π × 50Cω

= 63.66
= √2× 230 = 325.27VVmax
Imax = 325.27 5.11A63.66 =
5.11 3.61A.Irms = √ =
2
4.10. Series ac circuits
Consider Fig. 4.27 where impedances are connected in series.
IZ Z Z
1 2 n+
+V1 − +V2 − +Vn − V
− Figure 4.27 Impedances in series.
Let Zeq be the equivalent impedance of the series circuit.
V = IZeq; V1 = IZ1; V2 = IZ2;...Vn = IZn. V = V1 + V2+ ··· + Vn
IZeq = IZ1 + IZ2+ ···IZn
Zeq = Z1 + Z2+ ··· + Zn (4.48)
The equivalent impedance of n impedances in series is the sum of the n
impedances.
4.10.1. Series R-L circuit
Consider a resistanceR and an impedanceL connected in series as shown in
Fig. 4.28(a)
+ R − +L −VLI VR VL V+
v Icosφ
− Isinφ
(a) (b)φ VRI
Figure 4.28 Series R-L circuit.
When we analyze ac circuits, generally we use rms values. Phasor diagrams

can be plotted using rms values instead of maximum values of the
sinusoidal voltages and currents. In subsequent sections, when we refer to
phasors, it is to be understood that we are using rms values.
In the R-L circuit of Fig. 4.28, let V be the source voltage phasor, I the
current phasor, VR and VL the phasor voltage drops across the resistor and
inductor respectively. Recall that the voltage drop across the inductor leads
the current through it by 90◦ and in a resistor the voltage and current are in
phase. Using the above, the phasor diagram of Fig. 4.28(b) is drawn.
Generally, to draw the phasor diagram of series circuits, the current is taken
as the reference phasorand various voltage drops plotted in correct phase
with respect to current. In Fig. 4.28(b), I is the reference, VR is in phase
(parallel) with it, VL is plotted leading it by 90◦. The source voltage is the
phasor sum of VR and VL. We have the following equations:
V R = IR
VL = jωLI
V = VR + VL = I(R + jwL) = IZ
Z = R + jωL = R + jXL (4.49)
The impedance is given by

Z = R + jXL
The real part of the impedance is the resistance and the imaginary part of
the reactance. The impedance can be plotted as a impedance triangle shown
in Fig. 4.29. It is very important to note that impedance is not a phasor.
From Fig. 4.29, we see that
R = Z cosφ
XL = Z sinφ (4.50)
Z X φ R Figure 4.29 Impedance triangle.
L
Further from Fig. 4.28(b) and Fig. 4.29 we get
φ
=
tan
−1 VL
VR
−1 XL = tan−1 ωL (4.51)φ = tan
RR
The admittance in an R − L circuit is given by
Y
=
11
Z = R + jXL =
R − jXL
(R
+
jX
L
)(R
−
jX
L
)
=
R − jXL
R
2
+
X
2
L
R −R2 + X2 = G − jBL (4.51a)=jXL
R
2 + X2
LL
The real part of the admittance is called conductance. It is important to note
that here the conductance G =1. The imaginary part of the admittance is
called susceptance. B
L
=
1
R
. BL is the inductive susceptance.XL
Referring to Fig. 4.28(b) we can write thev − i relationship in different
ways.
(i) Using instantaneous values,
v = Vm sinωt
i = Im sin(ωt − φ)
Im = Vm Vm| =
R2 + X2|Z
L
(ii) Using phasors, with the voltage phasor as reference we can write
V = V ∠0◦ (reference)
I = I∠ − φ◦ (lags V by φ◦)
VR = IR∠ − φ◦ (in phase with I) VL = IXL∠ − φ + 90◦ (leads I by 90◦)
(iii) Using current phasor as reference,
I = I∠0◦ (reference)
V = V ∠φ◦ (leads I by φ◦) VR = IR∠0◦ (in phase with I) VL = IXL∠90◦
(leads I by 90◦)
We next find the power supplied by the source. The instantaneous power is
given by,
p(t) = vi = Vm sinωtIm sin(ωt − φ) = VmIm sinωt sin(ωt − φ)
= VmIm[cosφ − cos(2ωt − φ)]2
V
m
I
= √m[cosφ − cos 2ωt cosφ − sin 2ωt sinφ]2√2
VI cosφ[1− cos 2ωt]− VI sinφ sinωt
The instantaneous power has two terms.
(i) VI cosφ[1− cos 2ωt ]: This term has an average value ofVI cosφ. (ii) VI
sinφ sinωt: This term has an average value of zero over a cycle. The
maximum value of this component isVI sinφ.
Thus the power in ac circuits is not just the product of the rms values of
voltage and current. We define different power in ac circuits as follows.
(i) Apparent power: is the product of the rms values of voltage and
current.
Apparent power S = VI (4.52)
The unit is Volt amperes or VA.
(ii) Real power or active power: is the average value of the instantaneous
power. It is the power which is either dissipated in the resistances of the
circuit or used to do work. It is denoted by P.
P = VI cosφ = (I Z)IR = I2R (4.53)

Z
Referring to Fig. 4.28(b) we see that I cosφ is the component of current in

phase with V. It is called the active current component. I sinφ is in
quadrature with V.It is called the reactive current component.
The unit of active power is watts. Watt meters are used to measure the
active power. (iii) Reactive power: The reactive power is defined as
Q = VI sinφ = (I Z)I sinφ = I2Z sinφ = I2XL (4.54) The unit of Q is Var. VI
sinφ is the maximum value of that component of the instantaneous power
which has zero average value. It represents the flow of energy to and from
source to load. Since the average value of this component is zero, it cannot
do useful work. By convention the reactive power absorbed by an inductive
circuit is taken to be positive. Reactive power is measured by Var meters.
(iv) Complex power: is defined as

S = P + jQ (4.55) The unit is volt amperes.
We can draw a power triangle as shown in Fig. 4.30(a)
SQφ
P Figure 4.30 Power triangle.
If a dc voltage V were applied to a purely resistive circuit to produce a

current I, the power would beVI. When an ac voltage is applied the active
power isVI cosφ. Thus the power is changed by a factor called the power
factor, pf.
Power factor
=
Active power = P
Apparent power S(4.56)
Power factor
=
cos
φ
=
R
Z
is called the power factor angle and is the phase difference between the
voltage andφ
current phasors. When we talk of phase difference, we always use voltage
as the reference. Hence, in anR − L circuitφ is negative, since current lags
the voltage byφ.R − L circuits are said to have a lagging power factor.
What is the significance of power factor and reactive power? Let us

consider a load which is rated at 1000W, supplied by 230V, 50Hz. Now let
us find the reactive power and current drawn for different power factor, the
active power remaining same. The values are calculated using, P = VI cosφ
and Q = VI sinφ. The values are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 pf P V (volts) I (amps) Q (vars) =

P
V cosφ VI sinφ
1 1000 230 4.348 0

0.8 1000 230 5.435 750
0.6 1000 230 7.246 1333.26
0.4 1000 230 10.869 2291.168
It can be seen that while the power factor is decreased, the current required
to deliver the same active power (1000W) at the same voltage (230V)
increases. Similarly, the reactive power also increases. Increased current
means increased losses in the conductor. Thus, while the useful power is the
same, the losses increase, which is undesirable. Hence, it is always good to
operate ac devices/systems close to unity power factor (upf).
The waveform of the instantaneous voltage, current and power are shown in
Fig. 4.31
p(t) V sinωt
m
Imsin(ωt − φ)
wt
φ° Figure 4.31 Waveforms in a R-L circuit.
Example 4.18 A 60HZ voltagev = 141 sinωt is applied to a series R-L

circuit with R = 3 and L = 10.6mH. Calculate the rms value of the current,
the power factor, impedance, rms values of voltage across inductor and
resistor, and the complex power in the circuit. Draw the phasor diagram.
What are the expressions for instantaneous voltage and current.
Solution:
v = 141 sinωt V = 141 = 100V (rms value)√2
R = 3 ; XL = Lω = 10.6× 10−3 × 2π × 60 = 4 (i) Z = 3+ j4 = 5∠53.1◦
V
=
100
∠
0
◦
(ii) I◦A =Z 5∠53.1◦ = 20∠ − 53.1
(We have chosen V as reference. Hence, 0◦ is taken as its angle). (iii) VR =

IR = 20∠ − 53.1◦ × 3 = 60∠ − 53.1◦V
(iv) VL = jIXL = 1∠90◦ × 20∠ − 53.1◦ × 4 = 80∠36.9◦V(j = 1∠90◦)
(v) power factor angle φ =−53.1◦

power factor = cosφ = 0.6. (vi)
P = VI cosφ = 100× 20× cos(−53.1◦) = 2000× 0.6 = 1200W
Q = VI sinφ = 2000× 0.8 = 1600Var S = 1200+ j1600VA
(vii)
v(t) = 141 sinωt = 141 sin 377t i(t) = 20√2 sin(377t − 53.1◦)
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 4.32.
VL
36.9° V 53.1°
I VR Figure 4.32 Example 4.18.
Example 4.19 The voltage across a network is 100.0∠45◦ and the current is
6.0∠15◦. Find the equivalent impedance and admittance. If the network
were to be replaced by an equivalent seriesR − L circuit, what would be the
values ofR andL if frequency is 50Hz?
Solution:
Z = 100∠45◦ ◦ = 17.32+ j10.05∠15◦ = 20∠30
1= ◦ −2 1
20∠30◦ = 0.05∠ − 30 = (4.33− j2.5) × 10 Y =
Z
Now
Z = R + jXL
R = 17.32
XL = 10.0
Lω = 10.0
10 = 31.8mHL =
2π × 50
Example 4.20 For the circuit of Fig. 4.33, find Zeq and the current.
o
+ Z1 10∠0 Ω
o100∠0
− Z 4.47∠63.4oΩ
2
Figure 4.33
Solution:
Z eq = Z1 + Z2 = 10∠0◦ + 4.47∠63.4◦ = (10+ j0) + (2+ j4)

= 12+ j4 = 12.65∠18.43◦
V =100∠0◦ ◦AI =Zeq 12.65∠18.43◦ = 7.905∠ − 18.43
Example 4.21 In a series R − L circuit, 10V at 50Hz produces a current of
500mA while the same voltage at 75Hz produces 400mA. What are the
values ofR and L?
Solution: At 50Hz, ω = 2π × 50 = 314rad/s
Z
1
=
V =10
500× 10−3 = 20I

At 75Hz, ω = 2π × 75 = 471rad/s
10Z2 = 400× 10−3 = 25 Z2 = R2 + (ωL)2 ∴ 202 = R2 + 3142L2
252 = R2 + 4712L2 252 − 202 = L2(4712 − 3142) L = 0.0427H
R2 = 202 − 3142 × (0.0427)2 R = 14.84 .
Example 4.22 The potential difference measured across a coil is 4.5V,

when a direct current of 9A is applied. However a 9A current at 25Hz,
produces a potential difference of 24V. Find the power, current and power
factor when it is supplied by a 50V, 50Hz supply.
Solution: When dc is applied XL = 0, as ω = 0. Therefore the impedance Z
=R
4.50.5R =9 =
when ac is applied, Z = 24 2.669 =
XL = Z2 − R2 = 2.662 − 0.52 = 2.62
XL 2.62 = 0.0167HL = =
ω 2π × 25
At 50Hz,
Z = 0.5+ j2π50× 0.0167
= 0.5+ j5.2438 = 5.267∠84.55◦
50∠0◦ ◦A.I =
5.267∠84.55◦ = 9.493∠ − 84.55
2R = (9.493)2 × 0.5 = 45.06WP = I
Pf = cos(84.55◦) = 0.0949lag
Example 4.23 An alternating voltagev(t) = 200 sinωt, 50Hz, is applied to a

circuit and the current is found to bei(t) = 10.5 sin(ωt − 40◦). What is the (i)
impedance, (ii) resistance and (iii) inductance? Find out the (iv) active
power (v) reactive power and (vi) power factor.
Solution:
V = 200 = 141.42V; I = 10.5 = 7.425A;√2 √2
φ = 40◦(lag)
(i) V = 141.42 19.046 |Z|=I 7.425 =
(ii) R = Z cosφ = 19.046× cos 40◦ = 14.59
(iii) X = Z sinφ = 19.046× sin 40◦ = 12.2425 Lω = 12.2425
L = 12.2425 = 38.96mH2π × 50
(iv) P = VI cosφ = 141.42× 7.425× cos 40◦ = 804.38W (v) Q = VI sinφ =

674.95Var
(vi) Pf = cos 40◦ = 0.766.
Example 4.24 A 110V, 60W bulb is operated on a 230V, 50Hz supply.

What value of resistance must be connected in series so that the bulb
operates at the correct voltage? What is the inductor to be connected in
series if the bulb has to operate at its rated value? Which method is
preferred?
Solution: The resistor connected in series with the bulb is shown in Fig.
4.34(a). The lamp is purely resistive. Therefore for the lamp to operate at
the rated voltage the current through it is
I =60 = 0.5454A110
VR = 230− 110 = 120V
VR =120 = 220R =
I 0.5454
When inductor is connected, (Fig. 4.34(b)) the drop across the inductor
leads the current by 90◦.
V
2 = 2302 − 1102
L
R
+V − + VL −+ 60w− − +
R + 60w
+ 110v
0.5454A 230V 110v0.5454A230V
− − (a) (b) Figure 4.34 Example 4.24.
VL = 202V
VL =202 = 370.37X =
L I 0.5454
370.37= 1.18HL = 314
Connecting an inductor is preferred because the resistor absorbs power,
which is wasted as heat.
4.10.2. Series R-C circuit
Consider a resistance R and a capacitor C connected in series as shown in
Fig. 4.35(a).
R C I I + VR − + VC− φVR +
V
− VC V (a)(b)
Figure 4.35 Series R-C circuit.
We can write the following phasor relationships. The phasor diagram is as
VR = IR
VC=−jIXC
V = VR + VC = I(R − jXC)
1 (4.57)X = R − jX = R − j
C Cω
The current leads the voltage by an angleφ.
The impedance triangle is shown in Fig. 4.36.
R = Z cosφ XC = Z sinφ
Rφ
XC Z
Figure 4.36 Impedance triangle.
The admittance of the R − C series circuit is given by
Y
=
1= 1
R
−
jX
C
(R
−
jX
C
)(R
+
jX
C
)
= R2 + X2 + R2 + X2Z= R + jXC R jXC
CC
= G + jBc
The real part of the admittance is called the conductance and the imaginary
part the susceptance. G =1 and Bc =1 . Bc is the capacitive susceptance.R XC
We can write the v − i relationship in a series R − C circuit in different
ways.
(i) Using instantaneous values
v = Vm sinωt
i = Im sin(ωt − φ)
Vm VmIm = | =
|Z R2 + X2
C
(ii) Using phasors with voltage phasor as reference we can write
V = V ∠0◦ (reference)
I = I∠φ◦ (leads V by φ◦)
VR = IR∠φ◦ (in phase with I)
VC = IXC∠φ − 90◦ (lags I by 90◦) (iii) Using current phasor as reference, I =

I∠0◦ (reference)
V = V ∠ − φ◦ (lags I by φ◦) VR = IR∠0◦ (in phase with I) VC = IXC∠ − 90◦

(lags I by 90◦)
Likeinan R − L circuit we can show that the active power isVI cosφ.
P = VI cosφW
Q =−VI sinφVar
S = VI VA
S = P + jQVA (4.58)
In (4.58) Q is negative.
The reactive power here is shown negative because the current leads the
voltage in R −C circuits. The capacitor absorbs negative reactive power or
we say the capacitor generates positive reactive power.
The power triangle is shown in Fig. 4.37.

Pφ
QS
Figure 4.37 Power triangle.
Since the current leads the voltage, the R − C circuit is said to have a
leading power factor.
Pf
=
P
S
Pf = cosφ = R (4.59)Z
The waveforms of the instantaneous current, voltage and power are shown
in Fig. 4.38.
p(t) i = Imsin(ωt + φ°) Vmsinωt
wt
Figure 4.38 Waveform in an R-C circuit
Example 4.25 A pure resistance of 50 is connected in series with a

capacitor of 100µF, across a 230V, 50Hz supply. Find the (i) impedance (ii)
current (iii) power factor (iv) voltage across resistor (v) voltage across
capacitor (vi) active power (vii) reactive power. Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution:
(i)
X
C
=
1 =1
100× 10−6× 314 = 31.847Cω

Z = 50− j31.847
= 59.3∠ − 32.5◦
(ii)
I
=
V = 230∠0◦ ◦ Z 59.3∠ − 32.5◦ = 3.878∠32.5
(iii) Pf = cos(32.5◦) = 0.843 (leading)

(iv) VR = IR = 3.878∠32.5◦ × 50 = 193.9∠32.5◦V
(v) Vc=−jIXC = 1∠ − 90◦ × 3.878∠32.5◦ × 31.847 = 123.5∠ − 57.5◦ (vi) P =
VI cosφ = 230× 3.878× 0.843 = 751.9W (vii) Q =−VI sinφ =−230× 3.878×
sin(32.5◦) =−479.24Var
VR I
32.5° V −57.5°
VC Figure 4.39 Phasor diagram of Example 4.25.
Example 4.26 A seriesR−C circuit consumes 500W and has apf 0.707. The
applied voltage is 141.1 sin(314t + 30◦). Find R and C. Give the expression
for current.
Solution:
P = VI cosφ
500 141.1 I × 0.707 =√2 ×
I = 7.088A
φ = cos−1 0.707 = 45◦
i(t) leadsv(t) by 45◦
i(t) = 4.088×√2 sin(314t + 30◦ + 45◦) = 10.024 sin(314t + 75◦)
V = 141.1 30◦ = 99.77∠30◦√2 ∠
I = 7.088∠75◦
Z
=
V = 99.77∠30◦◦ I 7.088∠75◦ = 14.076∠ − 45 = 9.953− j9.953. R = 9.953
1 = 9.953X =
C Cω
C
=
1
9.953× 314 = 319µF.
4.10.3. Series R-L-C circuit
Consider a series R-L-C circuit as shown in Fig. 4.40.
VR− +VL VC + +−− Ι R L
C
+V
−
(a) Figure 4.40 Series R-L-C circuit.
The relationship between the various quantities are as following:
V R = IR
VL = jIXL
VC=−jIXC
V = VR + VL + VC = I(R + j(XL − XC))

Z = R + j(XL − XC) (4.60)

The circuit is inductive if XL>XC and capacitive if XL<XC. When the
circuit is inductive the current lags the voltage and when it is capacitive the
current leads the voltage. The series circuit has many interesting features.
We will briefly discuss them.
VL V
L-VC V
φ
V
C
I VR
Figure 4.41 Phasor diagram of a series R-L-C circuit.
Variation of impedance with frequency
Lets consider the circuit of Fig. 4.40. with fixed R, L and C. Let us vary the
frequency from 0 to ∞. How does the impedance vary?
|
Z
|=
R
+
j
Lω
− 1 Cω
= R2 + (XL − XC)2
When ω = 0, XL = Lω = 0 and XC =1 =∞. Therefore |Z|=∞. As we
increaseCω
the frequency,XL starts increasing andXC decreases. At some
frequencyω0,XL = XC.
Lω
0
=
1 Cω0
ω
0
=
√
1 (4.61) LC
This frequency is called the resonant frequency and the circuit is said to be
in resonance. Under this condition Z = R and has the lowest value.
Therefore, the current is maximum at resonance and the current is in phase
with the voltage since the impedance is purely resistive. As the frequency is
further increased,XL>XC and the circuit becomes inductive, until when ω
=∞, XC = 0 and XL=∞. The variation of Z with frequency is shown in Fig.
4.42(a) and that of current in Fig. 4.42(b).
Capacitive I Z
InductiveIm=Vm/R XL 0.707 Im LeadingR ω0 current
ω
XC
Lagging current
ω1 ω0 ω2 (a) (b) Bandwidth Figure 4.42 Variation of Z with ω in series R-L-
C circuit. Quality factor
ω
At resonance the reactive energy in the circuit oscillates between the

inductor and capacitor. The Quality factor,Q, relates the maximum energy
stored to the energy dissipated in the circuit per cycle of oscillation.
2π peak energy stored in the circuitQ = Energy dissipated in the circuit in one period
at resonance
ω0L = 1
ω0CR (4.62)Q =
R
Half power frequencies
The power dissipated is maximum at resonance and is equal to
1
I
2
R
=
1V
2
m . At frequen I m
2 m 2 R cies √ . ω1 and ω2 (Fig. 4.42(b)) the power is half the
maximum power or the current is2These frequencies are called half-power frequencies.
R R21
ω1 = − +
+
2L 2L LC
21 (4.62a) ω
2
=
R+ R
2L 2L + LC
ω0 = √ω1ω2
The bandwidth is given by
BW = ω2 − ω1
R = W0 (4.63)= L Q
WhenQ is high (≥10) the half-power frequencies are symmetrical aroundω0
and can be given by
ω
1
ω
0
−
BW 2
BWω2 ω0 +
2
4.10.4. Parallel circuits
Consider a simple two branch parallel circuit shown in Fig. 4.43. The
relationships defining the circuit are as follows:
Z1Z2Z = Z1 + Z2
I
1
=
Z1
V = IZ2
Z1 + Z2
I2 = IZ1 V = Z1 + Z2Z2
I = I1 + I2 (4.64)
Ι
+ Ι1 Ι2
V Z1 Z2 −
Figure 4.43 Parallel circuit.
Complex circuits involving series and parallel impedances are solved just
likedccircuit, except that we deal with complex impedance.
If we havenimpedancesZ1,Z2,...Zn connected in parallel, we can find the
equivalent admittance as follows:
Y
1
=
1 ; Y2 =1...Y =1
n
Z1 Z2 Zn
Yeq = Y1 + Y2+ ··· + Yn (4.65) 1 . (4.66)Zeq =Yeq
Thus, in parallel circuits it is easier to calculate the equivalent impedance,
from the equivalent admittance. The voltage and current phasors are related
by
V = IZ I = VY
The currents through the branches are given by I1 = VY1; I2 = VY2... and so
on.
Example 4.27 A resistor of 10 , an inductor of 0.5H and a capacitor of

10µF are connected in series across a 50V, 50Hz supply. Determine the (i)
current (ii) Phase angle φ (iii) power factor and (iv) voltage across each
element. Draw the phasor diagram
Solution:
XL = Lω = 0.5× 314 = 157
1 = 10× 10−6× 314 = 318.47XC = 1
Cω
R = 10
Z = 10+ j(157− 318.47) = 10− j161.47 = 161.78∠ − 86.46◦
(i) I = V =50∠0◦ ◦AZ 161.78∠ − 86.46◦ = 0.309∠86.46 (ii) φ = 86.46◦ (leading)

(iii) pf = 0.0617 (leading)
(iv) VR = IR = 10× 0.309∠86.46◦ = 3.09∠86.46◦V
VL = jIXL = 1∠90◦ × 0.309∠86.46◦ × 157 = 48.513∠176.46◦V

VC=−jIXC = 1∠ − 90◦ × 0.309∠86.46◦ × 318.47 = 98.4∠ − 3.54◦V
I
VRVL 86.46° V
VL − VC VC
Figure 4.44
Example 4.28 Determine the equivalent impedance of the circuit shown in
Fig. 4.45.
Z2
2Ω −j4Ω
5Ω j10Ωj3Ω 1Ω Z1 Z3
Solution:
Z 1 = 5+ j10 Z2 = 2− j4 Z3 = 1+ j3
Z
eq
=
Z
1
+
Z2Z3 Z2 + Z3
( 2− j4)(1+ j3)= (5+ j10) + (2− j4) + (1+ j3)
4.47
∠
−
63.4
◦ × 3.16∠71.5◦ = (5+ j10) +3.16∠ − 18◦ 14.12
∠
8.1
◦
= (5+ j10) +3.16∠ − 18◦

5+ j10+ 4.46∠26.1◦=
= 5+ j10+ 4+ j1.96
= 9+ j11.96
= 14.96∠53.03◦
The circuit is inductive and is equivalent to a resistance of 9 in series with

an inductive reactance of 11.96 .
Example 4.29 Determine the total current, impedance and phase angle in
the circuit of Fig. 4.46.
10Ω 100µF
R1 C1 300µF
100V ~ R2 50Ω50HZ
C2
Solution: 1 XC1 = 2π × 50× 100× 10−6 = 31.83 1XC2 = 2π × 50× 300µF = 10.61
When we have to find impedance of parallel circuits, its easier to deal with
admittances.
G2 =1 =1 = 0.02R2 50
1 =1 = 0.0942B 2 =
C XC2 10.61
These two branches are in parallel. So there admittances are added to get
the equivalent admittance.
Y2 = G2 + jBC2 = 0.02+ j0.0942 = 0.0963∠78.01◦
Z
2
=
1 =1
0.093∠78.01◦ = 10.384∠ − 78.01 = 2.157− j10.157Y2

Z1 = R1 − jXC1 = 10− j31.83 = 33.364∠ − 72.56
The total impedance
Z1 + Z2 = (10− j31.83) + (2.157− j10.157) = 12.157− j41.987 = 43.711∠ −
73.85◦
(i) Current =100∠0◦ ◦A43.711∠ − 73.85◦ = 2.288∠73.85 (ii) Total impedance =
43.711∠ − 73.85◦
(iii) Phase angle = 73.85◦ power factor = cos(73.85◦) = 0.278 (leading)
Example 4.30 Determine the voltage across each element of the circuit
shown in Fig. 4.47. Draw the phasor diagram.
I1I2
R1 100Ω R2 330Ω 100V,50Hz ~
L1 0.5H L2 1H
Solution: Let us take the voltage phasor as reference.
Z1 = 100+ j0.5× 314 = 100+ j157 = 186.14∠57.5◦ ◦Z2 = 330+ j1× 314 =
330+ j314 = 455.52∠43.57 V
=
100
∠
0
◦
I◦A1 =Z1 186.14∠57.5◦ = 0.537∠ − 57.5
VR1 = I1R1 = 0.537∠ − 57.5◦ × 100 = 53.7∠ − 57.5◦V VL1 = jI1XL1 =
1∠90◦ × 0.537∠ − 57.5◦ × 157 = 84.309∠32.5◦V
V
=
100
∠
0
◦
I◦A2 =Z2 455.52∠43.57◦ = 0.219∠ − 43.57
VR2 = I2R2 = 0.219∠ − 43.57◦ × 330 = 72.27∠ − 43.57◦V VL2 = jI2XL2 =
1∠90◦ × 0.219∠ − 43.57◦ × 314 = 68.77∠46.43◦V
Example 4.31 The voltage and current in a series circuit are given by
v = 100 sin(2000t + 50◦)V i = 20 cos(2000t + 25◦)A
Find the circuit elements.
VL2 VL1
46.43° 32.5°V
43.57°52.5°
V
R1 VR2
Figure 4.48
Solution: To compare the phase of the voltage and current we have to
convert both to sine or cosine functions.
v = 100 sin(2000t + 50◦)V i = 20 sin(2000t + 20◦ + 90◦)A = 20 sin(2000t +
110◦)A
It can be seen that the current leads the voltage by 60◦. Hence it is an R − C
circuit.
|Z|= 100 520 = R = Z cosφ = 5× cos 60◦ = 2.5 XC = Z sinφ = 5× sin 60◦ = 4.33
1= 1
3× 2000 = 166.67µFC =
ωXC
Example 4.32 In an RC circuit the active power is 300W and the reactive
power is 800Var. What is the apparent power?
Solution: Referring to power triangle,
tan φ = Q = 800 = 2.667P 300

φ = 69.44◦
cosφ = 0.351
P = VI cosφ 300 = VI × 0.351 VI (apparent power) = 854.7VA

Example 4.33 In Fig. 4.49, determine the active power, reactive power and
apparent power in each branch. Determine the power factor of the circuit.
I1=50∠100 I2=20∠300
100∠15oV Z1 Z2
Figure 4.49
Solution:
Z1 = 100∠15◦ ◦ = 1.992+ j0.17450∠10◦ = 2∠5
100∠15◦ ◦ = 4.83− j1.294Z2 =
20∠30◦ = 5∠ − 15
(i) P1 = VI1 cosφ1 = 100× 50× cos 5◦ = 4980.97W P2 = VI2 cosφ2 = 100×
20× cos 15◦ = 1931.85W (ii) Q1 = VI1 sinφ1 = 100× 50× sin 5◦ = 435.78Var
(inductive) Q2 = VIsinφ2 = 100× 20× sin 15◦ = 517.638Var (capacitive) (iii)
S1 = VI1 = 100× 50 = 5000VA
S2 = VI2 = 100× 20 = 2000VA
To find the power factor of the circuit we can find the totalP and Q. P = P1
+ P2 = 4980.97+ 1931.85 = 6912.82W Q = Q2 − Q1 = 81.858Var
(Capacitive) (The difference is taken since one is inductive and the other
capacitive)
tan Q =81.858 = 0.0118φ =P 6912.82
φ = 0.678◦
cosφ = 0.999 lead.
Example 4.34 A voltage v(t) = 141.4 sin 314t is applied to the circuit
shown in Fig. 4.50. The circuit dissipates a total power of 450W at a
lagging factor. The ammeter reads 6A and the voltmeter reads 100V.
Calculate the circuit constants.
AR1 X1 +
+ −j20Ω− 10Ω ϑ(t) = 141.4 sinωt V V V jX − Figure 4.50 Example 4.34
1 2 2
Solution: Let us take the supply voltage as reference
141.4 = 100VV = √
2
P = 450W; I = 6A
cos450 = 0.75; φ = 41.4◦lagφ =100× 6
∴ I = 6∠ − 41.4◦ (currents lags the voltage by 41.4◦) The magnitude of
Z2 = 10+ jX2 = 100 = 16.676
∴ X2 = 16.672 − 102 = 13.34
X2 13.34 42.47mHL = =
2 ω 314 =
Z2 = 10+ j13.34 = 16.672∠53.14◦
10+ j13.34)6∠ − 41.4◦ = 100∠11.74◦VV2 = (
Now the voltage
V 1 = V − V2
= 100∠0◦ − 100∠11.74◦
= 100− (97.91+ j20.35)
= 2.09− j20.35
= 20.46∠ − 84.136◦V
Current through
−
j
20
=
20.46∠ − 84.136◦
20∠ − 90◦
= 1.023∠5.864◦A
Current through R1 − jX1 = 6∠ − 41.4◦ − 1.023∠5.864◦

= (4.5− j3.968) − (1.0176+ j0.1045) = 3.4824− j3.8635 = 5.2∠ − 47.97◦A
V1 = 20.46∠ − 84.136◦ ◦Z1 = I1 5.2∠ − 47.97◦ = 3.935∠ − 47.97

= 2.6345− j2.923 R1 = 2.6345
Xc1 = 2.923
1 = 2.923× 314 = 1.089mFC = 1
Xc1ω
Example 4.35 The source in the circuit of Fig. 4.51. delivers 100W.
Determine the magnitude of the source voltage and the power factor in the
circuit. Determine the reactive power drawn from the source.
5Ω2Ω
V∠0O ~ −j5Ω j2Ω
Solution:
Z1 = 2+ j2 ; Z2=−j5 ; Z3 = 5
Z1Z2Z = Z3 +
eq Z1 + Z2
(2+ j2)(−j5)= 5+ 2+ j2− j5
= 5+ 3.85+ j0.77 = 8.85+ j0.77 = 8.88∠4.97◦
Req = 8.85
Power = 100W = I2Req
100 = 3.36AI =
8.85
Power factor
cosφ = R = 8.85 = 0.99Z 8.88
φ = 4.711◦
Now P = VI cosφ
100 = V × 3.36× 0.99 V = 30.06V
The value of source voltage = 30.06V

Reactive power = VI sinφ
= 30.06× 3.36× sin(4.711◦) = 8.29Var
Example 4.36 A resistorR = 10 , an inductorL = 0.1H and a capacitorC =

50µF are connected in series. across a 100V supply. Find the (i) resonant
frequency (ii) the current at resonance (iii) voltage across inductor and
capacitor at resonance (iv) Q factor.
Solution:
(i)
ω
0
=
√
1 = √1
0.1
×
50
×
10
−
6
=
447.2rad/s LC
f0 = 447.2 = 71.17Hz2π
(ii) At resonance Z = R
∴ current at resonance = V = 100 10AR 10 =
It is in phase with the voltage.
(iii) VL = IXL = ILω0 = 10× 0.0× 447.2 = 447.2V

Since XL = XC,VC = VL = 447.2V
(iv) Q = ω0L= 447.2× 0.1= 4.47R 10
Example 4.37 A series RLC circuit has a quality factor of 5 at a resonant
frequency of 50rad/s. The current flowing through the circuit is 10A and the
supply voltage is 100V. The total impedance of the circuit is 20 . Find (i) R
(ii) L (iii) C (iv) BW (v) half power frequencies.
Solution:
(i) At resonance
I
= V R R = 100 1010 =
(ii) Q = ω0L ⇒ L = QR = 5× 10 = 1HR ω0 50
(iii)1 11 ⇒ C =ω2L =502 × 1 = 400µF ω0 = √LC 0
(iv) ω0 = 50 10rad/s BW =Q 5 =
R R21
(v) ω1 = − +
+
2L 2L LC
= −10 2 1
2
10 + 2× 1+ 1× 400× 10−6 1
×
=−5+ 50.25 = 45.25rad/s
R +R 2 1ω2 =
2L 2L +LC
= 5+ 50.25 = 55.25rad/s
BW = ω2 − ω1 = 10rad/s
Example 4.38 In a series parallel circuit, two branches A and B are

connected in parallel and in series with C. ZA = 4+ j3 ; ZB = 10 − j7 ; ZC =
6+ j5 .If the voltage applied to the circuit is 200V, 50Hz, calculate the
currents IA, IB and IC and the power factor of the whole circuit.
Solution: The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.52.
ZAZBZeq = ZC +ZA + ZB
( 4+ j3)(10− j7)= 6+ j5+ (4+ j3) + (10− j7) = 6+ j5+ 4.19∠17.7◦ = 6+ j5+ 4+ j1.27
= 10+ j6.27
= 11.76∠31.8◦
V =200∠0◦ ◦IC =Zeq 11.76∠31.8◦ = 17∠ − 31.8
I
A = ICZ
ZB = 17∠ − 31.8◦ ×10− j7 A + ZB 14− j4 = 14.24∠ − 50.89◦A
ZA = 17∠ − 31.8◦ ×4+ j3IB = IC ◦
ZA + ZB 14− j4 = 5.8∠20.96 A
pf of the circuit is cos(31.8◦) = 0.849 lagging. IA ZA
ο ΙC ZC 4 j3 6 j5
200V,50Hz ZB 10 −j7
ο Figure 4.52 Example 4.38.
Example 4.39 In the circuit of Fig. 4.53, the voltage across ZC = 100∠0◦.
Find the current through ZA and ZB. Also find the supply voltage.
ZA 10Ω j8ΩZC
3Ω j2Ω
100∠0O ZB 9Ω −j6Ω
V
Solution: ◦ 100∠0◦ ◦I = VC = 100∠0 =
C 3.6∠33.69◦ = 27∠ − 33.69ZC 3+ j2
ZB = 27∠− 33.69◦ × 9− j6IA = IC
ZA + ZB 19+ j2
◦
×
10.8
∠
−
33.69
◦
= 27∠− 33.6919.1∠6◦
15.26∠− 73.38◦A=
Current through ZB = IC − IA
= 27∠− 33.69◦ − 15.26∠− 73.38◦ = (22.465− j14.977) − (4.365− j14.62) =
18.1− j0.357 = 18.1∠− 1.13◦A
Voltage across ZA,
V A = IAZA
= (15.26∠ − 73.38◦)(10+ j8) = 15.26∠ − 73.38◦ × 12.8∠38.66◦ = 195.328∠
− 34.72◦V
VB = VA
V = VA + VC = 195.328∠ − 34.72◦ + 100∠0◦ = 160.55− j111.25+ 100
= 260.55− j111.25 = 283.3∠ − 23.12◦V
Example 4.40 An ac voltage(80+ j60)V is applied to a circuit and current

flowing is (10+ j4)A. Find the impedance of the circuit and the power
consumed.
Solution: V = 80+ j60 = 100∠36.9◦V I = 10+ j4 = 10.7∠21.8◦A
V 100∠36.9◦ ◦Z
=I =10.7∠21.8◦ = 9.2∠15.1 = 8.88+ j2.397
P = VI cosφ = 100× 10.7× cos(15.1◦) = 1033.056W
Example 4.41 The voltage applied to a coil with R = 20 and L = 0.056H is

represented by v = 200 sin 377t. Find the corresponding expression for
current.
Solution: 377× 0.056 = 21.112X = ωL =
L
Z = R + jXL = 20+ j21.112 = 29.08∠46.56◦
√2∠0◦ ◦I = 200/ = 4.863∠ − 46.56
29.08∠46.56
i(t) = 4.863×√2 sin(377t − 46.56◦) = 6.877 sin(377t − 46.56◦)
Example 4.42 A coil having a resistance of 15 and inductance of 0.02H is

connected in series with another coil having a resistance of 25 and an
inductance of 0.04H to a 230V, 50Hz supply. (i) Find the current in each
coil (ii) Power dissipated in each coil (iii) Power factor of each coil and (iv)
Power factor of the whole circuit.
Solution: The circuit connection is shown in Fig. 4.54. Z1 = 15+ j0.02× 314
= 15+ j6.28 = 16.26∠22.7◦ Z2 = 25+ j0.04× 314 = 25+ j12.56 =
27.97∠26.67◦ ◦Z = Z1 + Z2 = 40+ j18.8 = 44.19∠25.17
(i) I =230∠0◦ ◦A44.19∠25.17◦ = 5.2∠ − 25.17
(ii) Power dissipated in coil 12R1 = 5.2× 15 = 405.6W = I
Power dissipated in coil 2 = I2R2 = 5.22 × 25 = 676W
(iii) pf1 = cos(22.7◦) = 0.9225, lagging

pf2 = cos(26.67◦) = 0.8936, lagging
(iv) pf of whole circuit = cos(25.17◦) = 0.905 lagging
15Ω 0.02H 25Ω 0.04H Coil 1 Coil 2 I

~
230V,50Hz
Example 4.43 A coil takes 10A and dissipates 1000W when connected to
250V, 25Hz. Find the (i) impedance (ii) the effective resistance (iii) the
reactance (iv) the inductance (v) pf (vi) angle of lag.
Solution: P = VI cosφ
1000 = 250× 10× cosφ cosφ = 0.4;φ = 66.42 I = 10∠ − 66.42◦A
(i)
Z
=
V = 250∠0◦
10 ∠ − 66.42◦= 25∠66.42◦ = 10+ j22.91I

(ii) Effective resistance = 10
(iii) The reactance = 22.91 (iv)22.91 = 0.145H L =2π × 25
(v) pf = 0.4
(vi) Angle of lag = 66.42◦
Example 4.44 How is a current of 10A shared between three impedances
Z1 = (2− j5); Z2 = (6+ j3) and Z3 = (3+ j4) connected in parallel?
Solution:
1 =1 +1 +1
Zeq Z1 Z2 Z3
=
2
1 + 1 1 6+ j3 + 3+ j4− j5
Zeq = 3.1∠9.55◦
Let us take I as referrence
V = ZeqI = 3.1∠9.55◦ × 10∠0◦ = 31∠9.55◦V
V = 31∠9.55◦ ◦AI =
1 Z1 2− j5 = 5.75∠77.75
I2 = V = 31∠9.55◦ ◦AZ2 6+ j3 = 4.61∠ − 17.01
I3 = V = 31∠9.55◦ ◦AZ3 3+ j4 = 6.2∠ − 43.58
Example 4.45 Find the capacitance which must be connected in series with
a 100W, 110V lamp so that it has rated voltage across it when connected to
a 230V, 50Hz supply.
Solution:
Current through lamp = 100 = 0.909A110
V|=230 = 253.02|Z|=|
I 0.909
Resistance of lamp = Vlamp =110 = 121Ilamp 0.909
2 − R2 = (253.02)2 − (121)2 = 222.22XC = Z
1= 1
222.22× 2π × 50 = 14.3µF.C =
XCω
Example 4.46 Two circuits with impedances Z1 = 10+ j15 and Z2 = 6− j8

are connected in parallel. If the supply current is 20A, what is the power
dissipated in each branch?
Solution:
10+ j15 = 18.02∠56.3◦Z1 =
Z2 = 6− j8 = 10∠ − 53.13◦
I
1
=
I
Z
1
+
Z
2
=
20
∠
0
◦
◦10∠ − 53.13 Z2
16+ j7
10
∠
−
53.13
◦ 200∠ − 53.13◦ = 20∠0◦ × 1746∠23.63◦ = 1746∠23.63◦ = 11.452∠ − 76.79◦
I2 = I − I1 = 20∠0◦ − 11.452∠ − 76.79◦ ◦= 20.65∠32.68

Power dissipated in Z1 = I2R11
= (11.452)2(10) = 1311.48W
Power dissipated in Z2 = I2R22
= (20.652)(6) = 2558.53W Example 4.47 A current of 7.5A flows through a

non-inductive resistance series with a choke coil, when connected to a
supply of 230V, 50Hz. The voltage across the resistance is 110V and across
the coil is 180V. Calculate
(i) Resistance, reactance and impedance of choke coil.

(ii) Total resistance and impedance of the circuit
(iii) Power absorbed by coil and the circuit
(iv) Power factor of the coil
(v) Power factor of the circuit.

Solution: The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.55(a), The phasor diagram is shown
in Fig. 4.55(b). The choke coil is a non-ideal inductor with some resistance.
RL C 48V 110V
180V
230
180 VL
~ O V A V BΙ
R r (a) 230V, 50Hz(b) 110V
Let the choke coil resistance be r and inductance L. The voltage drops
across the resistorR and the resistancer of the choke are in phase with the
current. The drop across the inductance leads the current by 90◦. From the
phasor diagram
OC2 = OB2 + BC2 = (OA + AB)2 + BC2 (

230
)
2 = (110+ Vr)2 + V 2
L
=
110
2 + 220Vr + V 2 + V 2
rL
(230)2 − (110)2 − (180)2 = 220Vr(∵ V 2 + V 2 = 1802)r L
Vr = 38.182V
1802) − (38.182)2 = 175.9VVL = (
R = VR = 110 = 14.667I 7.5
Vr = 38.182 = 5.09r =
I 7.5
VL = 175.9 = 23.45X =
L I 7.5
23.45 0.074HL =
314 =
(i) Resistance of choke coil r = 5.09
Impedance of choke coil r + jXL = 5.09+ j23.45 = 23.996∠77.75◦ (ii) Total
resistance of the circuit = R + r = 14.667+ 5.09 = 19.757 Impedance of the
circuit = (R + r) + jXL = 19.757+ j23.45 = 30.66∠49.88◦ (iii) Power
absorbed by the coil2r = (7.5)2 × 5.09 = 286.31W = I
Power absorbed by the total circuit = I2(r + R) = (7.5)2 × (5.09 + 14.667) =
1111.33W
(iv) Power factor of coil =Zcoil 23.996 = 0.212lag=5.09r
(v) Power factor of whole circuit = R + r = 14.667+ 5.09 = 0.644lagZ 30.66
Example 4.48 An alternating voltage is applied to a circuit consisting of a

resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. The current in the circuit is 0.5A. The
voltages measured are 30V across resistor, 48V across inductor, 60V across
series combination of inductor and resistor and 90V across the capacitor.
Find the applied voltage.
Solution:
R = 30 = 600.5
48 = 96Zcoil =
0.5
( 30)2 + (48)2 + 2(30)(48)cosθ = (60)2 θ = 82.09◦ r = Z cosφ = 13.2
XL = Z sinφ = 95.0866
Vr = 0.5× 13.2 = 6.6V VL = 0.5× 95.0866 = 47.54V
Supply voltage
V = (VR + Vr) + jVL − jVc = (30+ 6.6) + j47.54− j90 = 36.6− j47.54− j90 =
36.6− j42.46V
= 56.06∠ − 49.24◦V
30V 48V 90V 60V 48V60V

~θ 30V Ι(a) (b)
Figure 4.56
Example 4.49 What is the power factor of a (i) Pure resistor (ii) Pure
inductor and (iii) Pure capacitor.
Solution:
(i) The voltage and current are in phase in a resistor. Thereforeφ = 0◦. p.f of
a pure resistor = 1
(ii) In an inductor current lags voltage by 90◦. φ =−90◦. pf of a pure inductor
= 0 lagging (iii) In a capacitor current leads voltage by 90◦. φ =+90◦.
pf of a pure capacitor = 0 leading
Example 4.50 Find the rms value, average value, crest factor and form
factor of a full rectified current wave.
Solution: The full rectified wave is shown in Fig. 4.57.
I2 = 1 π 2dθ = 1 π 2 sin2θdθrms π i I
0 π 0m
=
I
2 π I2 sin 2θπ I2 m (1− cos 2θ)dθ =m
2
π
θ
−
2
0
2π
0
=
m
2
V
rms
=
I2 Imm
2 =√2
Note that the rms value is same as the sinusoidal voltage.
i(t)
0Π 2Π wt Figure 4.57 Full rectified voltage
The average value is given by
I
av
=
1π 1π Im cosθ)π π 0 idθ =π 0 Im sinθdθ = π (−0
= 2Im = Im2.ππ/ Form factor =rms value = Im/√2 = 1.11average value Im/π/2
crest factorIm max value =Im/√2 = 1.414 =rms value
Note that in general, ac ammeters and voltmeters read rms values, while dc
meters read average value.
Questions
(1) Give the phasor form of the following quantities:
(i) v(t) = 10 sin(377t − 30◦)V
(ii) i(t) = 22.86 cos(1000t + 22◦)A
(iii) v(t) = 45 sin(836t + 210◦)V
(2) Determine the rms value, average value, form factor and crest factor of
the triangular signal show in Fig. 4.58
i(t)(A)
Im
0 2TT3T t(s) Figure 4.58
(3) Determine the rms value of the voltage of Fig. 4.59
V
T/2 T 3/2T −V Figure 4.59
(4) In a series R − L circuitR = 3.5 ,L = 0.1H. Find the current through the
circuit, power consumed and power factor if a 50Hz voltage.V = 220∠30◦ is
applied to the circuit.
Ans: I = 6.9∠ − 53.6◦; pf = 0.11lag; P = 167W

(5) In a circuit the applied voltage V is given by j10V and current is (0.8 +
j0.6)A. Find the value of R and X
Ans: R = 6 ; X = 8
(6) An ac voltage(80+ j60)V is applied to a circuit which draws(10+ j4)A.
Find the
impedance of the circuit. What is the power consumed?
Ans: Z = 9.2∠15.1◦ ; P = 1033.055W.
(7) When a resistor and an inductor are connected in series to a 240V
supply, a current
of 3A flows lagging 37◦ behind the supply voltage, while the voltage across
the
inductor is 171V. Determine the value of the resistor, the resistance and
reactance of
the inductor.
Ans: R = 33.36 ; resistance of inductor = 30.52 ; X = 48.14 . (8) A choke
coil is connected across a variable frequency, 220V, ac supply. When the
frequency is 50Hz, the ammeter reads 60A. At a frequency of 100Hz, the
current
falls to 40A. Calculate the resistance and inductance of the choke coil.
Ans: r = 2.79 ; L = 7.54mH
(9) A voltage of v(t) = 100 sin 314t is applied to a circuit consisting of 25
resistor
anda80µF capacitor in series. Determine the expression for the current
flowing, the
power consumed and the p.d across the capacitor at the instant when the
current is
one half of the maximum value.
Ans:i(t) = 2.12 sin(314t + 57.86◦); P = 56.39W; vc=−73.08V (10) A circuit
consists of a resistance of 20 in series with an inductance of 95.6mH and
a capacitor of 318µF. It is connected to a 500V, 25Hz supply. Calculate the
current
in the circuit and the p.f.
Ans: I = 24.25∠14◦; pf = 0.97 lead.
(11) The current through two parallel branches are I1 = 50∠10◦ and I2 =
20∠30◦
respectively. Find the active power, reactive power and apparent power in
each
branch if the voltage applied is 100∠15◦V.
Ans: P1 = 4975W; P2 = 1932W; Q1 = 435Var; Q2 = 516Var; S1 = 5000VA;
S2 = 2000VA; pf = 0.999lead.
(12) In Fig. 4.60, the voltage acrossZc = 100∠0◦. Find current throughZA
andZB and determine the supply voltage.
ZA ZC
10Ω j8Ω 3Ω j2Ω ZB 100∠0O
9Ω −j6Ω V Figure 4.60 Ans: I = 15.26∠ − 73.38◦A; I = 18.1∠0.88◦;
A B
CHAPTER - 5
Three phase circuits
Learning objectives
Three phase voltage generation Star-connected system
• Phase and line quantities
• Active and reactive power Delta-connected system
• Phase and line quantities
• Active and reactive power Measurement of three
phase power
• One watt meter method
• Two watt meter method
• Three watt meter method
233
In Chapter 4 we dealt with single-phase ac circuits. A single-phase source is

connected to the load as shown in Fig. 5.1
V∠φ I
+ Load
−
Figure 5.1 Single phase system. We have analyzed in detail such circuits.
The current drawn, the active power, the reactive power and the power factor
have all been dealt in the previous chapter.
Circuits or systems in which the ac sources operate at the same frequency

but with different phases are known as polyphase systems. Figure 5.2 shows
a two-phase, three-wire system.
a
V 0°+ ZL1− n
V −90°+ ZL2−
b
Figure 5.2 Two phase system.
A two-phase system is produced by a generator consisting of two coils
placed perpendicular to each other so that the voltage generated by one lags
the other by 90◦. Similarly, a three-phase system is produced by a generator
considering of three coils displaced by 120◦. This produces three voltages
equal in magnitude and phase but displaced by 120◦ as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Three phase systems are the most popular worldwide. The advantages of
three phase systems are as follows:
• For a given frame size of a machine, polyphase machines deliver more

output. In other words, a three phase machine of a given power output is of
smaller size than a single phase machine of the same power output.
−+
0° ZL1Vp
−+
Vp −120°ZL2
−+
120°ZL3Vp +
Figure 5.3 Three phase system.
• A three phase alternator supplies a larger amount of power than a single
phase alternator of the same size.
• The power delivered by a single phase system is pulsating in nature and

hence they produce pulsating torque. Three phase systems produce a
constant power which is not pulsating and hence produce uniform torque.
• The parallel operation of three phase alternators is smoother than that of

single phase alternators.
• In order to transmit the same amount of power at the same voltage a
polyphase system requires less conductor material than a single phase
system.
• Single phase motors are not self-starting while three phase motors are self-
starting. They produce a unidirectional torque which makes them self
starting, while the pulsating torque of single phase motors gives an average
torque of zero, making it necessary to have a starter.
This chapter will deal with three phase circuits.
5.1. Balanced three-phase voltage
A simple three phase generator is shown in Fig. 5.4.
The generator basically consists of a rotor surrounded by a stationary

element called the stator. Three separate windings (also called coils) a–a and
b–b and c–c are placed physically 120◦ apart around the stator. The rotor is a
rotating magnet. This could be
Figure 5.4 Three-phase generator.
a permanent magnet or an electromagnet excited by a dc voltage. As the

rotor rotates, its magnetic field cuts the stator coils, thus inducing an voltage
in the coils according to Faraday’s law. Since the coils are 120◦ apart, the
induced voltages are equal in magnitude but out of phase by 120◦. The three
voltages are shown in Fig. 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Three phase voltages.
A three-phase system can be considered to be made of three single-phase

systems. The voltages of the three coils Van, Vbn and Vcn can be connected
in two ways star (wye) or delta as shown in Fig. 5.6.
5.2. Star-connected system

5.2.1. Star-connected voltages
The star-connected voltages (also called Wye-connected) are shown in Fig.

5.6(a). The voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn are the voltages produced in the
individual coils. The similar
+ Ia + a+ + Iab Ica Ia− a +
− Van Vp Vbn + −Van V
ca− ab = VLIn V
n Vca Vab Vbn
Vcn Ib b + c− +
Ibc Vcn Ic b −Ic c − +
Vbc Vbc (a)−− (b) Ib −+ Figure 5.6 Three phase voltage sources.
points of the windings are joined together to form the neutraln. These
voltages are called the phase voltages. The terminals a, b, c are called line
terminals. If the coils of Fig. 5.4 are identical these three voltages will have
the same magnitude and frequency and will be displaced by 120◦ such a
system is said to be a balanced three-phase system.
Balanced three-phase voltages are equal in magnitude and frequency and are
out of phase with each other by 120◦.
We have two possible combinations for the voltages.
V an = Vp∠0◦ Vbn = Vp∠−120◦ Vcn = Vp∠−240◦ = Vp∠120◦ (5.1)
Here, Vp is the rms value of the voltage and as called the phase voltage.
Phase sequence is said to be ‘abc’. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig.
5.7(a). The rotation of the phasors is taken to be counter clockwise as is the
convention. In Fig. 5.7(b)
V an = Vp∠0◦ Vbn = Vp∠+120◦ Vcn = Vp∠−120◦ (5.2)
Vcn Vbn
ωω
120° 120° 120° 120°
Van V °
an
-120° -120
Vbn (b)Vcn(a)
Figure 5.7 Three-phase voltage phasors.
The phase sequence is said to be ‘ acb’. In power systems the three phases
are designated R (red), Y (yellow) and B (blue) and these colour cables are
used to specify the phases. The phase sequence is either ‘RYB’ or ‘RBY’.
5.2.2. Phase and line quantities in star-connected systems
The voltage induced in each of the coils of the three phase alternator is
called the phase voltage. The voltage between two terminals (refer Fig.
5.6(a)) a–b, b–c and c–a is called line-voltage. The current flowing through
the coils is called phase current and the current flowing through the line is
called line-current. We now derive the relationship between the line and
phase quantities.
Vab = Van − Vbn
Vbc = Vbn − Vcn
Vca = Vcn − Van (5.3)
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 5.8

Vab = Van − Vbn Vab = (Van)2 + (V 2 ) + 2VanVbn cos 60◦ (law of
parallelogram)bn
Vca Vcn Vab
60°
Van
Vbn
Vbc Figure 5.8 Line and phase voltages in star connected system.
In balanced system, Van = Vbn = Vcn = VP (Phase voltage)
Vab = VL = V 2 + V 2 + 2VPVP + 1 = √3VP.P P 2
The phasor line voltages are,
= √3VP∠−90◦Vbc = √
Vab = √3VP∠30◦ 3VP∠150◦Vca
It can be seen that the currents flowing through the lines are same as currents
flowing through the respective coils. Therefore, the line current is equal to
the phase current in a star connected system.
Thus in a star connected system.

(i) The magnitude of the line voltage is√3 times the magnitude of the phase
voltage.
VL = √3VP (5.4)
(ii) Balanced phase voltages produce balanced line voltages. The line
voltages are displaced by 120◦ and are 30◦ ahead of their respective phase
voltages. (iii) The line current is equal to the phase current.
IL = IP (5.5)
5.2.3. Power in star connected systems The active power in each phase
Pphase = VPIP cosφ The total three-phase power
P3φ = 3VPIP cosφ
= 3 √3
VL (IL)cosφ
= √3VLIL cosφ
= √3VLIL cosφ (5.6)P3φ
Similarly,
Q3φ = √3VLIL sinφ (5.7)
Its important to note that the angle φ in (5.6) and (5.7) is the phase angle
between the phase voltage and phase current. In a balanced system the
power factor is same in all the three phases. It does not make sense to talk of
phase angle between line voltages and line currents! Therefore, the power
factor always refers to the power factor of the phase.
Apparent power,
S3φ = √3VLIL (5.8)
Under balanced conditions the sum of the line currents is zero.
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
a
Ia
230 8 + j6Ω 3
230Vn
8 + j6Ω
8 + j6Ω bIbc
Ic
Applying KCL at the neutral pointn we getIn=−(Ia + Ib + Ic). In three wire
systems where there is no neutral wire Ia + Ib + Ic is always zero.
Example 5.1 A balanced star connected load of 8+ j6 is connected to a 3-

phase, 230V supply. Find the line currents, phase currents, pf, active power,
reactive power and total volt amperes .
Solution: Note that in a three phase system, the specified voltage is always
line-to-line unless otherwise mentioned. The phase voltage is
VP = 230 = 132.79 V√3
Lets take phase a as reference. Then (i)
Van = 132.79∠0◦ Vbn = 132.79∠−120◦ Vcn = 132.79∠+120◦ (ii)

I
a
=
Van 132.79∠0◦ ◦ Z =10∠36.86◦ = 13.279∠−36.86
◦ − 120◦ = 13.279∠−156.86◦Ib =13.279∠−36.86

Ic =13.279∠−36.86◦ + 120◦ = 13.279∠83.14◦
The phase currents are equal to the line currents. (iii) pf = cos(36.86◦) = 0.8
(iv)
Pphase=|VP||IP|cosφ
= 132.79× 13.279× 0.8 = 1410.65 W
(v) P3φ = 3Pphase = 1410.65× 3 = 4231.96 W
(vi) Q3φ = 3|VP||IP|sinφ = 3173.97 W
(vii) S3φ = P 2 + Q2 = (4231.96)2 + (3173.97)2 = 5289.95 VA
Check: = √3VLIL = √3× 230× 13.279 = 5289.97 VA.S3φ
5.3. Delta-connected system
The delta-connected voltages are shown in Fig. 5.6(b). The three coils are
connected to form a as shown, with correct polarities. Here too we can have
the phase sequence defined by (5.1) as ‘abc’ and (5.2) as ‘acb’.
5.3.1. Phase and line quantities in delta-connected systems It can be seen

from Fig. 5.6(b) that
V ab = Van
Vbc = Vbn
Vca = Vcn (5.9)
Thus the line voltages(Vab,Vbc andVca)are equal to the phase voltages.

(Van,Vbn andVcn). The line currents can be related to phase currents by
applying KCL at the nodes in Fig. 5.6(b).
I a = Iab − Ica
Ib = Ibc − Iab
Ic = Ica − Ibc (5.10)
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 5.10
I a = Iab − Ica = Iab − Iab∠120◦ (5.11) = Iab(1− 1∠120◦)

= Iab(1+ 0.5− j0.866)= √3Iab∠−30◦ (5.12)
Ic
Ica
30°Iab
Ib
IbcIa
Figure 5.10 Phase and line currents in delta connected system.
Thus in delta connected systems
(i) The phase voltage is equal to the line voltage.
VL = VP (5.13) (ii) The magnitude of the line current is√3 times the
magnitude of the phase current.
IL = √3IP
(iii) The line currents lag the corresponding phase currents by 30◦. Here, care
should be taken about the assumed directions of currents. If the directions
are different, the phasor diagram has to be drawn consistent with the
assumed directions.
5.3.2. Power in delta connected systems

The active power in each phase Pphase = VPIP cosφ. The total three-phase
power
P
3
φ
=
3
V
P
I
P
cos
φ
=
3
I
VL √L cosφ
=√
3 3VLIL cosφ
P3 = √3VLIL cosφφ
Similarly
Q3φ = √3VLIL sinφ (5.14)
Here too, the angle φ is the angle between the phase current and phase
voltage. The apparent power
S3φ = √3VLIL (5.15)
Example 5.2 A balanced delta connected load of 8+ j6 is connected to a 3-

phase, 230V supply. Find the line currents, phase currents, pf, active power,
reactive power and total volt amperes. Compare with the same load
connected in star.
Solution: The currents are shown in Fig. 5.11

Ia IabIca
8 + j6Ω 8 + j6Ω
Ib Ibc 8 + j6Ω
Ic Figure 5.11 Example 5.2.

The phase voltage is equal to line voltage.
VL = 230 V VP = 230 V
Let us take Vab as the reference phasor.
Vab = 230∠0◦ V
Vbc = 230∠−120◦ V Vca = 230∠+120◦ V
(i) Phase currents

Iab = Vab =230∠0◦ ◦ AZab 10∠36.86◦ = 23∠−36.86
◦
I◦ Abc = Vbc = 230∠−120 = 23∠−156.86Zbc 10∠36.86◦
230
∠
+
120
◦
I◦ Aca = Vca =10∠36.86◦ = 23∠83.14Zca
(ii) Line currents
Ia = Iab − Ica = 23∠−36.86− 23∠83.14◦ = 39.84∠−66.86◦ A Ib = Ibc − Iab =

39.84∠−186.86◦ A Ic = Ica − Ibc = 39.84∠53.14◦ A
(iii)◦) = 0.8 p.f. = cos(36.86

(iv) Pphase=|VP||IP|cosφ = 230× 23× 0.8 = 4232 W (v) P3φ = √3VLIL cosφ =
√3× 230× 39.84× 0.8 = 12696.9 W (vi) Q3φ = √3VLIL sinφ = √3× 230×
39.84× 0.6 = 9522.62 Var (vii) S3φ = √3VLIL = 15871.13 VA
The comparison with the star connected load is shown in Table 5.1 (Example
5.1 and 5.2). Notice that the same load when connected in delta consumes
three times more power than when connected in star, the three phase supply
voltage being the same in both cases. Table 5.1
Star connected Delta connected Quantity system system
Phase voltage 132.79V 230V Line voltage 230V 230V Phase current
13.279A 23A Line current 13.279A 39.84A Single phase active power
1410.65W 4232W Three phase active power 4231.96W 12696.9W Three
phase reactive power 3173.97 Var 9522.68 Var Three phase apparent power
5289.95 VA 15871.13 VA Power factor 0.8 0.8
Example 5.3 A balanced three phase star connected load of 150 kW takes a
leading current of 100 A with a line voltage of 1100 V, 50 Hz. Find the
circuit elements of the load.
Solution: Since the load takes a leading current it is a capacitive load.

ZP = RP − jXCP; VL = 1100 V; IL = 100 A P 3φ = 150 kW = √3VLIL cosφ
150
×
10
3
cosφ = √3× 1100× 100 = 0.7873 VP = VL = 1100 635.08 V√3 √3 =
IP = IL = 100 A
VP = 635.08 = 6.3508|Z |=
P IP 100
RP = ZP cosφ = 6.3508× 0.7873 = 5
XCP = ZP sinφ = 6.3508× 0.6166 = 3.9159
1= −4 1
2× π × 50× 3.9159 = 8.128× 10 F = 812.8µFC =
ωXCP
Example 5.4 Solve Example 5.3 if the current taken by the load is a lagging
current, with all other values being same.
Solution: Since it is a lagging current it is an inductive load.
ZP = RP + jXLP Since all values are same, ZP = 6.3508 . RP = ZP cosφ =
6.3508× 0.7873 = 5 XLP = 3.9159
XLP = 3.9159 = 0.01247 HL =
ω 314
Example 5.5 A three phase, balanced delta-connected load of(4+ j8)is

connected across a 415 V, 3-phase balanced supply. Determine the phase
currents and line currents if the phase sequence is RYB. Also calculate the
power drawn by the load. Solution: Let us take VRY as reference.
VRY = 415∠0◦; VYB = 415∠−120◦; VBR = 415∠+120◦ ZP = 4+ j8 =

8.94∠63.4◦
Phase currents:
IRY = VRY =415∠0◦ ◦ AZP 8.94∠63.4◦ = 46.42∠−63.4
IYB = VYB = 415∠−120◦ ◦ AZP 8.94∠63.4◦ = 46.42∠−183.4
IBR = VBR =415∠120◦ ◦ AZP 8.94∠63.4◦ = 46.42∠56.6
Line currents:
IR = IRY − IBR
= 46.42∠−63.4◦ − 46.42∠56.6◦ = (20.785− j41.5) − (25.55+ j38.75)
=−4.765− j80.25 = 80.39∠−93.4◦ A
IY = IYB − IRY = 80.39∠−213.4◦ A I B = IBR − IYB = 80.39∠26.6◦ A
Example 5.6 Calculate the line currents in the circuit of Fig. 5.12.
Solution:
I
a
=
110∠0◦
(5− j2) + (10+ j8) = 110∠0◦ ◦ A16.155∠21.8◦ = 6.81∠−21.8 Ib = Ia∠−120◦ =
6.81∠−141.8◦ A
Ia
+ 110 0° V− j2Ω A5 10 + j8Ω−
110 +120° 110 −120° V 10 + j8Ω
5 − j2Ω Ib B 10 + j8Ω
Ic Ic C
5 − j2Ω Figure 5.12 Example 5.6.
Example 5.7 A Y-connected balanced three phase generator has an

impedance of
0.4+ j0.3 per phase. It is connected to a Y-connected load with an impedance
of
24 + j19 per phase through lines with an impedance of 0.6 + j0.7 .If Van =
120∠30◦ V, phase sequence is ‘abc’, find the line voltages and line currents.
Solution: Such problems can be solved by drawing a single phase equivalent

circuit, since all elements are balanced. The single phase equivalent is shown
in Fig. 5.13.
Total impedance per phase = (0.4+ j0.3) + (0.6+ j0.7) + (24+ j19) = 25+ j20
= 32.016∠38.66◦
Generatora LineIa
0.4 + j0.3Ω 0.6 + j0.7ΩLoadVan + 24 + j19Ω120 30° −
Line currents:120∠30◦ ◦ AIa = Van 3.748∠−8.66Z = 32.016∠38.66◦ =
120◦ = 3.748∠−128.66◦ AIb = Ia∠−
Ic = Ia∠+120◦ = 3.748∠+111.34◦ A
Line voltages:
= √3Van∠30◦ = √3× ∠30◦ × 1∠30◦Vab
= 207.85∠60◦ V Vbc = Vab∠−120◦ = 207.85∠−60◦ V Vca = Vab∠+120◦ =
207.85∠+180◦ V
Example 5.8 A balanced ‘abc’ sequenceY-connected source withVan =

100∠10◦ V is connected to -connected balanced load(8+ j4) per phase.
Calculate the phase and line currents.
Solution: The source is Y-connected Van = 100∠10◦.

= √3Van∠30◦ = √3× 100∠10◦ + 30◦∴ line voltage Vab
= 173.2∠40◦ V.
Load is -connected. The phase current Iab = Vab 173.2∠40◦ 173.2∠40◦ ◦ AZ =
8+ j4 = 8.944∠26.57◦ = 19.365∠13.43
Ibc = Iab∠−120◦ = 19.365∠−106.57◦ A I ca = Iab∠+120◦ = 19.365∠+133.43◦ A
The line currents are,
Ia = √3Iab∠−30◦ = 33.54∠−16.57◦ A I b = Ia∠−120◦ = 33.54∠−136.57◦ A
5.4. Measurement of three phase power
The power consumed by a load is measured by an instrument called

‘Wattmeter’. The wattmeter has two coils: the current coil designated by
lettersM andL;a voltage coil (or potential coil or pressure coil) designated by
lettersC andV. The wattmeter is connected as shown in Fig. 5.14.
ML IL +
C V V LoadSource
L
− Figure 5.14 Connections of wattmeter.
The current coil M–L has a very low resistance and carries the load current
IL. The potential coilC–V has a very high resistance. It can be seen that the
voltage acrossC–V is the load voltage VL plus the drop across the current
coil. Since the resistance of the current coil is very small the voltage drop
across it is also very small. Hence, the voltage acrossC–V is almost equal
toVL. The wattmeter shows the readingVLIL cosφ, whereφ is the power
factor angle. The reading of the wattmeter under any connection is given by,
W =|Current through current coil|×|Voltage across potential coil| × cos
(Phase angle between current and voltage)
The power in a three phase circuit can be measured in different ways.
5.4.1. Measurement with one wattmeter
This method is used for balanced three phase loads. In balanced circuits, the
total three phase power is three times the phase power. Hence, the wattmeter
is connected to read the phase power as shown in Fig. 5.15(a) and (b). P3φ =
W × 3 where W is the wattmeter reading.
The disadvantage of this method is:

1. It can be used only for balanced load.
2. In star connected load the neutral must be available.
aML
C
V
Zp L Zp
Zp
n V M Zp Zp C
b Zp (a) c (b)
Figure 5.15 Measurement of three phase power with one wattmeter.
3. In delta connected load (say a delta connected motor) it may not be
possible to break open the delta connection to connect the wattmeter.
5.4.2. Measurement with two wattmeter method
In the measurement of three phase power using two wattmeters, the
connections are made as shown in Fig. 5.16.
W
1
I
a aIaa
W1
+ + Iab Ica
Vab Vab
b − Ib b − Ib
− − IbcV V
cb cb
+ Ic c + Icc
(a) W2 (b) W2
Figure 5.16 Measurement of three phase power with two wattmeters.
Vcb = −Vbc
Vcn
Vca Ic Vab
φ 30°
30°
φ Van Ib φIa
Vbn
Vbc
Figure 5.17 Phasor diagram for star connected system.
The connections are shown for both star and delta-connected systems. The
phasor diagram for the star connected system is shown in Fig. 5.17.
W1 = VabIa cos(30◦ + φ) = VLIL cos(30◦ + φ) (5.16) (Here the angle
between Vab and Ia is 30◦ + φ)
W2 = VcbIc cos(30◦ − φ) = VLIL cos(30◦ − φ) (5.17) (Here the angle between
Vcb and Ic is 30◦ − φ)
W1 + W2 = VLIL[cos(30◦ + φ) + cos(30◦ − φ)]
= VLIL[cos 30◦ cosφ − sin 30◦ sinφ + cos 30◦ cosφ + sin 30◦ sinφ]√3 cosφ =
√3VLIL cosφ.= 2VLIL cos 30◦ cosφ = 2VLIL 2
Thus
W1 + W2 = √3VLIL cosφ
= P3φ (5.18) Similarly,
√
W2 − W1 = 2V
3
W
2
−
W
1
=√
LIL sin 30◦ sinφ = VLIL sinφ
3VLIL sinφ = Q3φ = √3W2 − W1 (5.19)Q3φ
From (5.18) and (5.19) √ √3W2 − W1 = √3VLIL sinφ = tanφW1 + W2 3VLIL cosφ
tanφ = √3W2 − W1 (5.20)W1 + W2
The phasor diagram for the delta connected system of Fig. 5.15(b) is shown
in Fig. 5.18.
Vcb = −Vbc Ic
Vca Ica
30° − φ
φ
φ Vab
Ibcφ 30°
Iab
Vbc
Ia
Figure 5.18 Phasor diagram for delta connected system.
From the connection of Fig. 5.15(b)
W1 = VabIa cos(30◦ + φ) = VLIL cos(30◦ + φ) W2 = VcbIc cos(30◦ − φ) =
VLIL cos(30◦ − φ) Thus, W1 + W2 = √3VLIL cosφ as in star connected
systems. W2 − W1 = VLIL sinφ. The power factor can be found out by
evaluatingφ from (5.21).
We will now consider different cases possible and see what the wattmeters
would read. Case (i)
φ = 0◦ φ = 0, when power factor is unity or purely resistive loads.
√3
W1 = VLIL cos(30◦ + 0◦) = VLIL cos 30◦ =2 VLIL √3
W2 = VLIL cos(30◦ + 0◦) = VLIL cos 30◦ =2 VLIL √3
∴ W1 = W2 =2 VLIL
The two wattmeter readings are equal. Case (ii) φ = 30◦

W1 = VLIL cos 60◦ = 1VLIL2
W2 = VLIL cos(30◦ − 30◦) = VLIL W2 = 2W1
Case (iii) φ = 60◦
W
1 = VLIL cos(30◦ + 60◦) = 0 √3 W2 = VLIL cos(30◦ − 60◦) = VLIL cos 30◦ =2
VLIL
Case (iv) whenφ> 60◦ In this case (30◦ + φ) > 90◦. Hence cos(30◦ + φ) is
negative. This means thatW1 will read negative, or the needle of the
wattmeter will kick back. The current coil is reversed to give an upscale
reading and the reading is taken to be negative. The reading of W2 will be
positive.
Case (v) φ = 90◦
W 1 = VLIL cos(30◦ + 90◦) =−0.5VLIL W2 = ILIL cos(30− 90◦) = 0.5VLIL

W1 + W2 = 0 Since φ = 90◦ the power consumed is zero.
Note that W1 is the reading of the wattmeter whose current coil is connected
to the leading phase. For example, if the current coils are connected in lines
R and Y (sequence RYB), the reading of wattmeter connected to lineR is W1
and the other one W2.
Further,
1. If W2 = W1, the load is resistive.

2. If W2>W1, the load is inductive.
3. If W2<W1 ,the load is capacitive.
The advantages of the two wattmeter method are

• It can be used for both balanced and unbalanced loads, either resistive,
inductive or capacitive.
• It can be used for three wire systems either star or delta connected.
However, it cannot be used for three phase four-wire system (where we have
three line wires and a neutral wire) unless the neutral current is zero.
5.4.3. Three wattmeter method
This method is used for three phase four wire systems. Here, the wattmeters
are connected in all the three phases to measure the power taken by each
phase. The connections are shown in Fig. 5.19.
W = Wa + Wb + Wc
Example 5.9 Balanced three phase voltages with sequence ‘abc ’ are applied
to a balanced star-connected load of(10+j10)per phase.Vab = 100√3∠0◦ V.
Wattmeters are connected, with current coils ina andc. FindWa andWc and
find the load power factor from Wa and Wc.
Ia Waa
+ Za
n Zb Zc
b Wb
cIc Wc
Figure 5.19 Power measurement in three phase four wire systems.
Solution:
Z = 10+ j10
φ = tan−1 10 = 45◦ √
10
VL = 100 3V
VL = 100 VV =
P √3
IP = IL = √100 = 5√2A102 + 102
W1 = Wa = VLIL cos(30◦ + φ) = 100√3× 5√2× cos 75◦ = 317 W cos(30◦ − φ)
= 100√3× 5√2× cos(−15◦) = 1183 WW2 = Wc = VLIL
Total three phase power = 317+ 1183 = 1500 W.
Check = √3VLIL cosφ = √3 100√3× 5√2× cos∠45◦ = 1500 W. P3φ
Total Three phase reactive power = √3(W2 − W1)
= √3(1183− 317) = 1500 Var
Check Q3φ = √3VLIL sinφ = √3 100√3× 5√2× sin∠45◦ = 1500 Var.
For sequence a,b,c
Wc − Wa = √ 1183− 317
tanφ = √3 3 = 1.0Wc + Wa 1183+ 317
or φ = 45 ◦
Example 5.10 Two wattmeters produce readings W1 = 1560 W and W2 =

2100 W, when connected to a delta-connected load. If the line voltage is 220
V, calculate (i) per-phase active power (ii) per-phase reactive power (iii)
power factor (iv) phase impedance.
Solution:
(i) Total active power = W1 + W2 = 1560+ 2100 = 3660 W
Per-phase active power = 3660 = 1220 W.3
(ii) Total three phase reactive power= √3(W2− W1) = √3(2100−1560) =
935.3 Var. Per-phase reactive power = 935.3 = 311.77 var.3
(iii) Power factor angle φ = tan−1 Q = tan−1 311.77 = 14.33◦.P 1220
Power factor = cosφ = cos 14.33◦ = 0.9689.
Example 5.11 A 15 HP, 3-phase induction motor is working at full load with
an efficiency of 90% at a pf of 0.8. What would be the reading of the two
wattmeters connected to measure the input power.
Solution: Output = 15× 735.5 = 11, 032.5 W

Input Output = 12,258.33 W = W1 + W2 (i) =η
Now pf = 0.8; cosφ = 0.8; tanφ = 0.75.
√3(W2 − W1)
tanφ = W2 + W1
√3(W2 − W1)
0.75 = 12, 258.33
W2 − W1 = 5, 308 W (ii) Solving (i) and (ii) for W1 and W2 we get, W1 = 3,

475.15 W 8, 783.18 WW2 =
Example 5.12 The power to a 3-phase induction motor was measured by

two wattmeters whose readings were −1200 W and 3400 W. Calculate the
total power and pf of the motor.
Solution:
W1=−1200 W
3400 WW2 =
Total power = W1 + W2=−1200+ 3400 = 2200 W
W2 − W1 = √ 4600
tan = √3 3 = 3.6216φ W2 + W1 2200
φ = 74.56 ◦
pf = cosφ = 0.266
Example 5.13 Each of the two wattmeters connected to measure the input of
a three phase balanced resistive load read 10 KW. What would be the
readings of the wattmeters if the power factor falls to 0.866 lag, when the
input power is unchanged.
Solution:
W1 + W2 = 10+ 10 = 20 kW cosφ = 0.866; φ = 30◦
√3V I cosφ = 20 kW
L L
20
×
10
3
VLIL =√3× 0.866 = 13,333.72 VA
W1 = VLIL cos(30◦ + φ) = 13, 333.72× cos(30◦ + 30◦) = 6,666.86 W W2 =
VLIL cos(30◦ − φ) = 13, 333.72× cos(30◦ − 30◦) = 13,333.72 W
Example 5.14 Find the readings of the three wattmeters of Fig. 5.20. If the
supply is balanced and Van = 100∠0◦. The phase sequence is ‘acb’.
Ia W1 + V
15 an Ω
In − n 6Ω
10Ω −j8Ω Ib j5Ω
Ic
Solution:
Van = 100∠0◦ V
Vbn = 100∠120◦ V
Vcn = 100∠−120◦ V
Za = 15 ; Zb = 10+ j5 = 11.18∠26.56◦ ; Zc = 6− j8 = 10∠−53.13◦ .
Van = 100∠0◦ ◦ AIa =Za 15 = 6.67∠0

◦ ◦ AI = Vbn =100∠120 = 8.94∠93.44
b Zb 11.18∠26.56◦
100∠−120◦ ◦
AIc = Vcn =10∠−53.13◦ = 10∠−66.87Zc
The neutral current is
In=−(Ia + Ib + Ic) = (6.67− 0.54+ j8.92+ 3.93− j9.2) −10.06+ j0.28 =
10.06∠178.4◦ A
W1 = VanIa cos(angle between Van and Ia)
= 100× 6.67× cos(0◦ − 0◦) = 667 W
Similarly
W2 = VbnIb cos(angle between Vbn and Ib) = 100× 8.94× cos(120◦ − 93.44◦)
= 800 W
W3 = VcnIc cos(angle between Vcn andIc) = 600 W.
Total power absorbed = W1 + W2 + W3 = 667+ 800+ 600 = 2067 W. As a
check the power absorbed is|Ia|2Ra+|Ib|2Rb+|Ic|2+ Rc =
6.672×15+8.942×10+102×6 = 2067 W.
Example 5.15 A delta connected load with impedance ofZP = 30−j40 per
phase is connected to a balanced three phase supply of 440 V. Find the
wattmeter readings, total active power and total reactive power.
Solution:
ZP = 30− j40 = 50∠−53.13◦ φ =−53.13◦
440 VVP = VL =
|IP|= VP = 440 8.8 A
=√
ZP 50 =
IL 3IP = 15.242 A.
W1 = VLIL cos(30◦ + φ) = 440× 15.242× cos(30◦ − 53.13◦) = 6,167.38 W. W2
= VLIL cos(30◦ − φ) = 440× 15.242× cos(30◦ − (−53.13)◦) = 802.21 W. Total
active power = W1 + W2 = 6,969.59 W
Total reactive power = √3(W2 − W1) = √3(802.21− 6,167.38) =−9,292.74.
The reactive power is negative because it is a capacitive load.

Questions
(1) Explain how three phase voltages are generated.
(2) What are the advantages of three phase systems.
(3) Derive the relationship between line and phase quantities in (i) star (ii)
delta. (4) Explain the three Wattmeter method of power measurement.
(5) Show that two Wattmeters are sufficient to measure power in three phase
three wire systems.
(6) How can three phase reactive power be measured with two Wattmeters.
(7) Three star connected loads take 8KW at a power factor of 0.8 lag when a
voltage of 460V is applied. Find the circuit elements.
Ans:R/Phase = 16.9 ; XL/Phase = 12.66 .
(8) When three identical coils are star connected and supplied with 440V,
50Hz, the single phase Wattmeter connected in one of the phases reads 6KW
and the line current ammeter reads 60A. Find
(i) resistance and reactance of the coil

(ii) power factor of the coil
(iii) reactive power absorbed by the coil.
Ans: (i) Rph = 6.66 ; XLph = 5.22
(ii) pf = 0.787 lag
(iii) Q = 14.083K Var.
(9) A 220V, 3φ voltage is applied bo a balanced -connected load of phase

impedance (15+ j20). Find
(i) line current

(ii) power consume per phase
Ans: (i) IL = 15.24A; (ii) Pph = 462W.
(10) The phase voltage and phase current of a star-connected inductive load
is 150V and 25A respectively. The power factor of load is 0.707 lag.
Assuming that the system is a 3 wire one and power is measured with two
Wattmeters find their readings.
Ans: W1 = 6273W; W2 = 1681W.

CHAPTER - 6
Electrical Wiring and Estimation
Learning objectives
List of symbols
Supply voltage in India
Service connection
Interior wiring
Cable specification
Simple wiring schemes
Lighting sources
Fuses
Miniature circuit breaker
Earth leakage circuit breaker
Earthing
Computation of energy consumption Ratings of electrical appliances BEE
star rating
Electric shock
265
6.1. Introduction
Electrical appliances like lights, fans, motors, heaters, etc. are connected to
the supply by means of insulated wires. The operation of these appliances is
controlled by switches. There are different ways an electrical appliance can
be controlled, with one or more switches. The wiring diagram gives the
layout of the appliances and the way in which they are connected. The
electric circuit has to be designed to protect the equipment and personnel
using it in the event of a fault occurring. Devices like fuses and circuit
breakers are used to cut off the supply when a fault occurs, ensuring safety
to equipment and people. Earthing of equipment is done to ensure safety of
the people using the appliances. Standardization of equipment, symbols,
drawings, etc. is done by the Bureau of Indian Standards. In this chapter, we
will learn various aspects of wiring, earthing, protection and estimation of
power requirement for common electrical appliances.
6.2. List of Symbols

Standard symbols are used to represent electrical equipment and supply. The
common ones are listed below. The reader should realize that this list is far
from being exhaustive.
Symbol Equipment
Direct current Alternate current Apparatus suitable for both a.c. and d.c. Line
or cable existing Line or cable planned
Undergraound cable
Flexible conductor
Two conductors (single line representation) Two conductors (multi line
representation) Three conductors (single line representation)
Three conductors (multi line representation) or Terminal

Symbol Equipment
Junction of conductors or Double junction of conductors

Earth
Frame or chassis connection
Frame or chassis earth connection
Fault
Screen
Screened conductor
One way switch

Two way switch
Intermediate switch
Three pole switch
Circuit breaker
Socket Plug
Plug and socket
5A socket outlet
15A socket outlet
Symbol Equipment
or Lamp
Ceiling fan
Exhaust fan
or Fuse
Horn
Bell
6.3. Supply Voltages

In every country the electric supply authorities deliver power to the
consumer at a standard voltage. In India the supply voltages are,
240V, 50Hz, 2 wire, Single phase 415V, 50Hz, 4 wire, Three phase
Standardization of supply voltage and frequency is important to both

electricity supply authorities as well as manufacturers of electrical
equipment. In a 3-phase, 4-wire power distribution system, power is
supplied from the sub-station through 4 wires. Three of these wires are
called live wires or line wires. The fourth is called the neutral wire and is
earthed in the substation. Heavy motor and heating loads are provided with
3-phase, 4-wire supply. Electric loads of the consumers are connected in
such a way that all three phases are loaded equally. In such a case, the
neutral wire carries no current.
Distinction should be made between the voltage at the point of supply, the
nominal system voltage and the voltage rating of the equipment, the
utilization voltage. Typically the utilization voltage is 3–5% lower than the
nominal system voltage. In India, the single phase electrical appliances are
rated at 230V.
The voltage fluctuation permitted is governed by the Indian electricity rules.

6.4. Service Connection
The electric service utility supplies power to the consumers through a low
voltage three phase four-wire distribution system called the secondary
distribution system. The supplier’s distribution system brings power to the
consumer through overhead lines or by underground cables to a place just
outside the consumer’s premises. The line bringing electric power from the
supplier’s low voltage distributor upto the energy meter installed at the
consumer’s premises is called the service connection.
The supplier’s service line has to be connected to the internal wiring of the
consumer. The consumer has to be charged for the electrical energy
consumed. This is done by an energy meter supplied by the service provider.
The connections are shown in Fig. 6.1.
EM
Energy meter
Cut Main Distribution Incoming out switch box cable Sub circuits
Figure 6.1 Meter distribution board.
The cut-out is the all familiar porcelain holders we see near the energy
meter. It consists of a fuse wire, which will flow off if the consumer draws
more current than the rating of the meter. This will ensure that the load is
disconnected from the supply. If the consumer defaults in payment of the
electricity bill, the service provider can discontinue the supply by removing
the cut-outs. Both the meter and the cut out belong to the service provider
and should not be tampered with.
The leads (wires) from the output terminals of the energy meter via the cut
out are connected to the consumer’s main switch. The main switch must be
located so as to be accessible by the consumer to enable the supply to be
switched off if necessary. After the main switch, supply is taken to various
sub circuits via the distribution board, through the interior wiring.
The main board and the distribution board should be located near the
entrance of the building. From the distribution board supply is taken to
different sub circuits. The subcircuits are divided into two groups:
(i) Fan and light sub-circuit

(ii) Power sub-circuit (other electrical appliances like geyser, air conditioner,
etc.)
6.5. Interior wiring
The wiring to be carried out inside the building where the cables are not
subjected to environmental disturbance but where safety towards living
persons has to be provided, is called interior wiring. The electrical load will
consist of a number of electrical appliances. The electric supply authority
provides electric supply at a point on the consumer premises. From there the
supply is taken to the main switchboard, where the energy consumption is
metered using an energy meter. Further, the wires are drawn along the
consumer’s building to distribute power to all points where load is situated.
This forms the consumer’s internal distribution system. The wiring system
selected will depend on the type of service required. The selection of the
type of wiring will include:
• Expected fire hazards

• Expected alterations/extensions
• Expected life of installation
• Type of construction of the building
• Atmospheric conditions like humidity, dampness, etc.
• Cost of wiring
• Aesthetics and appearance
• Maintenance
We briefly discuss different types of wiring.

6.5.1. Cleat wiring
This system is used for insulated cables like rubber insulated cable, PVC
cable etc. The cables are run over cleats made of porcelain. The cleats are
generally in pairs having bottom and top halves. The bottom half is grooved
to receive the wire and the top is for cable grip.
Initially the bottom and top cleats are fixed on the wall loosely according to
the layout.
Then the cable is drawn, tensioned and the cleats are tightened by a screw.
Cleats are fixed at regular intervals not exceeding 0.6m. Cleat wiring is one
of the cheapest wiring considering the initial cost and labor and is most
suited for temporary wiring. It can be quickly installed, easily inspected and
altered. When not required it can be dismantled without damage to the
cables, cleats and accessories. Cleat wiring is shown in Fig. 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Cleat wiring.

6.5.2. Wood Casing Wiring
In this type of wiring, cables are run inside a wooden casing having grooves.
This is then covered with wooden capping. The casing and capping should
be of well seasoned wood free from knots and defects. The wire used should
be vulcanized rubber or PVC insulated cables. The live and neutral wire in
case of single phase wiring installation and the different lines in three-phase
wiring installation, should not be bunched together in one groove. Wires of
the same phase may be bunched in one groove.
The casing is fixed by means of flat head wooden screws to wooden plugs at
an interval not exceeding 90cm. After all the wires are laid inside the
grooves of the casing, capping should be attached to the casing by rust
resistant screws fixed on edges and screwed to outer walls of the casing at an
interval not exceeding 15cm. The wood casing wiring is shown in Fig. 6.3.
6.5.3. Batten wiring

There are two classes of batten wiring.
(i) Using Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS)/Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS) or PVC
wire (ii) Using metal sheathed wire.
Figure 6.3 Wood casing wiring.
In this type of wiring the wires are fixed on varnished teak wood battens of
15mm thickness with the help of brass or tin clips of appropriate size. In
metal sheathed wiring the cables used are insulated wires, TRS or PVC, with
a metal outer covering of lead. The lead sheathing is efficiently earthed.
TRS cables should not be used in places exposed to sun, rain and in damp
places. PVC cables can be used even when exposed to sun, rain or in damp
places. Metal sheathed wiring should not be used in places where acids and
alkalies may be present. Further, metal sheathed wiring should not be buried
directly underground.
6.5.4. Conduit wiring
Conduit wiring consists of either PVC wires taken through rigid steel or
PVC conduit pipes as shown in Fig. 6.4. Conduit wiring may run over the
surface of the walls and ceiling or may be concealed under masonry work, as
is the case in most modern domestic and
Figure
6.4
Conduits.
commercial buildings. The wiring system thus may be (i) Surface conduit
(ii) Recessed (or concealed) conduit.
Surface Conduit wiring: This is an open conduit system. The conduit is

fixed on support such as a wall by means of saddles, the distance between
two saddles being around 80cm. The conduit is laid completely before cables
are drawn in. Surface conduit is used for factory lighting and motor wiring.
Usually metal conduits are used. Though expensive, replacement of
defective wiring is easy.
Recessed conduit wiring: In this system the conduit is placed in a chase cut
in the wall. In the case of buildings under construction the chase should be
provided in the wall, ceiling, etc. at the time of construction and should be
filled up neatly after placing the conduit and then the required finish should
be given to the wall causing the wiring to be completely concealed. The
conduit pipe should be fixed by means of staples or saddles not more than
60cm apart.
Suitable inspection boxes should be provided to permit periodical inspection

and to facilitate removal of wires if necessary. The inspection boxes should
be mounted flush with the wall. Concealed conduit wiring is used in
residential, commercial and public buildings to improve appearance. PVC
conduits are popular as they are less expensive compared to steel conduits.
They are also resistant to acids, alkalies, oil and moisture. They can be
buried in lime or cement plaster without adverse effects. They are not
suitable in locations prone to fire hazards.
6.5.5. Cable Specification

Cables are specified by
Type of insulation •
• Conductor material
• Size of wire
The size in case of copper conductor is specified in terms of number of

strands and the guage of each strand. British Standard Wire Guage is a set of
wire sizes given by BS (British Standard) and is generally abbreviated SWG.
It is also called Imperial Wire Guage and is used in India. A list of SWG and
the thickness in mm is given in Table 6.1.
A copper wire of 3/20 means the number of strands are 3 and the guage of
each strand is 20 SWG.
Table 6.1 British standard wire guage.
SWG mm
0 8.230
1 7.620
2 7.010
3 6.401
6 4.877
9 3.658
12 2.642
14 2.032
16 1.626
18 1.219
20 0.914
Another commonly used specification is the AWG or American Wire Guage.

Table 6.2 gives the AWG and the thickness (diametered) mm, along with the
cross section area (πd2/4). We can thus also specify the wire as 2 sq mm, 4
sq mm, 6 sq mm, etc.
Table 6.2 Cable specification. Diameter Area Maximum (mm) (sq mm)
Current AWG dπd2/4 Amps
0 8.25 53.46 245

1 7.35 42.39 211
2 6.54 33.61 181
3 5.83 26.65 158
5 4.62 16.76 118
8 3.26 8.36 73
12 2.05 3.31 41
15 1.45 1.65 28
20 0.81 0.52 11
6.6. Guidelines for sub-circuits and fittings
The guidelines are framed keeping safety in mind.
(i) Lights and fans may be wired on a common circuit. Each sub-circuit
should not have more than 10 points or 800 watts.
(iii) The load on each power sub-circuit should not be more than 3000 watts.
(iii) Control switches for fans and lights should be preferably located at the
entrance of the room.
(iv) Ceiling fans should not be fitted less than 2.75 m from ground level. (v)
Fuses and switches should be inserted in live conductor and not the neutral
conductor.
(vi) All metal parts like metallic fittings, lamp brackets, body of fans and
regulators, cooking ranges, geysers, etc. should be earthed.
(vii) If the lighting load exceeds 8 KVA, three phase supply is to be taken
and the load distributed equally over all the three phases.
(viii) The current rating of the wire used should correspond to the load
connected. (x) Installations with a load of more than 5 KVA must have an
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
6.7. Simple Wiring Schemes
In this section we will learn a few commonly used wiring schemes to
connect lights, fans and other electrical appliances.
6.7.1. Control with one switch
A single phase supply will have one live (also called line or phase) wire and
one neutral wire. The switch is introduced in the live wire. The connections
are made as shown in Fig. 6.5
L
230VFuse
Lamp N Figure 6.5 Control of Lamp with one switch.
50Hz Switch
Any appliance can be connected in place of the lamp. When the switch is
closed, the full supply voltage is applied across the device and it operates.
When the switch is opened the supply is cut off and the lamp gets switched
off.
Example 6.1 Draw the schematic diagram to show how three lamps can be
controlled each with a one way switch.
Solution: The wiring schematic is shown in Fig. 6.6. Each lamp is

controlled by an individual one way switch. The three lamps are connected
in parallel, so that switching on/off one lamp does not affect the operation of
the other.
L
S1 S2 S3
L1 L2 L3 N
Example 6.2 Discuss the operation of the circuit shown in Fig. 6.7.
L1 L2 L3 L
S1 S2 S3 N Figure 6.7 Example 6.2.
Solution: Here the lamps are connected in series with the switch in parallel.
Closing the switch short circuits the lamp and it will not glow. If we close
S2, S3 and open S1, then the full supply voltage comes across L1 and it
glows. If we now open S2, then the voltage comes across L1 and L2 in
series. If they are identical, then each lamp will have only 50% supply
voltage across it. Hence, they will glow less brightly. If now S3 is also
opened, each lamp will have 1/3rd the supply voltage across it. The
brightness will be further reduced. Therefore, this type of connection is not
used to control multiple lamps.
6.8. Two way control of lamps
This type of control is commonly used for staircases where there is one
switch at the bottom of the stairs and another at the top to control a lamp.
Hence, this type of connection is also called staircase connection and is
shown in Fig. 6.8.
S1 S2 1 1
L
2 2 Two way switches
N
Lamp
Figure 6.8 Two way control of lamp.
Both switches S1 and S2 are two way switches and can be switched to either
position 1 or 2. The various combinations of the switches and the condition
of the lamp are shown in Table 6.3 and the corresponding connection in Fig.
6.9(a) and (d).
Table 6.3 Two way switch positions.

S1 S2 Lamp
11 ON
1 2 OFF
2 1 OFF
22 ON
S1 S2 S1 S21 1 1 1
L22L
22
N GlowsN
(a) Lamp (b) Lamp S1 S2S1 S2 1 11 1
L
L
2 22 2 N N Glows
(c) Lamp (d) Lamp Figure 6.9 Different switch positions in staircase
connection.
6.9. Three way control of lamps
This type of connection can be used to control a lamp with switches in three
different locations. For example, we can have a lamp in the second floor,
controlled by switches in first floor, second floor and third floor. The
connection makes use of three switches : S1 and S3 are two way switches
and S2 is an intermediate switch.
The connections are shown in Fig. 6.10. S1 and S3 have two positions: 1 and
2. Switch S2 can have two positions: Connect 1-4 and 3-2 or connect 1-2
and 3-4. In Fig. 6.10 it can be seen that the path is completed and the lamp
glows. Now the connection can be broken by any one of the following
switch operations:
• Switching S1 to position 1
• Switching S2 to position 1-2 and 3-4
• Switching S3 to position 2.
S1 S2 Connection S3 1 1
L
12
34
22
Connection
Glows
N
Lamp
Figure 6.10 Three way control of lamp.
Thus the lamp can be controlled by three switches. This type of connection
can be used in corridors and staircases.
Example 6.3 Give the connections for lighting a corridor as follows: When a
person enters the corridor from one end he puts on L1 with switch S1. Along
the corridor when he reaches position 2, he switches off L1 and puts on L2
simultaneously using S2. Similarly, further down he switches off L2 and puts
on L3 simultaneously using S3. Finally on reacting the end of the corridor he
switches off L3 using S4. In reverse direction the whole procedure is
repeated in reverse manner.
Solution: The connections described above is very commonly used in long

corridors. The connections are shown in Fig. 6.11.
S3 S4 1S1 S2 1
L2 2
L1 L2 L3
N Figure 6.11 Corridor connection.
The operation is as follows:
• The initial switch positions are as shown.
• Person enters corridor and closes S1. L1 glows.
• On reaching S2, he switches S2 to position 1. This makes L1 go OFF and
L2 ON.
• On reaching S3, he switches, S3 to position 1. This switches OFF L2 and

makes L3 ON.
• On reaching S4, S4 can be operated to make L3 OFF and person goes out
of corridor.
• If the person travels from other end then the lamps are switched on in the
order L3-L2-L1 in a reverse manner.
Example 6.4 What is the problem with Example 6.3. How can the circuit be
modified to overcome the problem.
Solution: The solution of Fig. 6.11 will pose problems if two persons enter
one after the other. The problem can be removed by adopting the connection
of Fig. 6.12
L
111
S1 S2 S3
222
N L1 L2
Figure 6.12 Alternate connection for corridor.

Example 6.5 Draw a schematic diagram to show the control of two lamps
and a fan with independent switches.
Solution: The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 6.13.
L
S1 S2 S3
R (regulator) L1 L2 F
N
6.10. Lighting Sources
There are a number of lighting sources. We will see the most commonly
used ones.
6.10.1. Incandescent lamp
The incandescent lamp (Fig. 6.14) works on the principle of incandescence

which is a general term for heat-driven light emissions. An electric current
passes through a thin filament, heating it to a temperature that produces
light. The filament is enclosed in a glass bulb that contains vacuum or an
inert gas to prevent oxidation of the hot filament.
Figure 6.14
Incandescent lamp.
Tungsten is very commonly used for the filament. The filament has a highly
non-linear resistance which increases as the filament gets heated up. They
come in a variety of range of sizes from 1.5V to around 300 volts. They are
widely used in household and commercial lighting, car headlamps, table
lamps, flash lights and for decorative purposes.
The effectiveness of an electric lighting source is determined by two factors:

the relative visibility of electromagnetic radiation and the rate at which it
converts electric power into electromagnetic radiation. In incandescent
lamps 90% of the power consumed is emitted as heat rather than as light.
Due to the higher energy consumption of the incandescent lamps as

compared to other sources like CFL and LED, many governments have
introduced measures to phase out their use.
6.10.2. Fluorescent lamp
A fluorescent lamp (commonly called tube-light) consists of a lamp tube

filled with a gas containing low pressure mercury vapour and argon, xenon,
neon or krypton. The inner surface of the bulb is coated with a fluorescent
coating made of varying blends of metallic and rare-earth phosphor salts.
The bulb’s cathode is made of coiled tungsten coated with other material so
as to have a low thermionic emission temperature. The fluorescent lamp is
shown in Fig. 6.15(a) and the connections in Fig. 6.15(b).
Switch Choke
L N Filament
Tube
Starter Figure 6.15 Fluorescent lamp.
We can see in Fig. 6.15(b) that a choke and a starter have been connected to
the lamp. When the switch is closed, full supply voltage appears across the
starter electrodes. The starter consists of a small gas-discharge tube,
containing neon or argon and fitted with a bi-metallic electrode. When the
supply voltage appears across it, a glow discharge appears over the
electrodes of the starter, causing them to be heated. This bends the electrodes
and when they touch, the choke, the filament electrodes of the lamp and the
starter all come in series across the supply. A current flows through the
filaments heating them. Meanwhile, the discharge in the starter tube
disappears causing the bimetallic strip to move apart, thus breaking the
contact. This interrupts the current causing a high emf to be induced across
the inductor. Now the supply voltage plus the induced emf appear across the
tube terminals. This voltage is high enough to cause a discharge to occur in
the gas inside the tube. After the discharge, has been initiated, a lower
voltage is required to maintain it. Thereafter, the choke acts only to reduce
the voltage available across the tube. The starter does not close again
because the voltage across the lit tube is insufficient to start a glow discharge
in the starter.
Modern lamps use electronic starters and ballasts which makes them more
efficient.
6.10.3. CFL Bulbs
CFL is a Compact Fluorescent Lamp shown in Fig. 6.15. Many of them are
designed to fit into existing lamp fixtures used for incandescent lamps.
Compared to an incandescent lamp giving same amount of visible light CFL
uses less power (about 20–30%) and has a longer life.
The CFL consists of a gas (mercury vapour) filled tube and a ballast
(electronic or magnetic). An electrical current from the ballast flows through
the gas, causing it to emit ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light then excites a
phosphor coating on the inside of the tube. This coating emits visible light.
CFLs can be operated with solar powered street lights, using solar panels
located on the top of a pole with suitable light fixtures wired to
Figure 6.16 CFL.
Figure 6.17 Light emitting diode.

the lamps. The average life of a CFL is around 6,000 to 15,000 hours which
is about 8 to 15 times that of the incandescent lamp.
CFLs contain small amounts of mercury, which is poisonous. Hence, their
disposal has to be done according to the laws prescribed by different
countries.
6.10.4. Light emitting diode
Light emitting diode is a semiconductor light source shown in Fig. 6.17.

When a diode is forward biased, electrons recombine with holes, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This is called electroluminescence. The
colour of the light depends on the energy gap in the semiconductor.
They are currently used in diverse applications like household lighting, street
lighting, lighting of parking area, aviation and automotive lighting, traffic
signals, advertisements and displays. They are available in a variety of
colours. They can be made very small in size and mounted on PCBs. They
can be easily dimmed by reducing the current.
6.10.5. Comparison of different light sources

The lumen is used as the S1 unit of luminous flux, to measure the power of
light perceived by the human eye. It is related to the Candela by
1 lumen = 1 Cd.sr
This means a light source that radiates one Candela in all directions radiates
4 π lumens. The Candela is theluminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012Hz
(wavelength of about 555 nanometers) and that has a radiant intensity of
1/683 Watt per steradian.
Luminous efficacy is measured in terms of lumen per watt. The comparison

of the luminous efficacy of various lighting sources is shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Comparison of Light sources. Light Source Type Luminous
efficacy lm/W
Incandescent 100–200W 13.8–15.2 LED 4.1W, 120V 58.5–82.9 LED 7W,

120V 28.6 Fluorescent T12 tube with magnetic ballast 60 CFL 9–32W 46–
75 Fluorescent T8 tube with electronic ballast 80–100 Fluorescent T5 tube
70-104
6.11. Fuses
Fuse is a device used in a circuit for protecting electrical equipment against

overloads and short circuits. The fuse element or fuse wire is that part of the
fuse which melts when an excessive current flows through it and isolates the
faulty device from the supply circuit.
Fuses are used both on low and high voltage circuits of moderate to high
capacity where frequent operation is not expected like protection of
distribution transformers, small and medium size motors, lighting circuits
and commercial buildings. The fuse has an inverse time-current
characteristic as shown in Fig. 6.18.
Time
Current Figure 6.18 Characteristic of fuse.
Fuse L
Equipment to be protected
N Figure 6.19 Connection of fuse.
Greater the current flowing through the fuse, smaller is the time taken for it
to blow off. The fuse is connected in series with the equipment to be
protected as shown in Fig. 6.19.
When the current through the fuse is above the normal value either due to a
faulty equipment or due to high supply voltage the fuse blows off, isolating
the equipment from the supply. When current is interrupted, an arc is struck
between the contacts which has to be extinguished for the current to become
zero.
6.11.1. Advantages and disadvantages of fuses Advantages
• It is the cheapest form of protection.

• It requires no maintenance.
• It interrupts large currents without noise and flame, gas or smoke.
• It does not require another device to detect the fault.
• The inverse time characteristic enables it to be used for over load
protection.
• It limits the fault current due to cut-off.
Disadvantages
• They must be replaced after operation.
• Selectivity of operation may not be proper if fuses are used in series.
6.11.2. Desirable properties of a fuse element
The fuse element should have the following desirable properties.
• Low melting point

• High conductivity
• Low cost
• Free from deterioration due to oxidation
• Low ohmic losses.
Lead, tin, copper, zinc and silver are the most commonly used elements for
fuse. For small currents (up to 10A) tin or an alloy of lead and tin (37% and
63% respectively) is used. For larger currents copper or silver is used. Zinc
in the form of a strip is used if a time-lag is required since it does not melt
quickly with a small overload. Silver is preferred in spite of its cost because
of the following reasons:
• It does not deteriorate when used in dry air since it is comparatively free
from oxidation.
• Since its coefficient of expansion is small it can carry normal rated current
continuously for a long time.
• Silver vaporizes at a temperature lower than the one at which the vapour
ionizes. Hence, when an arc is formed through the silver vapour, the arc path
has a high resistance and the short-circuit current is quickly reduced.
• Due to low specific heat silver can be raised from normal operating
temperature to vaporization much faster than other elements. Hence, it
operates faster at higher currents.
• Due to its larger conductivity, the mass of silver required is less than other
materials used.
6.11.3. Important terms related to fuse
Some important terms related to fuse are discussed below.
1. Current rating of fuse element: It is the current the fuse element can
carry without overheating or melting. It depends on the permissible
temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder and upon deterioration of
fuse caused by oxidation.
2. Fusing current: It is the minimum value of current at which the fuse
element melts. It is greater than the current rating of the fuse. For a round
wire the fusing current is approximately given by
I = kd3/2 (6.1)
Where K is called fuse constant and depends on the material of the wire
andd is diameter of wire in mm. K is 80 for copper; 59 for aluminium; 12.8
for tin and 10.8 for lead. The fusing current depends on the following
factors:
• Material of the fuse element

• Length of the fuse wire
• Diameter
• Shape of cross-section of the fuse element
• Previous history of operation
• Type of enclosure
• Type of surface.
3. Fusing factor: It is defined as,

Fusing factor = Minimum fusing current (6.2)Current
rating of fuse element
For a household fuse, the fusing factor is around 2.
4. Prospective current: When a fault occurs it generates sufficient energy to

melt the fuse element before the peak of the fault current occurs. The rms
value of the first loop of fault current is called the prospective current.
5. Cut-off current: It is the maximum value of fault current actually

reached before the fuse melts.
6. Pre-arcing time: This is the time between the commencement of the fault
current which tends to cause the fuse element to melt and the instant of arc
initiation. 7. Arcing time: This is the time between the end of the pre-arcing
time and the instant when the circuit is completely broken and current
becomes permanently zero. 8. Total operating time: It is sum of pre-arcing
time and arcing-time
9. Breaking capacity: The breaking capacity is the maximum current that
can be safely interrupted by the fuse.
The process of breaking the fault is shown in Fig. 6.20. It can be seen that
the fault current does not reach its maximum value. The fuse blows off
earlier.
Current Cutoff current and
beginning of arcing
Fault current
Fault
occurs Prearcing Arcing time time Current
Timezero
Figure 6.20 Cut-off current by fuse.
6.11.4. Types of fuses
There are a number of different types of fuses. We will briefly discuss some
of them.
1. Semi-enclosed or rewirable or kit-kat fuse
This is what we commonly see in all households. It consists of a porcelain “

use base” and a“use carrier”. The base carries the fixed contacts to which
the incoming and outgoing phase wires are connected. The fuse carrier holds
the fuse element (tinned copper wire) between its terminals. The fuse carrier
can be inserted or taken out of the base when desired. It is also called cut-
out. These fuses are standardized up to rated current of 200A. Different
diameters of fuse wire are used for different current ratings. The semi-
enclosed fuse is shown in Fig. 6.21.
Rewirable fuses are cheap and simple-in-construction. The detachable fuse

carrier permits the replacement of fuse element without any danger of
coming in contact with live parts. These fuses cannot be used in circuits with
high fault levels. The fuse wire is subjected to deterioration due to oxidation
through continuous heating up of the element. Accurate calibration is not
possible, as a longer fuse operates earlier than one of shorter length. Further,
the capacity of the fuse is affected by the ambient conditions.
Figure 6.21 Semi-enclosed or Rewirable fuse.

2. Cartridge fuse
In this type of fuse, the fuse element is placed in a totally enclosed fuse
carrier with two metal contacts on either side of the carrier. The entire
cartridge has to be replaced after the fuse operates. The cartridge fuse is
shown in Fig. 6.22.
Figure 6.22 Cartridge fuse.

3. High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse
HRC cartridge fuse overcomes the problem of low and uncertain breaking
capacity of semi-enclosed rewirable fuses. It consists of a heat resisting
ceramic body having metal (Brass) end caps to which are welded fusible
silver elements as shown in Fig. 6.23. The space within the body is packed
with a powder, usually quarter, which acts as an arc extinguishing agent.
Under normal conditions, the fuse element carries the current. On occurrence
of a short circuit, the fuse element melts before the current reaches its first
peak. The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted fuse element.
The chemical reaction between the silver vapour and filling powder results
in the formation of a high resistance substance which helps in quenching the
arc.
Fuse element
Ceramic body
Contact blade
Quartz powder Metal end cap
Figure 6.23 HRC fuse.

The main advantages of HRC fuses are,
(i) Requires no maintenance (ii) Capable of clearing high and low currents.
(iii) Does not deteriorate with age.
(iv) High speed of operation.
(v) Consistent performance

(vi) Provides reliable discrimination.
(vii) Enclosed fuse element. Hence, safer.
The main disadvantage is that it needs to be replaced after each operation. It
is difficult to ascertain if a fuse has blown off. Commercial HRC are shown
in Fig. 6.24.
Figure 6.24 Commercial HRC fuse.

4. Liquid fuse
In this type of fuses, the fuse element is surrounded by a liquid (carbon

tetrachloride). The fuse element is normally of silver strip or wire and is
housed in a body consisting of a glass tube with metal ferrules at each end.
The element is held in tension by a spring anchored to the lower ferrule and
the tube is filled with an arc-extinguishing liquid, usually a hydrocarbon.
When the element melts, the spring collapses and the arc is extinguished in
the liquid. These fuses are only used outdoors and provision is made for
removing from and replacing the fuselinks into their mountings.
5. Expulsion fuse
The expulsion fuse consists of a tube of insulating material into which the
fuse element is inserted. In some cases one end of the tube is closed, where
as in others both ends are open. When the element melts and arcing takes
place, the resultant gas pressure causes the arc to be blown out of the ends of
the tube and thus be extinguished. The performance is poor for low over
currents and the arc expulsion is violent for large fault currents. It is only
used out-doors.
6.12. Miniature circuit breaker
Circuit breakers are electrical switching devices used for protecting

electrical devices. They perform only the fault interruption function. A relay
is normally used in conjunction with a breaker to detect the fault. Circuit
breakers protect electrical circuitry from damage due to an over current
condition, such as an over load or short circuit condition.
Briefly the principle of operation of a circuit breaker is as follows. They

consist essentially current carrying contacts called electrodes. These are
normally engaged, but under predetermined conditions, separate to interrupt
the circuit. The separation of the contacts is in an insulating medium like air,
compressed air, oil, high vacuum and Sulphur Hexa Fluoride (SF6). When
the current level exceeds a predetermined value, the contacts separate. The
heat produced in the medium (oil or air or gas) between the contacts is
sufficient to ionize air or vaporize and ionize oil. The ionized air or oil
vapour act as a conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts. The arc
is extinguished by two methods:
(i) High resistance method
Where the arc resistance is increased to such a high value that it forces the
current to reach zero without the arc being restruck. The resistance of the arc
can be increased by increasing gap length between contacts and lengthening
the arc; cooling the arc or splitting the arc into a number of smaller arcs in
series.
(ii) Low resistance or current zero method
In this method the arc resistance is kept low until the current is zero where
the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented from restoring after it has
gone out at current zero by building the dielectric strength between the
contacts.
Circuit breakers used in residential and light commercial installations are

referred to as Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs). They are commonly used
in the electrical consumer units of domestic consumers and small industrial
premises to protect and control the electrical supply to respective electric
circuits.
Figure 6.25 MCB.
Modern day MCBs are shown in Fig. 6.25. MCBs typically include an
electrical contact mounted on a movable contact carrier which rotates away
from a stationary contact in order to interrupt the current path. Such circuit
breakers have molded insulated housings of standard sizes. Typically, there
is a fixed contact attached to the housing and a movable contact coupled to
an operating mechanism. The operating mechanism includes a movable
handle that extends outside the housing. The handle has three positions: ON,
OFF and Tripped. The operation can tell the condition of the contacts by
looking at the handle position. The MCB is manually resettable after a
tripping operation. They are used up to 100A. The trip characteristics are not
adjustable. Three are similar breakers called Molded Case Circuit Breakers
(MCCB) with current rating up to 3000 Amperes. The trip current of
MCCBs may be adjusted in larger ratings.
6.13. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
An ELCB detects small leakage currents between live wire and earth and
disconnects the equipment. Current operated ELCBs are also called Residual
Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB). Voltage-operated ELCBs operate when
sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB’s sense coil. They have to be
manually reset after an operation. They are used when the consumer has a
local connection to earth.
6.14. Earthing
An earthing system defines the electrical potential of the conductors relative

to the Earth’s conductive surface. The choice of the earthing system has
implications for the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power
supply. The regulations for earthing are different in different countries.
A protective earth (PE) connection is provided to ensure that all exposed

conductive surfaces are at the same electrical potential as the surface of the
Earth, to avoid the risk of electrical shock if a person touches a device in
which an insulation fault has occurred. This is also called system earthing.
Earthing of non-current carrying metal works and conductor is essential to
the safety of human life, animals, and property is known as equipment
earthing. Protection against electric shocks has to be provided for direct
contact and indirect contact. Direct Contact refers to a person coming in
contact with a conductor which is live in normal circumstances as shown in
Fig. 6.26. Protection against this is called basic protection.
An indirect contact refers to a person coming in contact with an exposed-

conductive part which is not normally live, but has become live due to an
insulation failure or a fault as shown in Fig. 6.27.
The equivalent circuit when the machine is not earthed is shown in Fig. 6.28.
Here Rbody refers to the resistance of the body the person standing on the
ground, Ri the insulation resistance andRE the resistance of the earth. The
current through the body is given by
VIbody = Ri + Rbody + RE Since Ri is very high, Ibody ∼ 0. So under normal

conditions no current flows through the body. However, when there is
insulation failure, Ri reduces in which case Ibody is
Figure 6.26 Direct contact.
Figure 6.27 Indirect contact.
substantial. Now consider when the body is earthed through a wire of
resistance RE1, which is around 2–5 . The equivalent circuit under this
condition is given in Fig. 6.29. It can be seen that the current now has a
parallel path throughRE1. SinceRE1 is around 2–5 and Rbody is of the order
1000–1500 , almost the entire current flows through the
L Machine I
body RiV Rm
N Rbody
Earth resistance RE
Figure 6.28 No earth.
L R i Rm
NRE1Rbody
RE Figure 6.29 Body of machine is earthed.
earthing resistance. The current flowing now through the body is not
sufficient to give a shock. In a regular three pin plug, the upper pin is
connected to the earth wire in the building. It is always advisable to use
electrical appliances suitably earthed.
6.14.1. Earthing systems

International Standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing
arrangement using two-letter codes. The letters are as follows:
(i) The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-
supply equipment (generator or transformer).
T: Direct connection of a point to earth(from Latin terra for earth). I: No
point is connected with earth except through a high impedance (Isolation).
(ii) The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the
electrical device being supplied.
T: Direct connection of a point to earth
N: direct connection to neutral which is connected to earth.
1) TT system
A TT system has a direct connection to the supply source to earth and a
direct connection of the installation metal work to earth as shown in Fig.
6.30.
Generator to transformer R Y B N
Consumer Earth
Figure 6.30 TT Earthing system.
TT method is used with overhead lines. In these systems there is no metallic

path from the consumer’s terminals back to sub-station transformer
secondary windings. Because the earth path resistance may be high a
Residual Current Circuit Breaker is often fitted so that if a fault current
flows through the earth path a trip disconnects the power supply. The biggest
advantage of TT systems is that it is free from high and low frequency noises
that come through the neutral wire from various electrical equipment
connected to it. That is why TT has always been preferable for special
applications like telecommunications sites that benefit from interference-free
earthing.
2) TN system
In a TN system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is

connected with earth, usually the star point in a three phase system. The
body of the consumer’s device is connected to earth via this earth
connection. The conductor that connects to the star point in a three-phase
system, or that which carries the return current in a single-phase system is
called neutral (N). The conductor that connects the exposed metallic part of
the consumer’s device is called the protective earth (PE). Three variants are
possible as shown in Fig. 6.31(a) to (c).
In TN-S system, separate protective earth (PE) and neutral (N) conductors
are used from transformer to consumer’s device, which are not connected
together at any point after the
R R R YY Y B B B
N PENN PE PEN
Consumer Consumer Consumer
(a) TN-S (b) TN-C (c) TN-C-S
Figure 6.31 TN Earthing system.
building distribution point. In TN–C system, combined PE and N (PEN)

conductor runs all the way from transformer to consumer’s device. In TN–C-
S, a combined conductor runs up to the consumer’s distribution joint, where
separate PE and N conductors are used in indoor wiring.
3) IT earthing system
In an IT earthing system, the distribution system has no connection to earth
at all as shown in Fig. 6.32.
RYB
ConsumerEarth
Figure 6.32 IT system.

6.14.2. Methods of earthing
There are different methods for earthing, to ensure low resistance path from
appliance to the earth. The various methods of earthing are (i) pipe earthing
(ii) rod earthing (iii) horizontal strip earthing and (iv) plate earthing. We will
discuss the pipe earthing and plate earthing most commonly used. The
extracts are from IS: 3043.
Plate earthing
The earth connection is provided with the help of copper plate or galvanized
iron plate of size 60 cm × 60 cm × 6.3 mm for GI or steel. The plate is
buried deep in the ground with its face vertical and top not less than 3m
below ground. The plate is surrounded by alternate layer of coke and salt for
minimum thickness of about 15cm. The earth wire is drawn through a GI
pipe and is perfectly bolted to the plate. The earth lead must be G.I. wire or
G.I. strip of sufficient cross-section area to carry fault current. A cast iron or
mild steel frame with cover having a locking arrangement is embedded in
the brick masonary to protect the watering arrangement, which consists of a
funnel with a mesh. Salt water is poured periodically through the funnel. The
earth electrode should not have a resistance more than three ohms and in
rocky soils the resistance may be up to eight ohms. The schematic
arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.33.
Figure
6.33 Plate earthing.
The main disadvantage is if there is a discontinuity of the earth wire. This
cannot be observed physically.
Pipe earthing
In this method a GI pipe of 2 meter length and 38mm diameter is embedded

vertically into the ground. This acts as an earth electrode. The depth of the
electrode depends on the condition of the soil. The earth wire is fastened to
the top section of the pipe through bolts. The pit area around the pipe is
filled with salt and coal mixture for improving the conductivity of the soil.
Pipe earthing can handle heavier leakage current compared to plate earthing.
Water is poured through a tunnel to keep soil wet. The schematic
arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.34.
Figure 6.34 Pipe earthing.
Since the earth wire is connected to GI pipe above the ground level, it can be
physically inspected time to time. This method requires pipe lengths to be
increased sufficiently in case of the soil specific resistivity being high. In
rocky soil beds horizontal strip earthing is used.
6.14.3. Uses of earthing
• Provide a surface around and under a sub-station which would be at a
uniform potential and as near to zero or absolute earth potential as possible.
• Ensure people in surrounding area are not exposed to electric shock.
• To provide current carrying capability, in magnitude and direction, for

accepting the ground fault current permitted by the over current protective
system without causing fire or proving to be an explosive hazard to the
building or its contents.
• Better performance of the electrical system.

6.15. Computation of Energy consumed
The electrical energy consumed is metered by the energy meter connected on

the premises of the consumer. The energy is measured in terms of “units”.
One “unit” is the energy consumed when a load of one kilowatt runs for one
hour.
1 unit = 1 kWh
The domestic consumer is billed normally for the energy consumed. An

industrial consumer is billed both for the connected load as well as for the
energy consumed. This ensures that the consumer pays a fixed amount even
when energy consumed is zero. Further industries have to pay a penalty for
operating devices with low power factor.
Lets consider a few simple appliances and the energy they consume.
Example 6.6 Compare the energy consumption of a 40W incandescent lamp

with a 40W fluorescent lamp operating at 0.5 p.f. If they are switched on 10
hours in a day, find the monthly savings in energy bill at the rate of Rs. 2.50
per unit, when fluorescent lamp is used. Both are rated for 230V, 50Hz.
Solution: Incandescent lamp: This is a purely resistive load. The rated

voltage is 230V. Remember here 230V is the r.m.s. value. The current drawn
by the lamp is given by
I =40 = 0.174 AI =
V 230
Daily energy consumption = 40× 10 = 400 Whr
= 0.4 kWhr
Consumption per month = 0.4× 30 = 12 kWhr Cost of energy = 12× 2.50 =
30 Rs.
Fluorescent lamp: Since the power rating is same the energy consumption
will remain same. Hence, there is no saving in cost of energy. However, the
current drawn is given by
P 40 I = V cosφ = 230× 0.5 = 0.348 A
This higher value of current would increase the power loss (I2R) in the
conductors. Therefore, equipment with low power factor are not good.
Example 6.7 A geyser is rated 3KW, 230V, 50Hz. If it is switched on for 1

hour daily, what would be the energy cost saving per month at the rate of Rs.
2.50 per unit, if it is replaced by a solar water heater?
Solution: Solar water heaters use the energy of the sun to heat the water.
Though their initial investment is high, they have no running cost and are
environmental friendly and must be encouraged.
A 3KW geyser running for 1 hour daily would consume 3 units daily. The
energy consumed per month is 3× 30 = 90 units. The cost of energy per
month = 90 × 2.50 = Rs.225. This would be the saving in electricity bill if
solar water heater replaces the electric geyser.
Example 6.8 A ceiling fan is driven by a 75W 230V, 50Hz single phase
induction motor with a power factor of 0.75. What is the current drawn by
the motor?
Solution: Typically the motors which drive fans are rated 60W–100W
depending on the size of the fan. The current drawn is
75 I =230× 0.75 = 0.435 A.
Figure 6.35
Water heating.
6.15.1. Typical power ratings for appliances
We need to know roughly how much energy is consumed over a day. We

calculate the energy consumed as in Examples 6.6 to 6.8. There are some
loads called Ghost loads, which consume small amount of power, but are on
the whole day. Examples are AC adapters, VCRs, TVs, microwaves and
computers which we don’t switch off when not in use. It is necessary to
switch off these loads when not used. The approximate power rating of
different commonly used appliances is given in Table 6.5.
6.15.2. Standard sockets and plugs
AC power plugs and sockets help us connect electrically operated devices to

the commercial power supply. An electric plug is a male electrical connector
with contact prongs to connect mechanically and electrically to slots in the
matching female socket. Each receptacle has two or three contacts made of
steel or brass and plated with zinc, tin or nickel. The live contact carries
current from the source to the load and the neutral returns current to the
source. A third contact is included for a connection to earth.
There has been a move to consolidate standards to help international

operability. Many manufacturers of electrical devices have adopted a single
world standard IEC connector on the device and supplying each country a
power cord with a standard IEC connector on one end and a national power
plug at the other.
There are two basic standards for voltage and frequency. One is the North
American Standard of 120 volts at a frequency of 60 Hz which uses plugs of
type A and B; the other is the European standard of 220–240 volts at 50 Hz,
which uses plugs C to M. Table 6.5 Power rating of electrical appliances.
Sl No. Appliance Power rating (watts)
1 Air conditioner, for each ton 3515

2 Blender 300
3 CD Player 30
4 Fan 60–100
5 Coffee maker 800
6 Dish washer 1200–1500
7 Hot plate 1200
8 Iron box 1000
9 Lighting Equivalent fluorescent 100 W 30 W
75 W 20 W
60 W 16 W
40 W 11 W
10 Micro wave 600–500
11 Refrigerator (run time 15 hrs/day) 112
12 Toaster 800–1500
13 Washing machine 500–700
14 Vacuum cleaner 200–700
The various plugs and sockets are shown in Fig. 6.36.
Different countries use different types. In India the standard is 230V, 50Hz,
type C and D. In America it is 120V, 60Hz, type A and B. In the United
Kingdom it is 230V, 50Hz, type G; in France it is 230V, 50Hz, type C, E and
F and so on. Power convertors change the voltage magnitude and frequency,
whereas plug adapters do not change the voltage magnitude or frequency
but only the shape of the prongs.
6.15.3. BEE star rating
The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in India have created star-rated

energy efficiency labels to standardize the energy efficiency ratings of
different electrical appliances and indicate energy consumption under
standard test conditions. These labels indicate the energy efficiency levels
through the number of stars highlighted in colour on the label. The star
rating system ranges from one star (least efficient) to five stars (most
efficient).
Figure 6.36 Plugs and sockets.
6.16. Electric Shock
An electric shock occurs when a human body comes in contact with any
source of voltage high enough to cause sufficient current through the skin,
muscles or hair. The minimum current a human can feel is around 1mA. The
current may cause tissue damage or fibrillation. The effects of electric shock
are shown in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6 Effects of electric shock. Current mA Human reaction (At power
frequency)
1.0 Perception of shock: A mild tingling sensation

10.0 Can’t let go. Arm and hand muscles close involuntarily
18.0 Can’t breathe. Paralysis of the chest muscles.
65.0 Heart fibrillation. Irregular contractions of the heart muscles. Could be
fatal.
Some effects of electric shock are:

Burns: Tissue heating can cause both internal and external burns.
Ventricular fibrillation: A 60mA current at 50Hz or 60Hz or a dc current

of 300mA, through the chest for a fraction of a second may induce
ventricular fibrillation. If there is a direct pathway to the heart a current of
1mA can cause fibrillation. Fibrillations are usually lethal because all the
heart muscle cells move independently instead of in coordination required to
pump blood to maintain circulation.
Neurological effects: When current path is through head, loss of

consciousness occurs. Electric shocks can cause interference with nervous
control, especially over the heart and lungs.
Factors which determine the severity of the electric shock on the body are:
• The amount of body resistance to the current flow.
• The path the current takes through the body. The worst path is from hand to
hand or hand to foot.
• The duration of time for which the current passes through the body.
The body resistance varies greatly in different parts of the body. Generally a
value of around 1500 ohms is the resistance on an average between hand to
hand or hand to foot. The body resistance will change when the skin is moist
or when there are breaks in the skin. If the voltage is greater than 240V, the
voltage arc will burn through the skin and cause third degree burns.
Fibrillation can be fatal. Longer the duration of the shock, lesser is the
magnitude of current needed to cause fibrillation.
6.16.1. First aid for electric shock

The following actions must be taken when any person suffers from an
electric shock.
• Switch off the main switch immediately.
• Break the contact between the electrical source and the person using a non-
conductive object like a wooden stick.
• If the victim is not breathing administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation

(CPR) by pinching the victim’s nose and blowing into the victim’s mouth
until the chest rises. If the victim is still not breathing normally begin chest
compressions. Push down on the chest 11 to 2 inches about 30 times between
the nipples.2
• If the patient is breathing and unconscious, place the patient on his back
and lift the chin to ensure the airway is open. Slowly turn the patient on the
side adjusting the leg such that the hip and knee are at right angles.
• Do not move the patient if spinal injury is suspected.

6.16.2. Causes for leakage currents
These are caused as a result of
(i) Aged insulation in cables.
(ii) Use of inferior insulation cables, loose contacts, overloading of circuits,
broken phase connection touching metallic bodies in electrical appliances.
(iii) In a 3-pin power socket if the earth terminal is not properly connected to
the main earth, there is a disruption of the earth path and MCBs and fuses do
not act. Spot overheating occurs near the socket where the appliance is used,
leading to leakage of current and fire.
(iv) Higher rating fuses and MCBs are used which will not trip or blow off
even if there is an overload. Overheating takes place causing fire.
(v) Cables connected to geysers, air conditioners, microwave ovens, are
underrated, leading to overheating.
(vi) Joints in electrical wiring is not done by providing proper connections.
(vii) Use of cheap quality fixtures like chokes etc.
(viii) Unbalance in distributing single phase loads in a three phase system.
6.16.3. Prevention to be taken to prevent electrical shocks
(i) Wiring should be as per IS approved codes.
(ii) Water pipes, borewell pipes, taps etc. should not be used for earth
connections. A separate earth connection has to be provided.
(iii) A separate earth bus should be planned near the main switchboard and
the bus should be permanently connected to earth electrode by using proper
type and size of earth conductors.
(iv) Installation should be carried out by skilled workers.

(v) ISI marked materials only should be used.
(vi) All metal fixtures should be earthed.
(vii) Cables should be joined using connectors and not PVC tapes.
(viii) Sanitary ducts should not be used for running cables.
(ix) Telephone and TV antenna wires should not be run in the same conduit
as power lines.
(x) Single phase loads must be distributed equally between the three phases.
(xi) Periodic checking of appliances, distribution boards, main panels etc.
(xii) Not touch electrical circuits with wet hand.
(xiii) Wiring has to be permanent.
Questions
(1) What is the standard voltage specification in India?

(2) Show the energy meter connected to the consumer distribution board. (3)
Briefly discuss the various types of wiring schemes and their application. (4)
How would you select the wire for a load drawing 20A?
(5) Briefly discuss the guidelines for sub-circuits and fittings.
(6) Explain the stair case connection for a lamp.
(7) Discuss the various lighting options available. Why are LED’s becoming
popular? (8) What is a fuse? How is the rating of the fuse chosen?
(9) What is a HRC fuse? Explain its working.
(10) What are different types of fuses?
(11) What is a circuit breaker? What are MCBs?
(12) Why is earthing required?
(13) Explain the pipe earthing.
(14) Explain plate earthing.
(15) Briefly discuss different earthing schemes.
(16) What is an electric shock? What are the first aid measures to be taken in
the event of a shock?
CHAPTER - 7
Electrical Instruments
Learning objectives
Direct and indirect methods of
measurement
Classification of instruments
Mechanical, electrical and

electronics
Absolute and secondary
Indicating, integrating and recording
Principles of operation
Operating forces: Deflecting, controlling and damping
Gravity and spring control
Air friction, fluid friction, eddy current damping
PMMC meters
Construction
Deflection
Extension of range
Moving iron instruments

Attraction type
Repulsion type
Errors in ammeters and voltmeters 311
7.1. Introduction
Measurement of a quantity is the process of comparison of the quantity with
a standard. For the measurement to be meaningful, there are two
requirements:
• The standard used for comparison must be accurately defined.
• The instrument used and the method followed must be accurate.
The methods of measurement are broadly classified into:
• Direct methods: In this method, the unknown quantity to be measured is

directly compared against a standard. The result is given in the form of a
number/value and a unit. For example, 25 cm, 3 A, , 12 V, 8000 gallons, 3
H.P. etc.
• Indirect methods: Often direct methods are not practical or feasible.

Further, they are often inaccurate because of human intervention. In such
cases measurement systems which use indirect methods are resorted to. Here
the system consists of an element called a transducer which converts the
quantity into another form which can be measured accurately. Sometimes,
the new signal is processed and then measured.
An instrument is the physical device used for measuring the magnitude of a

quantity. It is an indispensable part of measurement.
7.2. Classification of instruments
Instruments are classified in many ways. We shall discuss a few
classifications.
7.2.1. Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments
Mechanical instruments are made of moving mechanical parts which are

generally rigid, bulky and have large inertia. Hence they are slow and cannot
be used to measure rapidly varying quantities. They are also a major cause of
noise pollution. Some examples are screw guage, callipers etc.
Electrical instruments use electrical principles for measurement. However,

most of them have a mechanical moving needle, which limits their
application at times. Examples are ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers etc.
Electronic instruments use electronic components for measurement. These

instruments respond to quick changes and hence are preferred in modern
instruments. Oscilloscopes, digital meters, are some examples of electronic
instruments.
7.2.2. Absolute and secondary instruments
Absolute instruments give the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in

terms of constants of the instrument. For example the tangent galvanometer,
Computation is time consuming, since for every measurement, the quantity
has to be computed. Secondary instruments are those where the magnitude
of the quantity being measured can be read from the output indicated by the
instrument. Meters, thermometer, speedometer are a few examples.
7.2.3. Indicating, recording and integrating instruments
Indicating instruments indicate the magnitude of the quantity being

measured. A dial, display or a pointer is used to indicate the measurement.
Most meters belong to this category.
Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being

measured. The commonly used ECG is an example.
Integrating instruments give the integration (summation or accumulation) of

the quantity over a period of time. Energy meter, which gives the integration
of power consumed over time, is an example.
7.3. Principles of operation

The principle of operation of secondary instruments depends on the effects
they utilize. These are briefly discussed.
• Magnetic effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force. This effect is used in most ammeters,
voltmeters, wattmeters, etc.
• Heating/thermal effect: The current to be measured is passed through an
element which gets heated. The temperature rise can be measured using a
thermo cuouple.
• electrostatic effect: These instruments use the electrostatic force between
two charged plates. Electrostatic voltmeters are an example.
• Induction effect: These instruments use the induction effect, wherein an

e.m.f. is induced in a disc or drum by induction. It can be used only with a.c.
quantities, since induction of e.m.f. requires a changing flux. Induction type
wattmeters and energy meters are examples.
• Hall effect: If a strip of conducting material carries current in the presence

of a transverse magnetic field, an e.m.f. is produced between two edges of
the conductor. This is called Hall effect and is used in magnetic
measurements and current sensing.
7.4. Essential operating forces in indicating instruments
Indicating instruments indicate the quantity being measured. They have to be

calibrated against a standard instrument. Most indicating instruments consist
of a needle or pointer which moves over a calibrated scale. The moving
system is subjected to three torques:
Deflecting torque or operating torque •

• Controlling torque or restoring torque
• Damping torque.
7.4.1. Deflecting or operating torque

The deflecting torque ( Td) is produced by utilizing one of the effects
discussed in Section 7.3. The deflecting torque causes the moving system
and hence the pointer attached to it to move from the initial ‘zero’ position,
to indicate the value of the quantity being measured.
7.4.2. Controlling or restoring torque
The controlling torque opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the
deflection of the pointer. When the two torques are equal, the pointer is
brought to rest. The deflecting torque is responsible for producing
deflections proportional to the quantity being measured. If the controlling
torque were absent the pointer (being very light) would swing to the
maximum position for any magnitude of current. Further, the pointer would
not return to zero position on removing the current (or the actuating signal).
Controlling torque is also called balancing torque, restoring torque or
opposing torque. Its obtained by two common methods
Gravity control
Gravity control is obtained by attaching a small adjustable weight on an arm

attached to the moving system. This weight produces a controlling torque by
gravity. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.1(a).
Assume that the pointer moves by an angle θ, as shown in Fig. 7.1(b). The
component of the weight which tries to restore the pointer back to zero
position is W sinθ. The controlling torque is thus given by
Tc = W sinθ × l = Wl sinθ = kg sinθ (7.1) kg = Wl (7.2)

θlθ
Balance weight
Control
weight
(a) (b)W W sin θ
Figure 7.1 Gravity control.
Thus the controlling torque is proportional to the weight W and the

deflecting angleθ.It can be varied by simply adjusting the position of the
control weight upon the arm which carries it. The pointer comes to rest when
the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
The deflecting torque
Td ∝ I (7.3)
At rest,
Td = Tc or I ∝ sinθ (7.4)
Since the current is proportional to sin θ, the scale is non uniform.

Instruments using gravity control must be used in vertical position. It is
cheap and is not subjected to deterioration with time.
Spring control
The hair spring, usually of phosphor bronze is attached to the moving system
as shown in Fig. 7.2.
Balance Controlweight spring
Volts
0 20 40 60
Pivot
(a) (b) Figure 7.2 Spring control.
When the pointer deflects the spring is twisted in the opposite direction. This
produces the restoring torque which is directly proportional to the angle of
deflection.
Tc ∝ θ or Tc = Cθ; C is spring constant (7.5)
At position of rest,
Tc = Td or θ ∝ I (7.6)
Since the deflection θ is directional proportional to current, spring controlled

instruments have a linear scale. For proper control, the spring should have a
fairly large number of turns, to reduce the angular deformation per unit
length on full-scale deflection. The springs are made from non-magnetic
materials which are not subject to much fatigue. The material of the springs
must also have low specific resistance, especially if they are used to lead
current in or out of the instrument.
Example 7.1 The torque of an ammeter varies as the square of current

through it. A current of 6 A produces a deflection of 90 ◦. What deflection
would result for2Aif the instrument is (i) spring controlled (ii) gravity
controlled.
Solution: Td ∝ I2 (i) For spring-control, Tc ∝ θ ∴ θ ∝ I2
90◦ ∝ 62
θ
◦ ∝ 22 ⇒ θ = 90× 22
◦
62 = 10
(ii) For gravity-control, Tc ∝ sinθ
sin 90◦ ∝ 62 sinθ◦ ∝ 22
sin
θ
=
sin 90
2
◦ × 2 1 62 =9
sin−1 1 = 6.38◦θ =9
Example 7.2 What would be the deflections if the torque is proportional to
the current, in Example 7.1?
Solution: Td ∝ I (i) For spring control
θ
=
90
× 2 = 30◦ 6 (ii) For gravity control
sin
θ
=
2= 1
63
θ = 19.47◦
7.4.3. Damping Torque

A damping force acts on the moving system of the instrument only if it is
moving. It always opposes its motion. The pointer being made of very light
material would vibrate
Under damped Final steady state position
DeflectionCritically damped Over damped
Figure 7.3 Damping torque.
around the final reading. The damping force brings the pointer quickly to
rest in the steady position. The various degrees of damping are shown in Fig.
7.3.
The degree of damping should be such that the pointer rises quickly to the
steady-state value without overshoot. This is called critical damping. If
damping is less than this, the system is said to beunder-dampedand the
pointer over-shoots and oscillates before setting at the steady deflection. If
the system is over-damped it becomes slow and lethargic.
The common methods of producing damping are (i) air friction (ii) eddy
current (iii) fluid friction.
Air friction damping
In one of the arrangements, a light aluminium piston is attached to the
moving system as shown in Fig. 7.4(a)
The piston moves in a fixed air chamber closed at one end. The clearance
between the piston and the air chamber is small and uniform. Damping is
caused by the compression and suction actions of the piston on the air
enclosed in the chamber.
In another type of arrangement shown in Fig. 7.4(b), an aluminium vane

moves in a sector shaped air chamber. The vane is mounted on the spindle of
the moving system. The air suction and compression provides the necessary
damping.
AirAir chamberchamber Vane

Piston Pointer
(a) (b) Spindle
Figure 7.4 Air friction damping.
N Damping magnet
Disc SpindleS Figure 7.5 Eddy current damping.
Fluid friction is similar to air friction, except that oil is used instead of air.
The damping is greater. Oil is generally not preferred because of
maintenance problems and the need to maintain instrument in vertical
position.
Eddy current dumping
It is also called electromagnetic damping and uses the principle that a

conductor moving in a magnetic field has an e.m.f. induced in it. If there is a
closed path, this e.m.f. produces a current. A simple form of eddy current
damping is shown in Fig. 7.5.
A disc of non-magnetic conducting material like aluminium or copper is

mounted on the spindle which carries the moving system and the pointer of
the instrument. The disc is placed such that, when it rotates it cuts the
magnetic flux between the poles of a permanent magnet. Hence, eddy
currents (eddy currents are currents produced on the surface of a conducting
material) are produced in the disc. According to Lenz’s law, the eddy
currents produce a damping force in such a direction as to oppose the very
cause producing them. Since the cause here is the rotation of the disc, the
eddy current forces, damp the movement of the disc and hence the pointer
attached to the spindle.
7.5. Ammeters and voltmeters
Fundamentally there are no diferences in the operating principles of

ammeters and voltmeters. They are hence, often classed together. The action
of almost all ammeters and voltmeters depends on the deflecting torque
produced by a current. In an ammeter the deflection is produced by the
current (or a fraction of it) to be measured and in voltmeter the deflection is
produced by a current proportional to the voltage to be measured.
Ammeters and voltmeters are connected as shown in Fig. 7.6.
In Fig. 7.6, part of a network where measurements are made are shown. The
ammeter is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be
measured. Therefore, it should have a low resistance, so that the voltage
across it is small and hence the power absorbed by it.
Similarly, the voltmeter is connected across (in parallel) with the circuit
whose voltage is to be measured. Therefore it should have a high resistance,
so that it draws very little current and hence power absorbed by it is small.
The power lost in an ammeter whose resistance isRa and through which a
currentIA flows isI2Ra Watts. The power lost in a voltmeter whose voltage is
V and resistance is Rv is V 2/Rv Watts.
A
LoadV Load
Figure 7.6 Connection of voltmeter and ammeter.
7.5.1. Types of ammeters and voltmeters
The main types of ammeters and voltmeters are as follows:
• Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC). These can be used for only d.c.
measurements.
• Moving iron, which uses the magnetic effect of current.
• Electro dynamometer type which can be used for both a.c. and d.c.
• Hot wire; which uses the heating effect produced by current.
• Induction type which uses the principle of electromagnetic induction, and

hence can be used only for a.c. measurements.
• Electrostatic type, mostly used for voltmeters.
7.6. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil instruments
(PMMC)
These are also called moving coil meters. The operation is based on the
principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it is acted upon by a force which tends to move it to one side and out
of the field.
7.6.1. Construction
It consists of a permanent magnet and a rectangular coil of many turns
wound on a light aluminium former inside which is an iron core as shown in
Fig. 7.7.
Pole piece Magnet
Core N S
Figure 7.7 PMMC construction.
The U-shaped permanent magnet is made of Alnico and has soft-iron end-
pole pieces. Between the magnetic poles is fixed a soft iron cylinder whose
function is to make the field radial and uniform and to decrease the
reluctance of the air path between the poles and hence increase the magnetic
flux.
Surrounding the core is a rectangular coil of many turns wound on a light

aluminium frame which is supported by delicate bearings and to which is
attached a light pointer. The aluminium frame provides support for the coil
and also provides damping by the eddy currents induced in it. The sides of
the coil are free to move in the two air gaps between the poles and core.
Control is provided by phosphor-bronze hair springs, one above and one
below, which additionally serve the purpose of leading current in and out of
the coil.
7.6.2. Deflecting torque in PMMC meters

When current is passed through the coil, forces act upon it from both sides
producing a deflecting torque. Let
l = length of coil in m
b = breadth of coil in m2B = flux density inWb/m
N = number of turns of coil.
I = current through coil.
Then force on each side = NIBl Newtons.
Deflecting torque Td = force× perpendicular distance
= NIBl × b = NIBA N − m.
where A = l × b = surface area of the coil.
For uniform B, Td is proportional to I.
Td ∝ I. When spring-control is used (such instruments are most often spring-

controlled) then the control torque TC ∝ θ. At final steady position, Td = Tc.
∴ θ ∝ I (7.7) Since the deflecting angle is proportional to current, the scale is
linear and uniform. The damping provided by the eddy currents is very
effective.
7.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of PMMC
They have the following advantages
• Low power consumption

• Uniform scale which can be designed to extend over an arc of 170◦.
• High torque/weight ratio.
• No hysteresis loss.
• Effective eddy-current damping.
• Not affected by external strong magnetic fields, since they operate in
strong fields.
• Can be modified using shunts and resistances to operate over a wide range
of currents and voltages.
They have the following disadvantages
• Cannot be used for a.c. When used with a.c., the net deflecting torque
would be zero.
• More expensive than moving iron instruments.
• Errors introduced due to aging of permanent magnets and control springs.
7.6.4. Extension of range as an ammeter

For a PMMC meter used as an ammeter, the range can be extended with the
help of a low resistance shunt as shown in Fig. 7.8.
The shunt provides a bypass path for extra current because it is connected
across the meter. The shunt permits measurement of current many times
greater than the normal
Meter I Im element
Is = I − Im Rm
Rs (Shunt) Figure 7.8 Shunt connection.
range of the meter. Let
Rs = shunt resistance
Rm = resistance of meter
Im = Full scale deflection current of meter I = current to be measured
Without the shunt, the maximum current that can be measured isIm.
Referring to Fig. 7.8
ImRm = Rs(I − Im) (7.8)
Rs = ImRm ⇒ I = 1+ Rm (7.9)I − Im Im Rs
The multiplying factor is defined as I and is equal to 1+Rm. Lower the shunt
resistance,Im Rs
higher the multiplying factor. Thus, the shunt increases the current that can
be measured by a factor of 1+ Rm.Rs
The general requirement for shunts are
• Temperature coefficient of shunt and instrument should be low and nearly

the same.
• The resistance should not vary with time.
• They should have low thermal e.m.f.
Manganin is generally used for d.c. instruments and constanin is used for a.c.
instruments. The meters with external shunts must have leads with a
specified resistance to accompany the meter. The leads should not be
changed, else serious errors in calibration will occur.
7.6.5. Extension of range as a voltmeter

The PMMC meter can be used as voltmeter with extended range by
connecting a high resistance in series with it as shown in Fig. 7.9.
M Vm V
Rse V − V
m
Figure 7.9 PMMC range extension for a voltmeter.
Let
Im = full-scale deflection current

Rm = resistance of meter
Vm = RmIm = full scale potential drop across
V = voltage to be measured
Rse = series resistance connected
The voltage drop across Rse is V − Vm.
Rse = V − Vm or RseIm = V− 1Im Vm Vm
From which
V= 1+ RseIm = 1+ RseIm = 1+ Rse(7.10)Vm Vm ImRm Rm
The voltage multiplication factor V = 1+ Rse .Vm Rm
Larger the value ofRse, greater is the multiplication range. The series
resistance is also called multiplier. The essential requirements of multipliers
are
• Small temperature coefficient

• Resistance should not change with time
• Non-inductively wound for a.c. meters.
Manganin and constanin are two materials commonly used. Multipliers are
mounted inside the instrument case for voltages upto 50 V. For higher
voltages they may be mounted separately.
Example 7.3 A moving coil ammeter has a fixed shunt of 0.015 with a coil
circuit resistance of 750 . A voltage of 0.5 V produces full-scale deflection
in the meter. To what total current does it correspond? What is the value of
shunt needed to give a full scale deflection when the total current is 50 A?
Solution: 750Ω
0.5V
Im = 0.5 = 6.66× 10−4 A750
0.5 = 33.33 AI =
s 0.015
Total current is 33.33399 A.
When total current is 50 A for full scale deflection,
Is = 50− 6.66× 10−4 = 49.999334 A
ImRm = 6.66× 10−4 × 750= 9.99× 10−3Rs = Is 49.999334
Example 7.4 A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 10 and gives full

scale deflection when current through it is 50 mA. How can the range be
extended to measure (i) 500 A (ii) 1000 V.
Solution: (i)
500A10Ω
50mA
499.95A
−3
Rs = ImRm = 50× 10 × 10= 0.001Is 499.95
(ii)
0.05A
10Ω 1000V
Rse
V = 1+ Rse ; Vm = 0.05× 10 = 0.5 VVm Rm
1000 1+ Rse
0.5 = 10
Rse = 19.99 K.
Example 7.5 A galvanometer has the following parameters:

B = 10 mWb/m2; N = 250 turns,l × b = 15× 15 mm2 K = 12× 10−9N −
m/radian.
What is the deflection of the galvanometer when a current of 1 mA flows
through it.
Solution:
Td = NBIA = (250) × (10× 10−3) × (1× 10−6) × (225× 10−6) = 562× 10−12N
−m
Tc = K × θ = 12× 10−9 × θ
At steady state Td = Tc,
12× 10−9 × θ = 562× 10−12 θ = 0.04683 rad = 2.68◦
7.7. Moving iron instruments
Moving iron instruments are of two types: attraction type and repulsion type.
In both types, the principle of operation is the force experienced by an iron
piece in the presence of a magnetic field. The necessary magnetic field is
produced by the ampere-turns of a current-carrying coil. When used as an
ammeter the coil has fewer turns of thick wire so that the ammeter has low
resistance. When used as a voltmeter, the coil has high impedance so as to
draw as small current as possible since it is connected in parallel. Since
current through it would be small, it has to have a large number of turns to
produce the necessary ampere turns.
7.7.1. Attraction type instruments

The attraction type instrument is shown in Fig. 7.10. It uses the principle that
a soft iron brought near either end of a current carrying coil gets attracted
into the coil.
In the most common type, an oval shaped disc of soft iron is pivoted on a
spindle between bearings near the coil. The iron disc swings into the coil
when a current is passed through the coil. The field strength is strongest at
the centre of the coil. Therefore, the iron disc is pivoted in such a way that
the bulk of the iron moves into the centre of the coil.
A pointer attached to the spindle carrying the disc, would deflect when
current flows through the coil. The deflection is proportional to the magnetic
field which is proportional to the current producing it. Whatever is the
direction of the current, the iron disc would always be magnetized in such a
way that it is pulled inwards. Therefore, these instruments can be used for
both a.c. and d.c. currents.
Pointer C Air chamber

Balance weight Moving iron Control weight Coil winding C Figure 7.10
Attraction type instrument.
φ
θ
Η
Figure 7.11 Deflecting torque.
7.7.2. Deflecting torque in attraction type MI instruments
Let the axis of the disc make an angle φ with a direction perpendicular to the
direction of the fieldH produced by the coil, when in zero position. Let the
angle beθ, corresponding to a current I through the coil.
Component of H along axis of disc is proportional toH cos[90−(φ+θ)]orH

sin(θ +φ). The force is proportional to H2 sin(θ + φ). When permeability is
constant, then H ∝ I. Therefore, F ∝ I2 sin(θ + φ). Assuming the force acts at
a distance l from the pivot of the rotating disc, Td = Fl cos(θ + φ).
∴ Td ∝ I2 sin(θ + φ) × l cos(θ + φ) (7.11) ∝ I2 sin 2(θ + φ) = KI2 sin 2(θ + φ)

(7.12) Assuming spring-control, Tc ∝ θ.
Section of coil
Coil
Magnetic field of Fixed coil ironA
B Moving
iron
Air
chamber Pivot Iron rods lower one fixed Figure 7.12 Repulsion type MI
instrument.
At steady state, KI2 sin 2(θ + φ) = K θ or θ ∝ I2. When a.c. is used, θ ∝ I2

.rms
With gravity control, sinθ ∝ I2 sin 2(θ + φ).
Direction of force
With either of the control, the scale is non-uniform. Damping in this
arrangement, is provided by air friction damping.
7.7.3. Repulsion type MI instruments
The principle used is that like magnetic poles repel. The construction is
shown in Fig. 7.12.
Two soft-iron rods, are placed parallel to one another and along the axis of a
coil which is fixed. One of the soft-iron pieces is fixed and the other is
movable and carries the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale. The
current to be measured is passed through the coil. It sets up a magnetic field
which magnetizes the two rods similarly. This causes a force of repulsion
between the two rods which results in the pointer being deflected. The force
of repulsion is proportional to the square of the current passing through the
coil. Irrespective of the direction of current, a force of repulsion exists since
the rods are always magnetized similarly.
Different shapes of iron pieces are used instead of rods, to achieve a uniform
scale. The deflecting torque is proportional to I2. For a.c. currents it is
proportional to I2 .rms The instruments are generally spring-controlled. Eddy
current damping cannot be used in these instruments since, the presence of a
permanent magnet would affect the deflection. In terms of inductance, the
deflecting torque is given by Td = 1I2dL N-m, where L is
the self inductance of the coil.2 dθ
7.7.4. Advantages and disadvantages of MI instruments

Advantages are
• They are cheap
• They are reliable
• They can be used for both a.c. and d.c.
They have following disadvantages.

• Calibration is not accurate with d.c.
• Due to hysteresis in the iron parts of the moving system, the readings are
higher for descending values but lower for ascending values.
• Stray magnetic fields affect the reading.
• With a.c. currents the reading depends on the frequency, since frequency
affects the impedance of the coil and the magnitude of the eddy currents.
Therefore, an instrument calibrated at a particular frequency would be
erroneous at another frequency.
7.7.5. Extension of range
The range can be extended to extend the range as an ammeter or voltmeter,

just like PMMC meters. With d.c. currents there is no problem, but with a.c.
currents the frequency is important. Consider the connection of shunt as
shown in Fig. 7.8. Now,
Current through meter = Im = Rs + jwLs = Zs .Current through shunt Is Rm + jwLm Zm
Where Rs,Ls are resistance and inductance of the shunt and Rm,Lm are
resistance and inductance of instrument. The current is distributed in the
inverse ratio of their impedances. If the ratios,
Lm = Ls , then the multiplying factorRm Rs
I = 1+ Rm
Im Rs
When a series resistor is connected to extend range as voltmeter, then the
voltage magnification
V= 1+ Rse Vm Rm When used with a.c. it is essential that the total
impedance of the voltmeter and the series resistance remains constant over
the different frequencies it is used.
Example 7.6 A 250 V moving iron voltmeter takes a current of 0.05 A when
connected to d.c. If the coil inductance is 1.2 H, determine the reading when
connected to a 250 V, 100 Hz supply.
Solution: When used with d.c., the meter offers only resistance= 250 = 5000 .
When used with a.c., the impedance is given by0.05
Z = R2 + (Lω)2 = 50002 + (1.2× 100× 2π)2 5056.53=
voltage of the instrument = 250×5000 = 247.2 V5056.53
7.8. Errors in meters

7.8.1. Errors in PMMC meters
The main source of error in moving coil instrument are due to
(i) Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature effects.

(ii) Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature
(iii) Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and temperature effects.
The effect of weakening of springs on the performance of the meter is

opposite to that of ageing of magnets. The weakening of magnets tends to
decrease the deflection for a particular value of current, while weakening of
springs tends to increase the deflection. Normally, 1◦C rise in temperature
reduces strength of springs by 0.04% and reduces flux density in the air gap
by 0.02%. Hence, the net effect is to increase the deflection by 0.02% per ◦C
rise.
The moving coil is wound with copper wire having a temperature coefficient
of 0.004◦C. The deflection would reduce by about 0.04% per ◦C rise in
temperature when used as a milli ammater. When used as voltmeter, since a
large series resistance is connected, this error is negligible.
When shunts are connected to extend the range as an ammater, errors are
introduced because of the difference in the temperature coefficients of the
copper coil and the manganin shunt. To reduce the error a small resistance
called swamping resistance, made of manganin, is connected in series with
the coil. It is also used as an adjustment for final calibration.
7.8.2. Errors in MI meters

Hysteresis error occurs with both a.c. and d.c. This is due to the fact that flux
density is different for the same value of current, when current is increasing
and when it is decreasing. The flux density is higher while current is
descending. The reading therefore tends to be higher for descending values
of current than for ascending values. This error can be minimized by making
the iron parts small so that they demagnetize quickly. Hysteresis can produce
around 2–3% error. Nickel iron alloys have narrow hysteresis and can bring
down error.
Errors due to temperature are mainly due to the springs weakening with
temperature rise. Stray magnetic fields distort the operating magnetic field,
which is relatively weak.
Some errors occur only with a.c. quantities. The primary source of this error
is the variation in the impedance of the working coil and change in the
magnitude of eddy currents set up in the metal parts of instruments. At low
frequency the eddy current error increases with square of the frequency
while at high frequencies the error is practically constant around 0.1%.
7.9. Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
The Wattmeter has two coils - the current coil and the voltage coil (also
called pressure coil). The current coil is connected in series with the load and
carries the load current, while the potential coil is connected across the load
and therefore carries a current proportional to the voltage. A high non-
inductive resistance is connected in series with the pressure coil to limit the
current through it.
7.9.1. Construction
(1) Fixed coils: The current coil forms the fixed coil and carries the load
current. Current coils are made fixed because they can then be constructed to
carry heavy currents. The current range is restricted to 20A, to avoid eddy
currents.If higher currents are involved, it is better to use the wattmeter in
conjunction with a CT. The current coil is wound in two halves positioned
parallel to each other and distance adjusted to give uniform magnetic field.
(2) Moving coil: The pressure coil is the moving coil and it is mounted on a
pivoted spindle. Spring control is used for the movement. The current
through this is limited to 50mA.
(3) Control: Spring control is used.

(4) Damping: Air friction damping is used. The dynamometer wattmeter
connections and constructions are shown in Fig. 7.13.
I
2
M
Current coil
FFI1
I1 I1I I2
1 Supply Voltage Load High
R
coil
Supply V
R
Figure 7.13
7.9.2. Deflecting torque
The flux density is directly proportional to the currentI1 (current through the
current coil), since the coils are air cored.
B ∝ I1 or B = K1I1
I2 ∝ V or I2 = K2V
Td ∝ BI2 = KV I1 = K × power
For dc, the power is given by product of voltage and current. Let us see what
happens in case of ac. Letv = instantaneous value of voltage across moving
coil.i = instantaneous current through fixed coil. Td(inst) ∝ vi = Kvi.
However, because of inertia of the moving system, the instrument indicates

the mean or average power.
Therefore mean deflecting torque Tm ∝ average value of vi. Let
v = Vm sinθ and i = Im sin(θ − φ) 1
2π
∴ Tm ∝2π 0 Vm sinθ × Im sin(θ − φ)dθ
∝
VmIm 2π
2
π
sin
0 θ sin(θ − φ)dθ
2π cosφ − cos(2θ − φ)
∝ VmIm dθ2π 0 2
V
m
I
m
θ
cos
φ
−
sin
(
2
θ
−
φ)
2π
∝ 4π 2
0
∝ Vm I m2 cosφ ∝ VI cosφ √
√2
Therefore Tm ∝ VI cosφ which is the active power.
Thus the deflection is proportional to the active power. The scales of

dynamometer wattmeter are uniform because deflection is proportional to
average power and for spring control, the controlling torque is proportional
to deflection.
(i) Error due to wattmeter connections:

There are two ways in which a wattmeter can be connected as shown in Fig.
7.14.
In commercial wattmeters the current coil is marked M(mains) andL(Load)
and the voltage coil marked C − V. In Fig. 7.14(a), the current through the
current coil is IL, where as the voltage across the voltage coil is the phasor
sum ofVL andV , drop across current coil. The phasor diagram is shown in
Fig. 7.15(a).
ML IL ML IL
C V V LoadC V V Load
L L
(a) (b) Figure 7.14 Wattmeter connection.
VL V'
φ θ V φ θ I V = VL
IL I' (a) I = I (b)
L
Figure 7.15
The Wattmeter reading = VIL cosθ whereV = VL+ V andθ is phase
difference between V and IL.
VIL cosθ = (VL cosφ + V )IL

= VLIL cosφ + V IL
= power in load+ power in current coil.
The second connection is as shown in Fig. 7.15(b).

Here the current coil carries the current of the voltage coil and the load
current
while the voltage across the voltage coil isVL.
W = VLI cosθ = VL(IL cosφ + I ) = VLIL cosφ + VLI = power in load+ power
in pressure coil.
Thus, there is always error in the Wattmeter reading.
(ii) Error due to inductance of voltage coil:
The error in wattmeter reads when the inductance of pressure coil is
considered is given by,
sinα % error =cotφ + sinα × 100
whereα = tan−1 XP whereXP is reactance of pressure coil andRP is resistance
ofRPpressure coil circuit (includes the high resistance connected in series).
(iii) Error due to stray fields:
The operating field of such an instrument is very small. Hence, it is liable to
stray field errors.
(iv) Error due to eddy currents:
The eddy current produced in the solid metallic parts of the instrument by
the ac field of the current coil, changes the magnitude and strength of the
operating field thus producing an error in the reading of the wattmeter.
(v) Error due to capacitance of voltage - coil circuit:
There is always some small amount of capacitance in the voltage - coil

circuit, particularly in the series resistor. This actually reduces error due to
the inductance of the voltage coil.
Example 7.7 A 250V, 10A dynamometer Wattmeter has resistance of

current coil of 0.5 and that of potential coil of 12,000 . Find the error due to
the two connections of Fig. 7.14, if used to measure power of a 250V upf
load drawing 10A.
Solution:
(i) Consider connection of Fig. 7.14(a).
Load power = 250× 10 = 2500W Power in current coil = 102 × 0.5 = 50W
Wattmeter reading = 2550w
% error50 × 100 = 1.96% =2550
(ii) Consider connection of Fig 7.14(b)
% error Load power = 2500W 250
2
Power in voltage coil =12000 = 5.2W
5.2 × 100 = 0.207% =
2505.2
7.10. Energy meter
Induction type energy meters are the most commonly used. They measure
electric energy in kilowatt hours (KWh).
7.10.1. Construction
The energy meter is shown in Fig. 7.16. There are four main parts.
C2 M2
Supply Vvoltage Φ1 C1 M II (a)
Φ2 C D 1
SN
NS
Braking magnet (b)
Figure 7.16
(i) The driving system: The driving system of the meter consists of two
electromagnets, the core of them made of silicon steel laminations. The
electromagnet M1 is called the series magnet and is excited by the line
current. The flux φ1 produced by it is in phase with the line current and
proportional to it. The second magnet M2 called the shunt magnet is
connected across the supply voltage and therefore the coil carries a current
proportional to the supply voltage. Copper shading bands C are provided on
the center limb of the shunt magnet to bring the flux φ2, produced by the
shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the line voltage. The position of
these bands is adjustable.
(ii) The moving system: This consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a

light alloy shaft, positioned in the air gap between the two magnets. The disc
cuts the fluxes of both the magnets.
(iii) Braking system: A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the
disc forms the braking system. The disc moves in the field of this magnet
and thus provides a braking torque. The position of the braking magnet is
adjustable and hence the braking torque can be adjusted by shifting the
permanent magnet to different radial positions.
(iv) Resistering system: It is the mechanism used to record continuously a

number which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system
as shown in Fig 7.17.
Figure 7.17
7.10.2. Deflecting torque
Consider the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 7.18.
φ1 ∝ I and in phase with it
φ2 ∝ V and in quadrature with itLω
VI
φφ1 α φ2 Figure 7.18
Td = Kωφ1mφ2m sinα
ωI V sin(90− φ) ∝ VI cosφ ∝ power= K2
ωL
also
Tb ∝ N. (braking torque)
The disc achieves a steady speed N when the two torques are equal.
Td = Tb
∴ N ∝ power W
In a given period of time, the total number of revolutiontNdt is proportional
totWdt, the electric energy consumed.0 0
7.10.3. Errors in energy meters
(i) Phase and speed errors: The flux due to the shunt magnet does not lag
behind the supply voltage by exactly 90◦ because of the resistance of the
pressure coil. This causes error, which can be compensated by means of the
copper shading band. These bands are also called power factor compensator.
The error in speed of the meter can be adjusted by adjusting the position of
the brake magnet.
(ii) Creep: In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is obtained even
when there is no current flowing through the current coil and only the
pressure coil is energized. This is called creeping. The major reason for this
is over compensation of friction. Frictional forces at the rotor bearings and in
the resistering mechanism give unwanted braking torque on the disc. To
compensate for this, it is necessary to provide for a small torque in the same
direction as the deflecting torque and as nearly equal as possible to the
frictional torque. This is obtained by means of a small shading loop situated
between the center pole of the shunt magnet and the disc and slightly to one
side of the center-line of the pole. The interaction between the portion of the
flux which are shaded and unshaded by this loop and the currents they
induce in the disc, results in a small driving torque whose value can be
adjusted by lateral movement of the loop.
An over compensation produces a driving torque even when current is zero,

giving rise to creeping. To prevent creeping, two holes are drilled on the
disc, which are diametrically opposite. The disc comes to rest when one of
the holes comes under the edge of a pole of the shunt magnet.
(iii) Errors are produced because of temperature variations. These are in

general negligible.
Questions
1 What are direct and indirect methods of measuring quantities?

2 How are instruments classified?
3 What are indicating instruments?
4 What are the various effects used in production of deflecting torque?
5 Explain how controlling torque is produced using gravity control. What are
its disadvantages?
6 What is damping torque? How is it produced?

7 What are the various types of ammeters and voltmeters?
8 Clearly explain the constructional features of a permanent magnet moving
coil meter.
9 Why can’t PMMC meters be used for a.c.?
10 Show that in a PMMC meter, the scale is linear.
11 What are the advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instruments? 12
Describe the working principle of an attraction type MI meter.
13 How can an MC meter be used (i) as an ammeter with extended range (ii)
an voltmeter with extended range?
14 What are sources of errors in meters?
15 What is a repulsion type MI meter?
16 A PMMC meter has coil dimensions 15 × 12 mm2. The flux density in

the air gap is 1.8 × 10−3 Wb/m2 and the spring constant is 0.14 × 10−6 M-
m/rad. Determine the number of turns required to produce an angular
deflection of 90◦ when a current 5 mA flows through the coil.
Ans (N = 136)
17 A 1 mA meter with an internal resistance of 100 is to be converted into a

0–100 mA ammeter. Calculate the shunt resistance required.
Ans 1.0 .
18 Find the multiplying power of a shunt of 200 resistance used with a

galvanometer of 1000 resistance. Determine the value of the shunt resistance
to give a multiplying power of 50.
Ans (i) 6 (ii) 20.4 .
19 A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection of 10 mA when the

potential difference across its terminals is 100 mv. Calculate (i) the shunt
resistance for a full scale deflection of 100 A (ii) the series resistance for a
full scale deflection of 1000 V. What is the power dissipated in each case.
Ans (i) 0.001 ; 10 W (ii) 100 K; 10 W.
20 What are the advantages and disadvantages of moving iron instruments?

Part II
Electric Machines
CHAPTER - 1
Introduction to Electric Machines
Learning objectives
Electric energy
Basic generator and motor Basic principles of operation Types of machines
• d.c. machines
• synchronous machines
• induction machines
• transformers
Construction of machines Losses in machines
345
1.1. Electric Energy
Electric energy has invaded our lives in a dramatic manner, ever since
Edison invented the first electric bulb. Electric appliances like fans,
washing machines, mixers, blenders, grinders, ovens etc. have found
widespread use. The main advantage of electric energy over other forms of
energy is that it can be transmitted over long distances easily with high
efficiency.
Electric machines are the most important energy converters. Electric

generators convert mechanical energy to electric energy. The source of the
mechanical power is called prime mover. The conversion process is shown
in Fig. 1.1.
An electric motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy as shown

in Fig. 1.2. A transformer is a static device that transforms electric energy
from one a.c. voltage level to another. This device is responsible for making
the electric system predominantly a.c.
Pelectrical
Te
Primer Electric mover generator TM : Mechanical torque
Te : Electrical torque
TM ω
P
Shaft
mechanicalLosses
Figure 1.1 Electric generator.

Pelectrical
TL
Electric Mechanical motor load
TM ω
Losses Pmechanical
Figure 1.2 Electric motor.
1.2. Basic principles of electric machines
The electromechanical conversion is based on two principles:
(i) A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a
force. The force is given by
f = li × B
where
l = Length of conductor
i = Current
B = Magnetic field strength
f = Force.
Motors make use of this principle.

(ii) When a moving conductor is placed in a magnetic field, an e.m.f. is
induced in it, given by
e = lv × B
where
e = e.m.f. induced
l = Length of conductor v = Velocity of conductor B = Magnetic field
strength.
1.3. Basic types and constructional features The basic rotating electric
machines are
• The d.c. machines

• The polyphase induction machine (a.c.)
• The polyphase synchronous machine (a.c.)
• Single phase induction machine (a.c.) All rotating machines consist of two
main parts:
(a) Cylindrical rotating member called the rotor and a stationary member
called stator, with air gap in between the two. The rotor has an axial shaft
which is carried on bearings at each end located in end covers bolted to the
stator. The shaft extends out of the end cover usually at one end and is
coupled to either the prime movers or the load.
(b) The stator and rotor are both made of a magnetic material, mostly steel,
which conducts the magnetic flux upon which the electromechanical energy
conversion depends. In d.c. machines and synchronous machines, the main
field is created by the field poles excited by d.c. current. The winding on the
field poles is called the field winding. The other winding is called the
armature winding.
1.3.1. D.C. machines
In d.c. machines, the armature is the rotor and the field is the stator. The
field poles are even in number and are symmetrically placed around the
armature. As the armature rotates, alternating e.m.f. and current are induced
in the armature. It is rectified to d.c. using a commutator. It is cylindrical in
shape and consists of wedge shaped copper segments bound together while
they are insulated from each other. The armature is made of laminated steel
with slots cut out on the periphery to house the armature winding. The ends
of each armature coil are connected to the commutator segments to form a
closed winding.
1.3.2. Synchronous machines
In synchronous machines the rotor carries the field poles, on which the field
winding is wound. The field poles are excited by direct current. The
armature which carries a three phase winding, wound for the same number
of poles as the rotor, is the stator. When the rotor rotates, it produces an
alternating e.m.f. in each of the armature windings, forming three phase
balanced voltages of frequency
NP
f = 120,
where
f = Frequency
N = Speed of rotor in r.p.m.
P = Number of poles.
1.3.3. Induction machines

Induction motors are the most rugged machines. The stator winding is a
three phase winding, similar to the armature winding of the synchronous
machine, when three phase voltage is applied to the stator winding, a
synchronously rotating field is produced. The rotors are of two types:
Squirrel cage rotor: In this, the rotor has copper or aluminium bars
embedded in slots which are short circuited at each end. It is an extremely
rugged construction, but develops a low starting torque.
Slip-ring (or wound-rotor) rotor: The rotor has proper 3-phase winding
with three leads brought out through slip-rings and brushes. The leads are
normally short circuited when the motor is running. Resistances can be
introduced in the rotor circuit, via the slip-rings, to improve the starting
torque.
In induction motors, the rotating field created by the stator winding moves
past the rotor conductors, inducing currents in them. These induced currents
produce their own field. Torque is developed by the interaction of the stator
field and the field produced by the rotor currents. The torque rotates the
rotor at a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed.
1.3.4. Single phase a.c. motors
These machines are generally induction type machines. Single-phase a.c.

motors are employed for low-voltage, low-power applications. They are
fractional kW motors. They have reduced motor torque and the torque is
pulsating.
1.3.5. Transformers
A transformer is a static device comprising coils coupled magnetically. The

transformer is used (i) to change voltage and current levels in circuits (ii)
match source and load impedances for maximum power transfer (iii)
electrical isolation. The transformer consists of two insulated windings,
interlinked by a common or mutual magnetic field established in the core of
the magnetic material. One of the windings called the primary winding is
connected to an alternating voltage source, setting up an alternating flux in
the core. This mutual flux links with the second winding called the
secondary winding. A voltage is induced in the secondary winding, at the
same frequency as the supply voltage. The magnitude depends on the
number of turns. The ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage
is equal to the ratio of their respective turns. If the secondary voltage is
greater than the primary, the transformer is called step-up. If it is less it is
called step-down.
1.4. Losses in Machines

Losses occur in all types of machines, resulting in their efficiency being less
than 100%. The efficiency of a machine is defined as
% Output 100% η =Input ×
Output and input are measured in watts. The losses in machines are as
follows.
1.4.1. Copper losses
Copper losses occur in all windings and account for the heat lost in the
resistance of the winding. If the resistance of the winding is R, and it carries
a currentIA, the copper loss is equal to I2R watts.
1.4.2. Iron losses

Iron losses occur in the magnetic material of the machines. Iron losses are
due to eddy currents and hysteresis.
Eddy current losses: These occur because of currents induced on the
surface of the magnetic materials. These losses can be reduced by using
laminations.
Hysteresis losses: These losses occur due to magnetic reversals.
1.4.3. Mechanical losses
These losses are associated with moving parts friction and windage losses
form a major portion of the mechanical losses.
In the subsequent chapters we deal with each of the machines in detail.
Questions
1. What is a generator?
2. What is a motor?
3. Explain the different machines available.
4. What is the principle of operation of a generator?
5. What is the principle of operation of a motor?
6. Explain the working of a transformer.
7. What are the various losses occurring in electric machines?
CHAPTER - 2
DC machines Generators
Learning objectives
Dynamically induced and statically induced e.m.f.
Working of single turn generator Fleming's right hand rule
Parts of d.c. generator
Lap and wave windings
E.m.f. equation of d.c. generator Separately excited generator Self excited
generator
Compound generator
Magnetization characteristic Internal and external
characteristic
353
2.1. Introduction
D.C. machines are primarily d.c. generators and d.c. motors. We will study
d.c. generators in this chapter and d.c. motors in the next chapter.
A generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (power). Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state
that
• When the flux linking with a conductor changes, e.m.f is induced in it.
• The e.m.f induced is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
e ∝ Ndφ (2.1)dt
where e is e.m.f. induced

N is number of turns
φ is flux linking with conductor.
Lenz’s law states that the e.m.f. is induced in a direction to oppose the cause
producing it. The flux linking with a conductor can be changed by
• relative motion between conductor and magnetic field (producing the flux).
This can be achieved by having a stationary field and rotating conductor or
having a stationary conductor and rotating field.
• producing an alternating flux by an alternating current.
The machines where e.m.f. is induced using relative motion between

conductor and field are called generators. The e.m.f. so induced is called
“motional e.m.f”or“dynamically induced e.m.f”. The e.m.f induced in a coil
when an alternating flux links with it is called “statically induced e.m.f” and
is used in transformers.
Thus in generators, the conductor cuts magnetic flux, so that dynamically
induced e.m.f is produced in it. If the conductor circuit is closed a current
flows in it. Hence, the essential parts of any generator are
• A magnetic field
• A conductor which moves relatively with respect to the field.
2.2. Principle of working
The principle of working can be best explained by considering a single-turn

rectangular coil made of copper rotating about its own axis in a magnetic
field provided by either permanent magnet or electro magnets. Consider a
copper coil, ABCD, rotating in a magnetic field as shown in Fig. 2.1.
The two ends of the coil are joined to two copper rings called slip-rings, ‘a’
and ‘b’ which are insulated from each other and from the central shafts. Two
brushes, of copper or carbon, press against the slip-rings. These brushes
collect the current from the coil and take it to the external load resistance RL.
Consider the position of the coil as shown in Fig. 2.1, as the reference. In
this position, the plane of the coil is at right angles to the magnetic lines of
flux. In this position, the rate of change of flux is minimum and no e.m.f is
induced in the coil. This position is taken as the reference position. We
measure the angle of rotation or time from this position. As the coil rotates,
the rate of change of flux and hence the induced e.m.f increases, till at θ =
90◦, when the coil plane is horizontal, the induced e.m.f is maximum.
In the next quarter, fromθ = 90◦ to 180◦, the rate of change of flux linkages
gradually decreases, till at θ = 180◦ it is zero. Hence, in this position e.m.f is
zero.
In the second half of the revolution, from θ = 180◦ toθ = 360◦, the variations
of e.m.f are similar to those in first half of the revolution. It is minimum
when plane of coil is perpendicular to lines of flux and maximum when the
plane of coil is parallel to the lines of flux. If we consider the coil side AB
we can see that in the first half of the revolution, it moves downward in the
magnetic field, cutting the lines of flux. However, in the second
0°
8 A2
270° B 3 12 3 4 N
D
56 7 8 9
S Time C
46
5 (180°) Cycle
Figure 2.1 Single turn coil.
e.m.f.φm 180° 270° 360°0° 90° θ
One cycle Figure 2.2 Induced e.m.f.
half of the revolution, it moves upwards cutting the lines of flux. Therefore
the e.m.f. induced in the coil is reversed. The induced e.m.f. is shown in Fig.
2.2.
The e.m.f induced in the conductor is given by
e = Bϑ sinθ (2.2) where e = induced e.m.f in volts
B = magnetic field intensity in T

= active length of conductor in m
ϑ = relative velocity between field and conductor in m/s
θ = angle between plane of rotation and plane of flux.
The direction of the induced e.m.f is found from Fleming’s Right Hand rule.
The application of the rule is shown in Fig. 2.3.
The thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the right hand are extended so
that they are at right angles to each other. If the fore finger points in the
direction of the lines of flux, the thumb in the direction of the relative
motion of the conductor and the flux, the middle finger gives the direction of
the induced e.m.f.
From Fig. 2.2, it is seen that the e.m.f induced in the coil is an alternating
one. To convert it into a d.c. voltage we use a commutator. We next consider
a practical d.c. generator and its construction.
2.3. Construction of a d.c. generator

While the single loop generator explained in the last section, illustrates the
principle of the d.c. generator, the practical generator is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Motion of Lines conductor of flux
SNMotion
Direction
of flux
Direction of e.m.f. (current)
Figure 2.3 Fleming’s Right Hand rule.
Field poles Yoke Lugs
Brushes
Field winding
Armature Shaft Conductors

Commutator
Feet
Figure 2.4 D.C generator.
The various parts of the d.c. generator are
1. Magnetic frame or Yoke
2. Armature core
3. Armature conductors or windings
4. Pole-core and pole shoe
5. Field coil (winding)
6. Commutator
7. Brushes and bearings.
The functions of the various parts are discussed below.

2.3.1. Yoke
The Yoke is the outer frame of the machine. The functions of the Yoke are
• To provide mechanical support to the poles.

• Act as protective cover for the machine.
• Carry the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
Yokes are made of cast iron because it is cheapest. For larger machines it is
made of cast steel or rolled steel.
2.3.2. Armature core
The armature core is cylindrical in shape and is mounted on the shaft. It

consists of slots on its periphery to house the conductors. It is built up of
circular sheet steel discs or laminations around 0.5 mm thick. The core is
keyed to the shaft. The armature core is shown in Fig. 2.5.
Laminators SlotSlot
TeethKey wayKey way
Air holesAir holes
Figure 2.5 Armature core.
The functions of the armature core are:
• To house the armature conductors
• To provide a path of low reluctance to the field flux from the N-pole to S-
pole, through the armature.
It is made of cast iron or cast steel.
2.3.3. Armature windings
A number of conductors, housed on the armature core, are interconnected in

a manner to add up the induced e.m.fs produced in the conductors. These
interconnected conductors constitute the armature winding. The main
functions of the armature winding are:
Generation of e.m.f•
• Carry the armature current supplied to the load in case of generators and
carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors.
The windings are basically of two types (i) Lap winding (ii) Wave winding.
Lap winding: Here, if we start from the conductor in the first slot and
number it as 1, the connections overlap as shown in Fig. 2.6.
The conductors are connected in series parallel combination to increase the

voltage and current rating. Series connection increases the voltage rating and
parallel connection increases the current rating.
In lap winding the total number of parallel paths is equal to the number of
poles ‘P’. Hence lap winding is preferred for machines with high current
rating.
13 5
246
Figure 2.6 Lap winding.
13 5
24 6
Figure 2.7 Wave winding.
Conductor 1 Conductor 2
1 turn Figure 2.8 Turn in a winding.
Wave winding: In this connection, the winding does not have overlap as
shown in Fig. 2.7. Here the conductors get divided into two parallel paths
irrespective of the number of poles. This type of winding is preferred for low
current, high voltage generators. The following terms are commonly used
with respect to windings.
• Conductor: It is the actual conductor placed in the armature slot. Each
conductor is under the influence of either the north or south pole.
• Turn: Two conductors placed in different slots when connected together

form a turn, as shown in Fig. 2.8.
The total number of conductors
Z = 2× number of turns (2.3) Table 2.1 Lap and Wave winding.
Lap winding Wave winding
1. Number of Parallel paths, A = Number of poles, P.

2. Number of brushes is equal to P.
3. Preferred for high current-low voltage generators.
4. Used when current is greater than 500 A A = 2.
Number of brushes required is 2.
Preferred for low current-high voltage generators.

Used when current is less than 500 A
Yoke
Pole core
Pole shoe
Figure 2.9 Poles.
• Coil: The turns are grouped together to form a coil. If the coil contains
only one turn its called a single turn coil and if it contains more than one
turn its called a multiturn coil.
The comparison of lap and wave winding is given in Table 2.1.
2.3.4. Pole Core and Shoe

Each pole is divided into pole core and pole shoe as shown in Fig. 2.9.
The functions are as follows:
The pole core carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the
magnetic flux. •
• It directs the flux through the armature core.
• The pole shoes spread out the flux in the air gap and being of larger cross-
section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
Laminated Exciting pole core coils
Laminated pole shoe
Figure 2.10 Field coil.
In modern designs, the pole core and shoes are both built of thin laminations
of annealed steel, of thickness between 0.25 mm to 1 mm. The pole is then
securely bolted to the yoke.
2.3.5. Field coil (winding)
The field coils (or pole coils) are made of copper wire or strip and are former
wound. The wound coil is put into place over the pole core as shown in Fig.
2.10.
The function of this coil is to produce the necessary flux, when current is
passed through it. Since it produces the flux its also called the exciting
winding. The field coils are so connected that they form alternate N and S
poles.
2.3.6. Commutator
The basic nature of e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors is a.c. as
discussed in section 2.2. The commutator is the device which rectifies it to
d.c. It facilitates the collection of current from the armature conductors. It is
of cylindrical shape and built up of wedge-shaped segments of high-
conductivity of hard drawn copper. The segments are insulated from each
other by thin layers of mica. Each segment is connected to the armature
conductor by means of a copper strip or plug. The commutator is shown in
Fig. 2.11.
2.3.7. Brushes and bearings

Brushes are stationary and rest on the surface of the commutator. Their
function is to collect current from commutator and make it available to the
external circuit. They are
CommutatorInsulted
lugs
copper
segments
End
clamp
Figure 2.11 Commutator.
made of a soft material like carbon. They are housed in box-type brush
holders. The brushes are made to press on the commutator by a spring whose
tension can be adjusted. A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the top of the
brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder.
Ball bearings are used commonly because of their reliability. Roller bearings
are used for heavier duties.
2.4. E.m.f. equation of d.c. generator
Let φ = flux/pole in Wb
Z = total number of armature conductors
P = number of poles
A = number of parallel paths
N = speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
Eg = induced e.m.f.
Average e.m.f ‘e’ generated per conductor =dφ . The flux cut by the
conductor in one revolutiondt
dφ = φP W b (Since φ is the flux/pole,φP gives total flux)
NNumber of revolutions per second =
60
60∴ Time taken for one revolution =
N
Hence,
e
=
dφ = φP= NφP
dt60 60N
Number of parallel paths = A

Number of conductors/path
=
Z
A
∴
E.m.f generated/path
=
Z NφP= ZNφP A 60 60A
• A = P, for lap winding

• A = 2, for wave winding
• Z = No. of armature slots× No. of conductors/slot
Eg = ZNφP Volts (2.4)60A

Since Z, P, and A are constants,
Eg = KaφN Volts (2.5)
Example 2.1 A 4 pole, lap wound d.c. generator has flux of 0.075 Wb/pole.
What is the e.m.f. generated when it is rotated at a speed of 1000 rpm, if the
number of armature conductors is 440? What would be the e.m.f. if the
machine is wave wound?
Solution: P = 4; Z = 440; φ = 0.075; N = 1000 rpm. For lap winding A = P =
4
E = 440× 1000× 0.075× 4= 550 V.60× 4
For Wave winding A = 2
E= 440× 1000× 0.075× 4= 1100 V.60× 2

Example 2.2 An 8 pole d.c. generator has 500 armature conductors and a
useful flux of 0.06 Wb/pole. What is e.m.f. generated if it runs at 1200 rpm
and conductors are lap wound? At what speed must it be driven to produce
the same e.m.f. if it is wave wound?
Solution: If it is lap wound A = 8

500× 1200× 0.06× 8= 600 V.Eg = 60× 8
If it is wave wound, then A = 2
600 500× N × 0.06× 8N = 300 rpm. =60× 2
Example 2.3 A four pole generator having wave wound armature winding
has
50 slots, each containing 20 conductors. If the flux per pole is 6.8 mWb and
speed is
1500 rpm, find the voltage generated?
Solution: Z = No. of slots × conductors/slot = 50× 20 = 1000 1000× 1500×

6.8× 10−3 × 4= 340 V.Eg = 60× 2
Example 2.4 A 4 pole lap-wound d.c. generator having 80 slots with 10

conductors/ slot generates 400 V when running at 1200 rpm. How can a
voltage of 360 V be obtained from the same machine?
Solution:
Eg =ZP φN = KaφN60A
ZP = Ka = 80× 10× 4 = 13.33.
60A 60× 4
Eg1 = 400 = 13.33× 1200× φ1 φ1 = 0.025Wb.
We can get 360 V by either keeping same flux and changing speed or by
keeping the speed constant and changing flux.
Keep flux constant Then Eg2 = 360 = 13.33× 0.025× N
N = 1080 rpm.
Keep speed constant Then 360 = 13.33× φ × 1200
φ = 0.0225 Wb.
Hence, 360 V can be generated by changing the speed from 1200 rpm to
1080 rpm keeping the flux at 0.025 Wb or by changing the flux from 0.025
Wb to 0.0225 Wb keeping the speed at 1200 rpm.
2.5. Types of d.c. generator
All the generators need to have an excitation source, which is responsible for
producing the magnetic field. Based on the way in which the field is
classified, generators are classified into
• Separately excited
• Self excited
2.5.1. Separately excited generator
In these generators the field magnets are energized from a separate
independent external source of d.c. current. This is shown in Fig. 2.12.
A separate d.c. source is used to drive the field current If. The resistanceRf is
connected to adjust the field current. The e.m.f. generated in the armature
drives the load. It can be seen that the armature current is same as the load
current.
2.5.2. Self-excited generator
When the electromagnets are deenergized, there is always some retention of

magnetism in the poles. This flux is called residual flux. When the armature
is now rotated, an e.m.f. is generated. This is used to drive the field current
and strengthen the residual pole flux. There are three types of self excited
generators.
If Ia
Rf +
D.C. Armature Load sourceFld −wdg
Figure 2.12 Separately excited generator.
R
f IfIa IL +
F1 A 1 + F1−F2: Field winding A1−A2: ArmatureV Load
F
2
V: Terminal voltage A2 −
− Figure 2.13 Shunt generator.
2.5.3. Shunt generator
In these generators the field windings are connected across the armature and
the full voltage is applied to the field circuit as shown in Fig. 2.13.
The field winding has a large number of turns of thin wire. It has a high
resistance,Rsh. The equations of the shunt generator are as follows:
Ia = If + IL (2.6)
V (2.7)If = Rsh + Rf
S1 S2 If R +
fILIa
A
1
+ S1−S2: Series field A1−A2: ArmatureV Load
A2 −
− Figure 2.14 Series generator.
(Note that Rsh is the resistance of the field winding and Rf is the external
resistance connected)
Eg = V + IaRa + Vbrush (2.8)
In (2.8), Eg is the induced e.m.f, Ra is the resistance of the armature winding

and Vbrush is the voltage drop due to brushes, called the brush contract
drop.Vbrush is generally small and can be neglected. It is around 0.5 V for
metallic brushes and 2.0 V for carbon brushes. The generated e.m.f Eg is also
given by
Eg = ZNφP.60 A
2.5.4. Series generator
Here the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding and
the load as shown in Fig. 2.14.
The field winding has less turns and is thicker in cross-section and has a
small resistance Rse. The equations governing the series generator are,
Ia = If = IL (2.9) Eg = V + Ia(Ra + Rse + Rf) + Vbrush (2.10)
The induced e.m.f is equal to the terminal voltage, plus the brush contact
drop and the drops in the armature resistance (Ra), series field winding
resistance (Rse) and external
I
S
f 1 IL +
S2 IaF1
A1 + V Load F2
A2 − − Figure 2.15 Long shunt compound generator.
resistance (Rf). Also, E
g
=
ZNφP 60A
2.5.5. Compound generator
In this type of connection, part of the field winding is connected in series

with the armature and part of the winding in parallel with the armature. Both
the series and shunt winding are mounted on the same shaft. Depending on
the connection, the compound generator is classified into long shunt
compound generator and short shunt compound generator.
Long shunt compound generator

The connections for long shunt compound generator is shown in Fig. 2.15.
The equations which describe the long shunt connections are,
Ia = If + IL; If = V (2.11)Rsh
(The current through series field winding isIa)
Eg = V + IaRa + IaRse + Vbrush (2.12) (If external resistances are
connected, their drops should be suitably added, as discussed in previous
sections)
S1 IL +
S2
If Ia V Load
F1 A1 +
F2 A
2−−
Figure 2.16 Short shunt compound generator.
Short shunt compound generator
The connections for short shunt compound generator is shown in Fig. 2.16.
The equations are,
Ia = If + IL (2.13) The voltage across the shunt field winding is the voltage
across the armature and not the terminal voltage. This voltage is Eg − IaRa.
∴ If = Eg − IaRa(2.14)Rsh
The current through the series winding isIL.
Eg = V + ILRse + IaRa + Vbursh (2.15)
The total flux produced in the compound generator is sum of the fluxes
produced by the shunt winding and the series winding. The shunt field is
stronger than the series field. If the series flux aids the shunt flux, then the
generator is said to be cumulatively compounded. If the series flux opposes
the shunt flux, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
Example 2.5 A shunt generator delivers 200 A at 220 V to the load. The
resistance of the shunt field and armature are 50 and 0.02 respectively. Find
the generated e.m.f.
200A If +
50Ω 220V Load
0.02Ω
− Figure 2.17 Example 2.5.
Solution: If = 220 4.4 A50 =

IL = 200 A
Ia = IL + If = 204.4 A
Eg = V + IaRa = 220+ (204.4× 0.02) = 224.088 V
Example 2.6 A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50

A at 400 V. Ra = 0.05 ; Rsh = 200 ; Rse = 0.03 . The brush drop is 1 V per
brush. Find the armature current and generated e.m.f.
Solution:
If = 400 =2A200
Ia = 50+ 2 = 52 A
Eg = V + Ia(Rse + Ra) + Vbrush. Eg = 400+ 52(0.03+ 0.05) + 2× 1 = 406.16
V.
(The brush drop is taken for two brushes).
50A I
f
0.03Ω +
Ia
200Ω Load 400V
0.05Ω − Figure 2.18 Example 2.6.
Example 2.7 Repeat Example 2.6, if the generator was a short shunt
compounded machine.
Solution: Drop in series winding = 0.03× 50 = 1.5 V. Voltage across shunt
winding = 400+ 1.5 = 401.5 V.
If = 401.5 2.0075 A200 =
Ia = If + IL = 50+ 2.0075 = 52.0075 A
0.03Ω50A +
If Load 400V 200Ω 0.05Ω
Eg = 401.5+ 52.0075× 0.05+ 2 = 406.1 V.
Example 2.8 An 8 pole d.c. shunt generator with 778 wave-connected

conductors and running at 600 r.p.m. supplies a load of 10 at a terminal
voltage of 250 V. The armature resistance is 0.2 and shunt field resistance is
250 . Find the armature current, induced e.m.f. and flux per pole.
Solution:
IL = 250 25 A10 =
250 =1AIf =
250
Ia = 25+ 1 = 26 A
Eg = V + IaRa = 250+ 26× 0.2 = 255.2 V ZNφPEg = 60 A
255.2
=
778× 600× φ × 8
60× 2
φ = 8.2 mWb.
If IL
+
250Ω 250V 10Ω
0.2Ω
Example 2.9 In a long shunt compound generator the terminal voltage is

220 V, when the generator delivers 100 A. Determine the induced e.m.f,
power generated and distribution of the power. Given that the shunt field
resistance is 92 ; the series field resistance is 0.02 ; diverter is 0.03 and
armature resistance is 0.03 .
Solution: Diverter is a resistance connected across the series field winding

If = 220 2.391 A92 =
Ia = If + IL = 2.391+ 100 = 102.391 A
Combined resistance of series winding and diverter,
0.03||0.02 = 0.03× 0.02 = 0.012 .0.03+ 0.02
Drop in series winding+ diverter = 102.391× 0.012 = 1.229 V
(i) Eg = 220+ 1.229+ (102.391× 0.03) = 224.3 V (ii) Power generated = EgIa
= 224.3× 102.391 = 22, 966.3 W.
If 100A +
0.03Ω0.02Ω
92Ω Load 220V
0.03Ω
(iii) Power distribution is as follows:

• Power delivered to load = 220× 100 = 22, 000 W.
• Power dissipated by shunt field resistance = I2Rsh = (2.391)2×92 = 525.95
W.f
• Power dissipated by series field resistance and diverter= I2×combined

resistance = (102.391)2 × 0.012 = 125.81 W.a
• Power dissipated in armature resistance = I2Ra = (102.391)2 × 0.03 =
314.51.a
• Total = 22, 000+ 525.95+ 125.81+ 314.51 = 22, 966.3 W.
Example 2.10 A four pole, lap wound shunt generator has 300 armature
conductors and flux/pole of 0.10 Wb. It runs at 1200 r.p.m. Ra = 0.2 and Rsh
= 150 . Calculate terminal voltage when it is loaded to take a load current of
100 A.
Solution:
E
g
=
ZNφP= 300× 1200× 0.1× 4 60 A 60× 4 = 600 V.
V
If = V = 150 ARsh
E
g
=
V
+
I
a
R
a
and
I
a
=
I
L
+
I
f
=
100 + V 150 600 = V + 100+ V 0.2150
600 = 1.00133 V+ 20
600− 20 = 579.23 V.V =
1.00133
Example 2.11 A compound generator supplies 150 A at 220 V.Ra = 0.04
;Rse = 0.03 ; Rsh = 60 . Find the e.m.f generated if the generator is (i) short
shunt compounded (ii) long shunt compounded.
150A 150A + + 0.03Ω 0.03Ω

If 220V Load 60Ω 220V Load
60Ω 0.04Ω
0.04Ω
− − (a) Short shunt (b) Long shunt
Figure 2.22 Example 2.11 (i) and (ii).
Solution:
(i) Short shunt
V + ILRse = 220+ (150× 0.03) = 224.5 V
224.5 = 3.742 AI =
f 60
Ia = 150+ 3.742 = 153.742.
Eg = 224.5+ IaRa = 224.5+ (153.742× 0.04) = 230.65 V.
(ii) Long shunt
If = 220 3.67 A60 =
Ia = 150+ 3.67 = 153.67 A Example 2.12 A 4 pole lap wound shunt

generator has 120 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05
Wb. Ra = 0.04 and Rsh = 50 . Find the speed of the machine when it is
supplying 50 A at 250 V.
Solution:
If = V = 250 5ARsh 50 =
Ia = IL + If = 50+ 5 = 55 A E g = V + IaRa = 250+ 55× 0.04 = 252.2 V
ZNφPEg = 60A
252.2
=
(120× 4) × N × 0.05× 4 60× 4
N = 630.5 r.p.m.
Example 2.13 A long shunt d.c. shunt generator driver 20 lamps connected
in parallel, at a terminal voltage of 220 V. The resistance of each lamp is 500
. Ra = 0.05 , Rsh = 250 and Rse = 0.04 . Calculate armature current and
generated e.m.f.
Solution:
The current drawn by each lamp = 220 = 0.44 A.500
Total current drawn by 20 lamps = 0.44× 20 = 8.8 A
220 = 0.88 AI =
f 250
Ia = If + IL = 0.88+ 8.8 = 9.68 A
If IL
+ 0.04Ω
Ia
250Ω••• Lamps V = 220V
2.6. Losses in d.c. generator
There are various losses which occur in a d.c. generator. They can be
classified into
Iron losses or core losses •

• copper losses
• Mechanical losses.
2.6.1. Iron loss

This loss occurs due to the rotation of the iron core of the armature in the
magnetic flux. It consists of (i) Hysteresis loss (ii) Eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss , Wh: This loss is due to the reversal of magnetisation of the
armature core. The core undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal
after passing under one pair of poles. The loss depends on the volume and
grade of iron, the maximum flux densityBmax and frequency of magnetic
reversals. An emperical formula called Steinmetz formula is used to
calculate the hysteresis loss.
Wh = ηB1.6 fV Watts (2.16)max
where V = volume of core in m3

frequencyf =
η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient which depends on the material.
Eddy current loss, We
When the armature rotates, e.m.f. is also induced in the body of the core.
This e.m.f. is small and sets up current in the body of the core, called eddy
current. The power loss due to this current is called the eddy current loss.
This is significant if a solid core is used. To reduce this loss, the core is built
up of thin laminations, insulated from each other by a thin coating of
varnish. It is found using the relationship,
We = KB2 f 2t2V 2 Watts (2.17)max

where t = thickness of laminations.
The iron losses raise the temperature of the core. Through eddy current
losses can be reduced by using laminations, hysteresis losses cannot. To
reduce Wh, wehavetouse materials with low hysteresis coefficient like
silicon steel.
2.6.2. Copper losses

Copper losses occur whenever current flows through a conductor. The
various copper losses are
Armature copper loss: = I2Ra. Here Ra is resistance of the armature
windings. Thisa
accounts for 30–40% of full load loss.
Field copper loss: We have copper loss in the field windings. The shunt field
loss isI2 Rsh and the series field loss is
I
2
f
Rse, where Ise is the current through the series field whichse
will depend on the connection. The field copper losses account for 20–30%
of full-load loss.
Brush contact loss: This loss occurs due to the brush contact resistance.
2.6.3. Mechanical losses
These consist of
friction loss at bearings and commutator•
• air-friction or windage loss of the rotating armature.
These account for about 10–20% of full load loss. The mechanical losses do
not vary much with the load. The shunt field copper loss is also constant for
shunt and compound
Mechanical
power input
(from prime mover) Iron and mechanical losses
Electrical power Copper Electric developed inlosses power armature Eg Ia
output
Watts VIL Watts

Figure 2.24 Power stages of d.c. generator.
generators. The mechanical loss + iron loss+ shunt field copper loss together
are called constant losses or standing losses,Wc. The armature copper loss is
variable sinceIa varies with the load current.
2.7. Power stages and efficiency
In a d.c. generator, the input power supplied is mechanical. The machine

which supplies the mechanical power is called the prime mover. The
mechanical power is converted into electrical power and supplied to the
load. In the process, various losses take place. The power stages are shown
in Fig. 2.24.
Efficiency
=
Electric power supplied to load Mechanical power input The electrical
output = VIL
Input = output + losses = VIL + I2Ra + Wca
where IL is load current and Wc is constant losses.
Since field current is normally small compared to armature and load
currents, we can neglect it. Then Ia IL
η
=
output VIL
input = VIL + I2Ra + WcL
1= ILRa Wc1
+ + V VIL
Efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum or d ILRa+ Wc = 0dIL
V VIL
%η
Output (W) Figure 2.25 η Vs output.
We get Ra Wc = 0V −VI2
L
or 2Ra = Wc (2.18)I
L
Therefore, the efficiency is maximum when the variable (armature copper
loss) is equal to the constant losses. The corresponding load current is given
by
IL =Wc (2.19)Ra
A plot of efficiency versus output is as shown in Fig. 2.25.
Example 2.14 A shunt generator delivers 200 A at 250 V to the load. The
armature resistance is 0.02 and shunt field resistance is 60 . The iron and
friction losses are 1000 W. Find the e.m.f generated, copper losses, output of
prime mover and efficiency.
Solution: IL = 200 A
250 4.167 AI =
f 60 =
Ia = 200+ 4.167 = 204.167 A
Eg = V + IaRa = 250+ (204.167× 0.02) = 254.08 V.
Armature copper loss = I2Ra = 250+ (204.167)2 × 0.02) = 833.68 Wa
Shunt field copper loss
2
= If Rsh = (4.167)2 × 60 = 1041.8 W Iron and friction losses = 1000 W.
Total loss = 833.68+ 1041.8+ 1000 = 2875.48 W Input = Output+ losses =
250× 200+ 2875.48 = 52, 875.5 W.
Input to generator is output of prime mover.
∴ output of prime mover = 52, 875.5 W.
% Output 100 = 250× 200 100 = 94.56%η =Input ×52, 875.5 ×
Example 2.15 A shunt generator has a full load current of 200 A at 220 V.
The stray losses are 720 W. The shunt field resistance is 75 . If the full load
efficiency is 88%, find the armature resistance. Also, find the load current
corresponding to maximum efficiency.
Solution: output = 200× 220 = 44, 000 W

η = 88%
Input 44, 000 = 55, 000 W. =0.88
Total losses = 50, 000− 44000 = 6, 000 W.
220 2.93 A; I = 200+ 2.93 = 202.93 AI = =
a f 75
Shunt field copper loss = I Rf = (2.93)2 × 75f
2
= 743.86 W.
Armature copper loss = Total losses− constant loss constant loss,Wc = Stray
loss+ shunt copper loss = 720+ 643.86 = 1363.86 W.
(stray losses means iron+ friction losses.)
I2Ra = 6, 000− 1363.86 = 4636.14 w.a
Ra = 4636.14 = 0.1126(202.93)2
At maximum η,IL =Wc =1363.86 110.05 ARa 0.1126 =
Example 2.16 A long shunt d.c. generator running at 1200 rpm supplies 20
kW at a terminal voltage of 220 V. Ra = 0.05 ; Rsh = 100 and Rse = 0.06 .
The efficiency is 88%. Find the copper losses, stray losses, input power and
torque exerted by the prime mover.
Solution:
I
L
=
20× 103
220 = 90.91 A
2.2A + 0.06Ω
100Ω 220V Load
If = 220 = 2.2 A100
Ia = 90.91+ 2.2 = 93.11 A
(i) Cu loss
=
I
2
2
(R a + Rse) + If Rsha
= 93.112(0.05+ 0.06) + 2.22 × 100 = 1437.64 W
(ii) Input = 20, 000 = 22, 727.27 W0.88

(iii) Stray loss = Total loss− copper loss = 2727.27− 1437.64 = 1, 289.63 W
Input power = 22, 727.27 W = output of prime mover
(iv) Torque exerted is given by,
T × 2πN = 22, 72760
T = 22, 727× 60 = 180 N.m.2× π × 1200
Example 2.17 A d.c. shunt generator has a full load output of 20 KW at a

terminal voltage of 250 V. The armature and the shunt field winding
resistance are 0.6 and 160 respectively. The stray losses are 700 W. Find the
efficiency.
Solution:
I
L
=
20× 103
250 = 80 A
250 = 1.5625 AI =
f 160
Ia = IL + If = 81.5625 A
Total loss = I2 Rsh + I2Ra + Stray lossf a

1.5625)2 × 160+ (81.5625)2 × 0.6+ 700= (
= 5082.089
% 20, 000 × 100 = 79.74%η = 20, 000+ 5082.087
Example 2.18 The hysteresis and eddy current losses in a d.c. machine
running at 1200 r.p.m are 250 W and 100 W respectively. If the flux remains
constant, at what speed will the total iron losses be half?
Solution: Wh ∝ f and We ∝ f 2. The frequency of magnetic reversal is

related to speed byf = PN. ∴ Iron loss Wi = AN + BN2 120 When speed is
1200 r.p.m
Wh = 250 W ⇒ A =250 = 0.20831200
100 W ⇒ B =(1200)2 = 6.94× 10−5We =100
Let the new speed be N rpm. Iron loss is half.
Wi = 250+ 100= 175 W.2
175 = 0.2083× N + 6.94× 10−5N2
=−
0.2083± (0.2083)2 + 4× 175× 6.94× 10−5 = −0.2083± 0.3032 2× 6.94× 10−5
5
2× 6.94× 10− Taking positive value of speed, N = 683.7 r.p.m.
2.8. Armature reaction
The armature current sets up its own magnetic field. Armature reaction
refers to the effect of magnetic field set up by the armature current on the
distribution of flux under the main poles of the generator. The armature
reaction has two effects:
• It demagnetises or weakens the main flux

• It cross-magnetises or distorts the main flux.
Demagnetization effect leads to reduced generated voltage and cross-

magnetisation causes sparking at the brushes. The demagnetising effect can
be neutralized by adding extra number of turns on each pole. The cross
magnetising effect is neutralized by using compensating windings which are
embedded in slots in the pole shoes and are connected in series with the
armature in such a way that the current in them flows in a direction, opposite
to that flowing in the armature conductors directly below the pole shoes.
Since they are expensive they are used in large machines subject to
fluctuations in load. The magnitude of armature reaction effect depends on
the load current.
2.9. Generator characteristics

There are three important characteristics of a d.c. generators.
(i) No-load saturation characteristic: This curve is also called magnetic

characteristic or open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). It shows the
relationship between the e.m.f. generated on no-load in the armature, E0, and
the field current If, with the speed remaining constant. The curve depends on
the material used in the electromagnets. Its practically the same, whether the
generator is separately-excited or self-excited.
(ii) Internal characteristic: It gives the relation between the induced e.m.f.
Eg and the armature current. It is also called the total characteristic.
(iii) External characteristic: This curve gives the relation between the
terminal voltage V and the load current IL.
Both internal and external characteristics are plotted at constant speed.
2.9.1. Magnetisation characteristics
This is a plot of the induced e.m.fEg against the field current,If, under no
load condition. The speed is kept constant. The curve is as shown in Fig.
2.27.
Eg
Volts
If Amps Figure 2.27 Magnetisation characteristic.
We know, Eg = ZNφP.60 A
With speed kept constant Eg = Kφ. Now the flux φ ∝ If. Hence, the induced
e.m.f. increases directly as If increases. But after a certain value of If, the
core gets saturated and the flux remains a constant, though If increases.
Hence, after saturation, the voltage remains a constant. If the magnetization
curve is plotted at a different speed, we get a different curve. The generated
e.m.f. is proportional to speed and hence increasing the speed, increases the
e.m.f. for the same value of field current.
2.9.2. Load characteristics of d.c. shunt generator Consider the shunt

generator shown in Fig. 2.27.
Ia If IL +
Field L A O V E
A g D Rf
−
After the voltage of the shunt generator is built up, when the machine is
loaded, the terminal voltage drops. The reasons for this drop are
(i) Armature resistance drop: As the load increases, the load current
increases and hence the armature current also increases. As a result the
terminal voltage V = Eg − IaRa, decreases due to increased IaRa drop.
(ii) Armature reaction drop: Due to the demagnetising effect of the armature
reaction, (as discussed in section 2.8) the pole flux is weakened and hence
the induced e.m.f. in the armature is also decreased, which leads to drop in
the terminal voltage.
(iii) The drop in the terminal voltage due to (i) and (ii) reduces the field
current If which further reduces the induced e.m.f.
External characteristic
The external characteristic is a plot of the terminal voltage versus the load
current. The characteristics is shown in Fig. 2.28(a). E0 is the voltage built
on no-load. It can be seen that as the load is increased, the terminal voltage
gradually falls. The curve along a–b shows this condition. Beyond point ‘b’,
any attempt in further increasing the load, results in a decrease in load
current, because of rapid decrease in the terminal voltage as shown along
curve ‘b–c’. Current is increased by decreasing the load resistance. The
terminal voltage too drops because of the reasons discussed. However, the
effect of decrease in load resistance is more prominent than the decrease in
terminal voltage.
Beyond point ‘b’, due to the large current delivered, severe armature reaction
and a largeIaRa drop reduces the terminal voltage drastically. In other words,
the effect of drop
No-loadE0 avoltage E0 InternalI A
External BV b IIVolts• A: Drop due to armature reaction B: I R drop
a a
c
• IL (b) Internal characteristicIL/Ia(a) External characteristic
Figure 2.28 Load characteristics of d.c. shunt generator.
in terminal voltage is more predominant than decrease in load resistance.
Due to this, the load current decreases, until at point ‘c’, the terminal voltage
is reduced to zero.
Internal Characteristic The internal characteristic gives the plot between
the generated voltage Eg versus Ia.In a shunt machine,
Ia = IL + If
and
Eg = V + IaRa.
Therefore, the internal characteristic can be obtained from the external
characteristic by adding the IaRa drop to the terminal voltage.
A shunt generator will fail to excite on load if the load resistance is too low
(or load current is too large). The critical load resistance is the resistance
below which the shunt generator fails to excite.
Voltage regulation: The voltage regulation of a d.c. generator is the change

in the voltage when the load is reduced from full load to no-load, expressed
as a percentage of the rated load voltage. For example, if the no load voltage
is 250V and rated voltage is 230V, then
% regulation = 250− 230 = 8.69%230

(Note that the rating of the machine refers to the terminal voltage on rated
load. Therefore, the no-load voltage will be higher.)
2.9.3. Load characteristics of d.c. series generator
Consider the series generator shown in Fig. 2.29.
In a series generator Ia = Ise = IL. As the load current increases, so does the
field current. As a result, the flux and hence, the induced e.m.f. increases.
With increase in load bothIa andφ increase. Increase inIa increases the
armature reaction which tends to
R
se
+
L
OVA
D
−
Volts
Figure 2.29 Series generator.
I Armature reaction
II Ia (Ra + Rse)
III
I: Magnetisation curve II: Internal characteristic III: External characteristic
Voltage due to residual flux

Ia A Figure 2.30 Load characteristics of d.c. series generator.
decrease the induced e.m.f. This is balanced by the increase inEg, due to
increase in flux. However, after saturation, the flux remains a constant andEg
tends to drop significantly.
The terminal voltage V = Eg − Ia(Ra + Rse).

The characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.30.
The e.m.f. induced when Ia = 0, is the e.m.f. due to residual flux in the field
winding.
2.9.4. Load characteristics of d.c. compound generator
The characteristic depends on whether the generator is cumulatively

compounded or differentially compounded. In cumulative compounding the
flux due to shunt and series winding aid each other. There are two effects
under this condition.
• As load current increases, Ia and Ise (current through series winding)

increase. The increase in flux increases the induced e.m.f. and hence the
terminal voltage.
• With increase in Ia, the armature reaction and the armature drop and drop in
series winding increases. This causes a drop in terminal voltage.
Thus there are two effects. One causing a drop in terminal voltage and
another an increase in terminal voltage. If the drop in terminal voltage due to
increase in armature reaction is more than the rise in terminal voltage due to
increase in flux, the generator is said to be under compounded. If the drop in
terminal voltage due to armature reaction is much less than the rise in
terminal voltage due to increase in flux, the generator is said to be over
compounded. If the two effects cancel each other at full load, the generator is
said to be flat or level compounded. In this case the full load voltage is same
as the no-load voltage.
In differentially compounded generators, the net flux is difference of the

shunt and series flux. With increase in load, the shunt flux is almost
constant, whereas the series flux increasesφ = φsh− φse. Therefore, the net
flux decreases and there is a large drop in the terminal voltage, due to
decrease in induced e.m.f. The various characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.31.
2.9.5. Critical resistance of a shunt generator
Critical resistance is that resistance of the field circuit, at a given speed, at

which the shunt generator just excites and starts voltage build up. If the
resistance is greater than this, the generator fails to build up.
Before loading a shunt generator, the voltage has to be built up to the rated
value. The residual flux is responsible for producing a small e.m.f. initially
in the armature. This e.m.f. drives a small field current which increases the
pole flux. This increased flux further increases the induced e.m.f., which
drives more field current and so on. This is how the shunt generator builds
up voltage.
Now consider Fig. 2.32. The figure shows the magnetisation curve. It also
shows three straight lines corresponding to three values of shunt field
resistances R1,R2 and R3.
Over compounded
Volts Flat compounded E0
Under compounded
Differential compounded
IL (A) Figure 2.31 Load characteristics of compound generator.
R4 R3 R2 R1
Eg B
VoltsA Magnetisation curve
R4 > R3 > R2 > R1
0 I Amps Figure 2.32 Critical resistance.
f
(To plot these, draw lines whose slope is the corresponding resistance).
When the resistance is R1, the maximum voltage that can be developed, is
given by the intersection of the resistance line with the O.C.C., at point A. If
now the resistance is increased to R2, the maximum e.m.f. built would be at
point B. Thus, by increasing the field resistance, the generator can build only
a lesser voltage. If now the resistance is increased to a value R3 where the
line is tangential to the linear part of the O.C.C., the e.m.f. developed is of a
small value, which is just sufficient to drive the current through the field
resistance so that the voltage builds up. This value of resistance is called the
critical field resistance. If now the field resistance is further increased, (say
R4) the resistance line does not intersect the O.C.C. Hence, the voltage build
up does not take place.
To find the critical resistance, draw the O.C.C. Draw a tangent to the initial
linear portion of the O.C.C. The slope of this line gives the critical
resistance.
2.9.6. O.C.C. at different speeds
If we know the O.C.C. of the generator at a particular speedN1, how do we
plot the O.C.C. at another speed N2? We know that, Eg ∝ N, for a fixed
excitation. Hence
Eg1 = N1 or E 2 = E 1 × N2.
g g Eg2 N2 N1
Thus knowing the O.C.C. at one speed, we can plot the O.C.C. at another
speed. The critical speed of a shunt generator is that speed for which the
given shunt field resistance represents the critical resistance.
Consider Fig. 2.33. Rsh is the shunt field.
Example 2.19 The magnetisation curve of a d.c. shunt generator at 1500
r.p.m is given by the following readings.
If (A) 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0 Eg (V) 6 60 120 172.5 202.5 221 231
237 240
Find (i) residual voltage (ii) no-load e.m.f. if shunt field resistance is 100
(iii) critical resistance (iv) the magnetization curve at 1200 r.p.m. (v) the
open circuit voltage at 1200 r.p.m.
Rc
CN
Rsh Eg
Volts
B Nc
0 A I Amps Figure 2.33 Critical speed.
f
Solution:
(i) The residual voltage is voltage whenIf = 0. It is 6 V.
(ii) The plot of the O.C.C. is drawn as shown in Fig. 2.34. The shunt field
resistance line corresponding to Rsh = 100 is also drawn. (This is done by
drawing a line through two points - (0,0) and (1 A, 100 V)). It intersects the
O.C.C. at A. The voltage corresponding to this is 227.5V. Hence, the
generator builds upto 227.5 V on no-load.
(iii) A tangent to the O.C.C. is drawn. The slope of this is 225 = 150 .1.5
(iv) To find magnetization curve at 1200 r.p.m, we note thatEg2 = Eg1× 1200 =
0.8Eg1. The points are given by1500
If (A) 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0 Eg (V) 4.8 48 96 138 162 176.8 184.8
189.6 192
The O.C.C. at 1200 r.p.m is also shown in Fig. 2.34.
(v) The 100 cuts the new O.C.C. at B. The voltage corresponding to this is
166 V.
Critical resistance 227.5 N = 1500
200 R = 100Ω N = 1200
Eg (V)
100
1 I (A)2 3 Figure 2.34 Example 2.19.
f
Example 2.20 The following figures give the O.C.C. of a dc shunt generator
at 300 r.p.m.
If(A) 0 2 34567 Eg (V) 7.5 92 132 162 183 190 212
(a) plot O.C.C at 375 r.p.m.
(b) If field resistance is 40 , find the voltage which machine excites on no-
load. (c) How can the voltage be reduced to 200 V at 375 r.p.m?
(d) What is the load current supplied by generator if its terminal voltage is
200 V, if armature resistance is 0.3 .
Solution:
(a) To plot O.C.C at 375 r.p.m,
E1 = N1 = 300 ⇒ E2 = E1 × 375 E N 375 300
2 2
300
260
N = 375 R = 40Ω
200
N = 300 Eg (V)
100
2
3.8
If (A)4 6 Figure 2.35 Example 2.20.
The voltages induced at 375 r.p.m is given below
If (A) 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 Eg (V) 9.375 115 165 202.5 228.5 237.5 265
The O.C.C. is plotted in Fig. 2.35.
(b) The resistance line corresponding to 40 is drawn. To draw this choose

two points (If,Eg), which lie on the line with slope 40. The two points are
(0,0) and (1,40). The point where this intersects the O.C.C. gives the voltage
induced. From the graph, we get Eg = 260V.
(c) To reduce the voltage induced from 260 V to 200 V, we have to increase
the resistance. From the graph we see that for a voltage of 200 V,If = 3.8 A.
Field resistance = 200 = 52.63 .3.8

Hence, an additional resistance of 12.63 has to be inserted in series with the
field winding.
(d) Rf = 40 ; V = 200 V. (note here V is the terminal voltage)

If = 200 5A.40 =
From given data for a field current of 5 A, the induced voltage 228.75 V. The
difference between the terminal voltage and induced e.m.f is due to the
armature resp.
Eg = V + Ia Ra 228.75 = 200+ 0.3× Ia Ia = 95.83A
Example 2.21 A series generator is used as a booster. The generator operates

in the linear portion of the magnetisation characteristic. The generator
characteristic is such that 5.75 A of load current increases the generated
e.m.f. by 1 volt. The total resistance in the series circuit (Ra + Rse) is 0.025 .
Find the voltage supplied to the load, at a load current of 100A and the
power supplied by the booster, if the system voltage is 230 V.
Solution: Voltage increase for 5.75A =1V.

Voltage increase for 100A 100 = 17.39 V =5.75
Voltage drop in series circuit = 0.025× 100 = 2.5 V.

Net voltage rise due to booster = 17.39− 2.5 = 14.89 V
Voltage supplied to load is system voltage+ booster voltage = 220+ 14.89 =
234.89 V Power supplied by booster = 17.39× 100 = 1739 W.
2.10. Voltage build-up of shunt generator

The shunt generator builds up voltage because of the residual magnetism
present in the field poles. However, under some conditions the shunt
generator fails to build up the voltage. The conditions for the build up of a
shunt generator are
• Presence of residual flux.
• For the given direction of rotation, the shunt field windings should be
properly connected to the armature so that the flux current due to the
induced voltage, reinforces the original residual flux. If connections are
improper, the residual magnetism is wiped out, and voltage build-up will not
take place.
• When excited on open circuit, the shunt field resistance should be less than
the critical resistance.
• When excited on load, the load resistance should be greater than the
minimum critical load resistance.
2.11. Application of DC generators
The shunt generators maintain a fairly constant voltage. They are used for
lighting,•
charging batteries and as power supply sources.
• Series generators are not used for power supply, since they have a rising
voltage characteristic.
• Cumulatively - compounded generators can be adjusted to compensate for
voltage drop in the line resistance. They are used for motor driving which
require a constant d.c. voltage and in electric railways.
• Differentially - compounded generator has an external characteristic

similar to a shunt generator. But has a large demagnetizing armature
reaction. It is hence used in arc welding where a voltage drop is desired with
increase in current.
Questions
1. Explain the working of a d.c. generator using a single coil.

2. Describe the various parts of a d.c. generator.
3. What is a commutator?
4. What are the various types of d.c. generators?
5. Derive the expression for the generated e.m.f. of a dc generator.
6. Explain the various losses in a d.c. machine.
7. A 4-pole d.c. generator has wave-wound armature with 792 conductors.

The flux per pole is 12.1 mWb. What is the speed to generate a voltage of
240 V on no load? [Ans: 751.3 r.p.m.]
8. A 20 kW compound generator works on a full-load with a terminal

voltage of 230 V. Ra = 0.1 ;Rse = 0.05 andRsh = 115 . If the generated is
connected short-shunt, what is the generated e.m.f.?
[Ans: 243.25 V]
9. Explain the O.C.C. characteristic of a generator.
10. A d.c. generator develops 200 V when driven at 1000 r.p.m. with a flux
per pole of 0.02 Wb. If speed is increased to 1100 r.p.m. and at the same
time flux is decreased to 0.019 Wb, what is the induced e.m.f?
[ Ans: 209 V]
11. Explain the load characteristics of d.c. shunt generator.
12. Explain the load characteristics of d.c. series generator.
13. What is critical field resistance? How can it be found out?
14. What are the conditions for voltage build up of a shunt generator?
15. Why should the load resistance be above a critical value for a shunt
generator?
16. What are the applications of the various types of d.c. generators.
17. Calculate the flux in a 4-pole generator with 722 conductors generating
500 V at 1000 r.p.m., when (i) lap connected (ii) wave connected.
[Ans: (i) 41.56 mwb, (ii) 20.78 mwb]
18. A 4-pole machine running at 1500 r.p.m. has an armature with 90 slots
and 6 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 10 mwb. If the coils are lap
wound, what is the terminal voltage?
[ Ans: 810 V]
19. A short-shunt compound d.c. generator supplies 100 A at 220 V.Rsh = 50
,Rse =
0.025 and Ra = 0.05 . Brush drop is 2 V. Iron and friction loss is 1 KW. Find
(i) generated e.m.f. (ii) copper losses (iii) output power of prime mover
driving the
generator (iv) generator efficiency.
[Ans: (i) 229.7 V (ii) 1.995 KW (iii) 24.99 KW (iv) 88%]
20. What is armature reaction? What are its effects?
21. Explain the characteristics of d.c. compound generators.
22. The O.C.C. of a d.c. shunt generator at a speed of 1000 r.p.m. is given
below.
Ef (A) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 Eg (V) 102 150 188 215 232 245
Rf = 37 . Find the speed at which the excitation may be expected to just

build the voltage. If Ra = 0.04 estimate the terminal voltage when speed is
1000 r.p.m and armature delivers 100 A
[Ans: 725 r.p.m; 231 V]

23. The O.C.C of a d.c. shunt generator at 700 r.p.m is given by
Ef (A) 0 0.1 0.24 0.5 0.77 1.2 1.92 3.43 5.2 Eg (V) 10 20 40 80 120 160 200
240 260
Determine the critical resistance at (a) 700 r.p.m. (b) 850 r.p.m. [Ans: 160 ;
194 ]
24. What is voltage regulation? what are the factors which affect it? 25. A
shunt generator gave the following O.C.C. results
Ef(A)1 23468 10 Eg (V) 90 185 251 290 324 345 360

Rf = 50 and terminal voltage on load is 300 V.Ra = 0.1 . If the armature
reaction weakens flux by 5%. Find load supplied.
[Ans: 21.6 KW].
CHAPTER - 3
DC motors
Learning objectives
Types of dc motors
Principle of operation
Torque equation
Characteristics
Power developed
Losses and efficiency
Testing of dc motors
3-point starter
Flux control method for speed Accurate control method for speed
401
3.1. Introduction
A motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. The principle of

motor action is that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field it experiences a force given by
f = li × B Newton (3.1) where
f = force
l = length of conductor i = current
B = magnetic field
Constructionally there is no basic difference between a d.c. generator and a

d.c. motor. When the field magnets are excited and a current is passed
through the armature conductors, they experience a force tending to rotate
the armature. Consider Fig. 3.1. Armature conductors under N-pole are
assumed to carry current outwards and those under S-pole are assumed to
carry current inwards. The direction of force on each conductor can be
found by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that if the three fingers of
the left hand, the thumb, the middle finger and the index finger, are
stretched at right angles to each other, with the index finger pointing in the
direction of the magnetic field, the middle finger in the direction of the
current, the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced.
These forces collectively produce a driving torque which sets to rotate the
armature. The commutator helps to develop a continuous and unidirectional
torque by reversing the current in each conductor as it passes from one pole
to another.
SN
Figure 3.1 DC motor.
3.2. Generator action in a motor
When the armature starts rotating, as explained in Section 3.1, a

dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in it. The direction of this induced
e.m.f. can be found by applying Fleming’s Right-hand rule. It is found that
this e.m.f. is in opposition to the applied voltage and hence is called the
back e.m.f., Eb or counter e.m.f. The value of this back e.m.f. is same as the
motionally induced e.m.f. in a generator and given by
Eb = ZNφP Volts (3.2)60 A
The applied voltage V forces the current through the armature conductors
against the back e.m.f. The electric work done in overcoming this
opposition is converted into mechanical energy developed in the armature.
The applied voltage V, has to overcome the back e.m.f. Eb and also supply
the ohmic drop IaRa.
∴ V = Eb + IaRa (3.3) The direction of various currents for a shunt motor are
shown in Fig. 3.2. From Fig. 3.2, we can observe that
Ia = IL − If (3.4) where IL is the line current, If is the shunt field current.
I
f
Ia I
L
+
V
− Figure 3.2 D.C. shunt motor.
If we multiply (3.3) by Ia on both sides, we get
VIa = EbIa + I2Ra (3.5)a
Here,
VIa = Input electrical power to the armature
EbIa = Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the armature
I2Ra = Armature copper loss.a
Example 3.1 A 220 V d.c. shunt machine has an armature resistance of 0.6
. If full load armature current is 25 A, find the induced e.m.f. when the
machine acts as a (i) generator (ii) motor.
(i) Generator
Eg = V + IaRa
Eg = 220+ 25× 0.6 = 235V
(ii) Motor Eb = V − IaRa

Eb = 220− 25× 0.6 = 205V
3.3. Condition for maximum power

From (3.4), the gross mechanical power developed is given by
Pm = VIa − I2Raa
Differentiating with respect to Ia,
dPm = V − 2I R = 0 (for maximum condition)
a a dIa
or
V
=
2
I
a
R
a
or
I
a
R
a
= V 2 Now Eb = V − IaRa.
∴
E
b
=
V2
Hence, maximum power is developed for that value of armature current

when the back e.m.f. is half of the applied voltage. However, at this value of
current, the armature drop is 50% of the supply voltage. Taking other losses
in the consideration, the motor efficiency would be much less than 50%.
Further the armature current given by
Ia =V − Eb,Ra
would be well above the rated current. Hence, we do not operate under this
condition.
3.4. Torque developed in a motor
Torque is the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. Consider

a pulley of radius ‘r’ meter acted by a circumferential forceF Newton which
causes it to rotate atN r.p.m. as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Torque T = F × rN − m. (3.6)
Work done by the force in one revolution is equal to
Force× distance = F × 2πr Joules. (3.7)
F
r N r.p.m.
Figure 3.3 Torque on a pulley
N
Power is rate of doing work. Time taken for one revolution= 60 sec.
∴ Power = F × 2πr N60 J/s or watt(3.8)
2πN is nothing but the angular velocity, ω in rad/sec and F × r is the Torque.
Hence,60
Power developed = Tω
2
πNT
=
2
π
NT
NT = 9.55 Watts(3.9)= 60 60
If the speed is given in n r.p.s. then P = 2πnT .
In a motor running at N r.p.m., the armature torque developed is Ta. Then
power developed isTa × 2πN Watts. From (3.5) the electrical power converted
into mechanical60
power is EbIa watts.
∴ Ta2πN= EbIa = ZNφPIa60 60A
orP1 P = 0.159ZφIa A N − M (3.10)Ta =2πZφIa A
From (3.10) we can see that
Ta ∝ φIa.
The whole of the armature torque developed is not available for doing
useful work because a certain percentage of it goes to meet the iron and
friction losses. The torque available for doing useful work is called the shaft
torqueTsh. The motor output is given by
Output = Tsh × 2πN (3.11)60

Output in Watts 9.55Output
= (3.12)Tsh = 2πN/60 N
Example 3.2 A 220 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.3 and a
field resistance of 150 . Determine the back e.m.f. when giving an output of
4.46 kW at 85% efficiency.
Solution: Input power = 4.46 = 5.247 kW0.85

Input current = Input power = 5247 23.85 AVoltage 220 =
Field current If = V = 220 = 1.467 ARf 150
Ia = IL − If = 23.85− 1.467 = 22.383 A
Eb = V − IaRa = 220− (22.383)(0.3)
= 213.29 V
Example 3.3 A 10 kW, 250 V d.c. shunt machine has an armature

resistance of 0.1 and a field resistance of 100 . Determine the armature
power developed when (i) it runs as a generator delivering 10 kW (ii) it
runs as a motor taking an input of 10 kW.
Solution:
(i) Generator
Output current
I
L
=
10× 103
250 = 40 A
Field current 250 = 2.5 A If =100
Armature current Ia = IL + If = 42.5 A
Generated e.m.f. Eg = V + IaRa = 250+ (42.5× 0.1) = 254.25 V
254.25× 42.5Power developed in armature = E I =
g a 1000 = 10.8 kW
(ii) Motor Input line current = 40 A; If = 2.5 A I a = IL − If = 40− 2.5 = 37.5
A Eb = V − IaRa = 250− (37.5× 0.1) = 246.25 V 246.25× 37.5Power developed
in armature = EbIa =1000 = 9.23 kW
Example 3.4 A 4 pole, 32 conductor, lap wound d.c. shunt generator has a
terminal voltage of 220 V while delivering a load current of 12 A, at 1000
r.p.m. The armature resistance is 1 and the field resistance is 200 .
Determine the flux per pole of the machine. If the machine now runs as a
motor drawing 12 A, at the same terminal voltage, determine the speed.
Solution: Generator If = 220 = 1.1 A200
I a = IL + If = 12+ 1.1 = 13.1 A

220+ (13.1)(1) = 233.1 VEg = V + IaRa =
ZNφPEg = 60 A
32× 1000× φ × 4233.1 = 60× 4

φ = 0.437 Wb
As motor Ia = 12− 1.1 = 10.9 A
Eb = V − IaRa = 220− (10.9) × (1) 209.1 V.=
209.1
=
32× N × 0.437× 4 60× 4
897.17 r.p.m.N =
Since the induced e.m.f. is proportional to speed we can also calculate
speed as follows:
Eg = Ng
Eb Nm
233.1 = 1000 ⇒ N = 897.1 r.p.m.
m 209.1 Nm
Example 3.5 A d.c. shunt machine develops a back e.m.f. of 220 V at 1500
r.p.m. Find its torque and mechanical power developed at an armature
current of 40 A.
Solution: Mechanical power = EbIa = 220× 40 = 8800 W.
Ta = 9.55EbIa = 9.55× 8800 = 56.03N − mN 1500
Example 3.6 Determine the developed torque and shaft torque of 220 V – 4
pole series motor with 800 conductors which are wave-connected and
supplying a load of 8.5 kW taking 50 A from the mains. The flux per pole is
22 mWb and armature resistance is 0.5 .
Solution:
P T a = 0.159φzIa A N − m
=
0.159
×
22
×
10
−3 × 800× 50× 4 2 = 279.84N − m
Eb = V − IaRa = 220− (50× 0.5) = 195 V.
E
b
=
ZNφP
60 A
800× N × 22× 10−3 × 4195 = 60× 2
N = 332.4 r.p.m.
Output = 8.5 kW
9.55Output= 9.55× 8500Tsh = N 332.4
= 244.21N − m
Example 3.7 A 200 V d.c. shunt motor runs at 500 r.p.m. when the
armature current is 50 A. If Ra = 0.15 , calculate the speed when the torque
is doubled.
Solution: Ta ∝ φIa. Since φ is not changed, Ta ∝ Ia.
Ta1 = Ia1 Ta2 Ia2 Since Torque is doubled, Ta2 = 2Ta1
1 = 50 ⇒ I 2 = 100 A
a 2 Ia1
Eb1 = V − Ia1Ra = 200− 50× 0.15 = 192.5 V Eb2 = V − Ia2Ra = 200− 100×
0.15 = 185 V N1 = Eb1 ⇒ 500 192.5
N2 Eb2 N2 = 185
N2 = 480.5 r.p.m.
Example 3.8 A 4 pole, 220 V shunt motor has 540 lap wound conductors. It
takes
40 A from the supply mains and develops output power of 6 kW. The field
current is
1 A. The armature resistance is 0.1 and flux per pole is 28 mWb. Calculate
(i) speed and (ii) shaft-torque developed.
Solution:
Ia = 40− 1 = 39 A; output =6kW = 6000 W 220− 39× 0.1Eb = V − IaRa =
= 216.1 V
(i)
E
b
=
ZNφP
60 A
540× N × 0.028× 4216.1 = 60× 4
N = 857.5 r.p.m.
(ii)
T
sh
=
9.55
×
output
N
=
9.55
× 6000 857.5 = 66.82N − m
Example 3.9 A 4 pole d.c. shunt motor takes 250 A at a speed of 350 r.p.m.
The flux per pole is 50 mWb, the number of lap-connected conductors is
1200, and 3% of the torque is lost in windage friction and iron losses. What
is the brake horse power?
Solution:
E
b
=
ZNφP= 1200× 350× 0.05× 4
60 A 60× 4
= 350 V
Armature power = EbIa = 350× 250 = 87,500 W
T 87,500 Armature power= 2π350/60 = 2,387.3N − ma = 2πN/60
3% is lost. Hence shaft torque
Tsh = 0.97Ta
= 0.97× 2,387.3
= 2,315.7N − m
Output Tsh × N = 2,315.7× 350 = 84,868.5 W =9.55 9.55
= 84.87 kW
1HP = 0.746 kW
84.87 = 113.76 HP.∴ Output =
0.746
Example 3.10 A 220 V series motor runs at 500 r.p.m. taking 20 A.

Calculate the speed and percentage change in torque if the load is reduced
and the motor draw 15 A. The total series circuit resistance is 0.6 .
Solution: T ∝ φIa; In a series motor φ ∝ Ia.
∴
T
∝
I
2; T ∝ 202 and T ∝ 152
1 2
a
T2 = 225 9
T1 400 16
% change in torque is T1 − T2 × 100 =T1
7 × 100 = 43.75%=
16
Now
E
b
=
ZNφP
60 A
60 A Eb = KEbor N =
ZP φ φ
N
∝
E
b
and
N
∝ 1 φ In a series motor φ ∝ Ia. N2 = Eb2 × Ia1
N1 Eb1 Ia2
Eb1 = V − Ia1Ra = 220− 20× 0.6 = 208 V
E b2 = V − Ia2Ra = 220− 15× 0.6 = 211 V

N2 = 211 × 20
500 208 15
N2 = 676.3 r.p.m.
3.5. Motor characteristics

The characteristics of the motor depends on the type of the d.c. motor.
3.5.1. Types of d.c. motors
Shunt motor: In shunt motors the field winding is connected across the
armature, like in d.c. shunt generator.
Series motor: In this case the field winding is in series with the armature
and carries the armature current.
Compound motors: These motors have both series and shunt windings. If
the series flux aids the shunt flux, the machine is said to be cumulatively
compounded. If the series field opposes the shunt field, then the motor is
said to be differentially compounded.
3.5.2. Characteristics of motors

Generally three characteristics are commonly used to define the motor.
They are
(i) Torque and armature current, T vs Ia, characteristic. This is also
sometimes called the electrical characteristic.
I
a
I
f
I
L
+
V
− Figure 3.4 Shunt motor.
(ii) Speed and armature current, N vs Ia characteristic.
(iii) Torque speed characteristic,N vsTa. This is also called the mechanical
characteristic.
In obtaining the characteristic curves, we make use of the following
relationships.
T
a
∝
φI
a
and
N
∝ Eb φ
3.5.3. Characteristics of shunt motor
The shunt motor is shown in Fig. 3.4 (compare with a shunt generator). It
can be seen that the field current= V , is a constant. Hence, the flux remains
a constant in a shunt motor.Rf
1. Ta/Ia characteristic
Ta ∝ φIa. Since φ is a constant T ∝ Ia. Therefore the electrical torque is as
shown in Fig. 3.5.
The shaft torque is less than the armature torque. When started on heavy
loads, the armature current would be high. Therefore, shunt motors are not
started on heavy loads.
Ta
TaN − M
Tsh
Ia
Amps Figure 3.5 Ta.Ia characteristic of shunt motor.
N
r.p.m.
Ia
Amps Figure 3.6 N/Ia characteristic of shunt motors.
2.N/Ia characteristic
N ∝ Eb . Sinceφ is a constantN ∝ Eb. When loaded bothEb andφ fall slightly.

However,φ
the drop inEb is more than the drop inφ. Hence, there is a net drop in speed
N
r.p.m.
Ta
N − M Figure 3.7 N/Ta characteristic of shunt motor.
The drop is around 5–15%. For all practical purposes, the shunt motor can
be considered a constant speed motor. Since the change in speed from no-
load to full-load is not significant, shunt motors can be used to drive loads
which are likely to be thrown off suddenly. They are typically used where
constant speed is desired like machine tools, lathes, etc.
3.N/Ta characteristic
A combination of the first two characteristic can be used to obtainN/Ta
characteristic. It is as shown in Fig. 3.7.
3.5.4. Characteristics of dc series motor (i) Ta/Ia characteristic
In a series motor the field winding carries the armature current as shown in
Fig. 3.8. Therefore,φ ∝ Ia. HenceTa ∝ I2. After magnetic saturationφ
remains a constant anda
Ta ∝ Ia. The characteristic is as shown in Fig. 3.9
Before saturation the curve is a parabola as Ta ∝ I2. After saturation Ta ∝ Ia,

anda
hence it is a straight line. Since the torque is proportional to2, series motors
are used Ia
where huge starting torque is required to accelerate heavy masses quickly
such as in hoists, electric trains, etc.
I
L
+
V
I
L = If = Ia −
Figure 3.8 Series motor.
Ta
Ta Tsh N − M
Ia
Amps Figure 3.9 Ta/Ia characteristic of d.c. series motor.
(ii)N/Ia characteristic
N ∝ Eb . With change in Ia, both Eb and φ change. The change in Eb with
load is dueφ
to increased IaRa drop. Hence, Eb decreases. This is not very significant.
However with increase inIa,φ increases which leads to a decrease in speed.
Therefore, speed is inversely proportional to Ia as shown in Fig. 3.10.
N
r.p.m.
Ia
Amps Figure 3.10 N/Ia characteristic of d.c. series motor.
N
r.p.m.
Ta
N − M Figure 3.11 N/Ta characteristic of d.c. series motor.
It can be observed that at light loads the speed is dangerously high. Hence,
d.c. series motors are never started without some load. In contrast to a shunt
motor, the series motor is a variable speed motor.
N/Ta characteristic
It is found from the first two characteristics,T/Ia andN/Ia, and shown in Fig.
3.11.
Series
Cumulative
Ta DifferentialNcompound compound
ShuntShunt
Cumulative compound SeriesDifferential compound
(a) Ta (b) Ia Figure 3.12 compound motor characteristics.
3.5.5. Characteristics of d.c. compound motors
The characteristics of compound motors lie in-between series and shunt

motors. Cumulative compound motors are used where series motor
characteristics is desirable and also the load is likely to be thrown off
suddenly. The shunt winding prevents from the speed becoming excessively
high when load is thrown off and the series winding enables it to take on
heavy loads. They are used to drive reciprocating pumps, heavy machine
tools, rolling mill drives, compressors etc.
In differential compound motors, since the series field opposes the shunt
field flux, the flux decreases as the load is applied. This results in the motor
speed remaining fairly constant or increase with increase in load. Hence,
there is a decrease in the rate of increase in torque with load. These motors
have a tendency to develop excessive speeds due to weakening of flux with
increase in load.
The characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.12.

3.5.6. Performance curves of shunt motor
Performance curves refer to curves of essential parameters plotted against
the output power. Normally the parameters considered are torque, speed,
armature current and efficiency.
I TaN
η
T N %η Input N−M r.p.m. current
(b) o/p KW
Figure 3.13 Performance curves of d.c. shunt-motor.
The following points are to be noted for d.c. shunt motors:
• They have a finite no-load speed and hence will not ‘run away’ (a term
used for excessive speeds) if load is thrown off.
• The efficiency increases with load upto a certain maximum value and then
starts decreasing.
• A small amount of current is drawn even when the output is zero. The
motor input under no-load condition goes to meet the various losses
occurring in the machine.
• The torque is proportional to the load. The starting torque is lower than
series and compound motors.
The performance characteristics of the shunt-motor is shown in Fig. 3.13.
3.5.7. Performance curves of d.c. series motor
• The speed drops as the output increases. Hence, it is a variable speed

motor.
• The efficiency curve is similar to the shunt motor.
• The torque is initially proportional to I2 and after saturation proportional
to Ia. For aa
given input current, the starting torque developed is greater than that
developed by a shunt motor. Hence, they are used where a large starting
torque is required.
• It is never started or run on no-load condition since the speed would be

excessively high.
The performance curves are shown in Fig. 3.14.
Nη
I
T
aa
η, T, I, N
(b) o/p in KW
Figure 3.14 Performance curves of series motor.
3.5.8. Applications of d.c. motors
Type Characteristics Applications
Series • Variable speed

• High starting torque
• Very high speeds under light loads

Traction, electric
locomotives, trolleys, cars, cranes, hoists and conveyors

Shunt • Practically constant speed
• Starting torque lower than series motor
Lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers, fans and reciprocating

pumps
Cumulative compound • Variable speed

• High starting torque
Shears, elevators, conveyors, rolling mills, printing press, air compressors.

3.6. Losses and efficiency of d.c. motors The motor converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy. The losses from input to output stage are
shown in Fig. 3.15.
Power Iron, V, I
L
Input to Copper developed friction and Output motor losses in armature
windagein V IL WattsEb Ia Watts losses Watts

AB C Figure 3.15 Power stages in a d.c. motor.
The main losses are:
• Copper loss in the armature and field windings.

• Iron loss also called core loss.
• Friction and windage loss, also called stray loss.
The efficiency is defined as follows:

(i) Commercial efficiency
η
c
=
Output in watts C Input in watts A Power developed in armature B(ii)
Electrical efficiency ηe = Input power A
(iii) Mechanical efficiency ηm = Output in watts C .Armature power B
When we refer to efficiency, we always mean the commercial efficiency.

The condition for maximum efficiency is same as the d.c. generator. i.e.
when the copper loss= constant loss or variable losses = constant loss.
Example 3.11 A 220 V shunt motor has Ra = 0.2 and Rf = 100 . The motor
draws4Aat 1500 r.p.m. on no-load. Calculate the speed and shaft torque
when the motor draws 50A at rated voltage.
Solution:
I f = 220 = 2.2 A100

Ia0(no load) = 4− 2.2 = 1.8 A
Ia1(on load) = 50− 2.2 = 47.8 A
Eb0 = V − Ia0Ra = 220− 1.8× 0.2 = 219.64 V Eb1 = V − Ia1Ra = 220− 47.8×
0.2 = 210.44 V N1 = Eb1
N2 Eb2
1500= 219.64∴ N2 210.44
Speed N2 = 1437.2 r.p.m.
We now find the output when motor draws 50 A. For this we have to
evaluate the losses.
No load motor input = 220× 4 = 1000 W
No load armature Cun loss2 × 0.2 = 0.648 W = 1.8
Constant loss = 1000− 0.648 = 999.352 W Armature copper loss on load2 ×
0.2 = (47.8)
= 456.97 W
Total loss on load = 456.97+ 999.352 1,456.322 W=
Input on load = 220× 50 = 11,000 W Output = 11,000− 1,456.322 =
9543.678 W Output= 9.55× 9543.678Tsh = 9.55× N 1437.2
= 63.41N − m.
Example 3.12 A 220 V shunt motor on no load runs at 1000 r.p.m and takes
4 amperes. Ra = 0.2 and Rf = 200 . Calculate speed when motor takes 60 A
and armature flux weakens by 4% due to armature reaction.
Solution: If = 220 = 1.1 A.200

Ia0 = 4− 1.1 = 2.9 A; Eb0 = 220− 2.9× 0.2 = 219.42 V Ia1 = 60− 1.1 = 58.9
A; Eb1 = 220− 58.9× 0.2 = 208.22 V
N1 = Eb1 × φ2 N2 Eb2 φ1
∴
1000= 219.42 × 0.96φ0 N 308.22 φ0
N = 988.5 r.p.m.
Example 3.13 A 500 V d.c. shunt motor takes a current of6Aon no-load.Ra
= 0.3 and Rf = 250 . Find efficiency when loaded and drawing a current of
100 A and the percentage change in speed.
Solution:
If = 500 =2A; Ia0 = 6− 2 =4A250
I2 Ra = 42 × 0.3 = 4.8 Wa0
Constant loss = No load input− no-load armature copper loss = 500× 6− 4.8
= 2995.2 W
Input on load = 500× 100 = 50,000 W
Ia on load = 100− 2 = 98 A
Armature copper loss = 982 × 0.3 = 2,881.2
Total loss = 2995.2+ 2881.2
= 5,876.4 W
Output = 50,000− 5,876.4 = 44,123.6 W 44,123.6 88.24%η = 50,000 =
%change in speed Eb0 = 500− 4× 0.3 = 498.8 V Eb1 = 500− 98× 0.3 = 470.6
V
N1 = Eb1 = 470.6
N2 Eb0 498.8
470.6− 498.8× 100 = 498.8
=−5.65%.
Example 3.14 A lap-wound 4 pole d.c. shunt motor has 120 slots, with 8
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 20 mWb and current taken by the
motor is 25 A. Ra = 0.1 and Rf = 125 . The rotational losses are 810 W. Find
(i) Gross torque (ii) useful torque and (iii) η.
Solution:
If = 250 =2A; Ia = 25− 2 = 23 A;125
Eb = 250− (23× 0.1) = 247.7 V
ZNφP; 247.7 = (220× 8) × N × 0.02× 4Eb = 60 A 60× 4
N = 774 r.p.m.
(i)
T
a
=
9.55
×
EbIa = 9.55× 247.7× 23 N 774 = 70.3N − m (ii)
Armature copper loss = 232 × 0.1 = 52.9 W Shunt copper loss = 250× 2 =
500 W Rotational loss = 810 W
Total loss = 52.9+ 500+ 810 = 1362.9 W Motor input = 250× 25 = 6250 W
Motor output = 6250− 1362.9 = 4,887.1 W Output= 9.55× 4.887.1Tsh = 9.55× N
774
= 60.3N − m.
(iii) %η = Output × 100 = 4,887.1 × 100 = 78.2%.Input 6250
Example 3.15 A 18 HP 220 V, 1500 r.p.m., 4 pole d.c. shunt motor has 620
conductors arranged in two parallel paths with an armature resistance of 0.2
. At rated power it draws 74.8 A and a field current of 3 A. Calculate (i) the
flux per pole (ii) the torque developed (iii) rotational losses (iv) total losses
as a percentage of power.
Solution: Ia = 74.8− 3 = 71.8 A E b = 220− 71.8× 0.2 = 205.64 V 620×

1500× φ × 4205.64 = 60× 2
(i) φ = 6.6mWb.
(ii)
Armature torque
=
955
EbIa
N
= 9.55× 205.64× 71.8= 94N − m1500
(iii)
Armature power = EbIa = 205.64× 71.8 = 14,765 W
Output = 18× 746 = 13,428 W Rotational losses = 14,765− 13.428 = 1337
W
(iv)
Motor input = VI = 220× 74.8 = 16,456 W Total losses = 16,456− 13, 428 =
3,028 W
% losses3,028 = 18.4% =16,456
% 13,428 = 81.6%.η =16,456
Example 3.16 A d.c. series motor drives a load whose torque varies as
square of the speed. If the motor is operating in the linear region estimate
the terminal voltage when the speed is half that at rated voltage. Ignoring
stray losses and resistance of the series circuit, estimate the percentage fall
in the motor current.
Solution: Ta ∝ I2.Given Ta ∝ N2.a

∴ N ∝ Ia
N1 = Ia1If N2 = 1then Ia2 = 1
N2 Ia2 N1 2, Ia1 2
Ia1or I 2 =
a 2.
If resistance is neglected, Eb1 = V1 and Eb2 = V2. Also φ1 ∝ Ia1 and φ2 ∝
Ia2.Now
N2 = Eb2 × φ1 = V2 × 2
N1 Eb1 φ2 V1
or
1 = V2 × 2 ⇒ V2 = 1 2 V1 V1 4 V1 − V2 4− 1
= = 0.75V1 4
% reduction in voltage = 0.75× 100 = 75% I
a
1
−
Ia1
% reduction in motor current
=
2
Ia1 × 100 = 50%
Example 3.17 A 50 h.p., 460 V dc shunt motor on no-load takes a current

of 4A at 660 rpm. Ra = 0.3 and Rf = 270 . At full load determine (i) input
current (ii) speed. What is the armature current when efficiency is
maximum?
Solution: If = 460 = 1.7 A.270

Field copper loss = 460× 1.7 = 783 W Ia = 4− 1.7 = 2.3 A;
Armature Cu loss = 2.32 × 0.3
= 1.5 W
No-load input = 460× 4 = 1840 W
Iron+ friction losses = 1840− 783− 1.5 = 1055.5 W At full load
Output = 50× 746 = 37.3 kW

Input to armature = VIa = 460Ia
VIa = O/P+ Iron loss+ friction loss+ armature Copper loss
460
I
a
=
37,300
+
1055.5
+
0.3
I
2
a
or 0.3I2 − 460Ia + 38,355.5 = 0a
Solving 460±406.9 = 88.5 A and 1444.8 A. Ia =2×0.3
The armature current is 88.5 A (the second value is too high for the given
output). (i) Input current = Ia + If = 88.5+ 1.7 = 90.2 A.
(ii)
Eb1 = 460− (2.3× 0.3) = 459.31 V Eb2 = 460− (88.5× 0.3) = 433.5 V Eb1 =
N1 ⇒ 459.31 660
Eb2 N2 433.5 = N2
660× 433.5= 634 r.p.m.N2 = 459.31
For maximum efficiency,
I2Ra = constant loss = (Iron loss+ friction loss) + shunt copper lossa
I2 × 0.3 = 1055.5+ 783a
Ia = 78.3 A
Example 3.18 A 4-pole, 250 V d.c. shunt motor takes 4 A on no load,
running at 1200 r.p.m. Ra = 0.1 , and Rf = 125 . Total brush drop = 2 V. It
takes 61 A on full load. The flux weakens by 5% on full load due to
armature reaction. Calculate the full load speed.
Solution: V = 250 V; P = 4; Ra = 0.1 ; Rf = 125 .
Ia0 =4A; Eb0 = V − Ia0Ra − Vbrush = 250− (4× 0.1) − 2 = 247.8 V
If = 250 =2A; Ia1 = 61− 2 = 59 A125
Eb1 = 250− (59× 0.1) − 2 = 242.1 V φ1 = 0.95φ0 (5% weakening)

N0 = Eb0 × φ
N1 Eb1 φ0
1200= 247.8 × 0.95φ0

N1 242.1 φ0
N1 = 1234.1 r.p.m.
Example 3.19 A 6 pole, 500 V, wave connected d.c. shunt motor has 1200
armature conductors and useful flux/pole of 20 mWb.Ra = 0.5 andRf = 250 .
What will be the speed and torque developed by motor when it draws 20 A.
If magnetic and
mechanical losses are 900 W. What is the useful torque andη?

Solution: If = 500 =2A; Ia = 20− 2 = 18 A.250
Eb = 500− 18× 0.5 = 491 V
1200× N × 0.02× 6491 = 60× 2
N = 409.167 r.p.m.
Armature power developed = EbIa = 491× 18 = 8838 W
8838 = 206.27N − m.Ta = 9.55×
409.167
Pout = Pa − (magnetic+ mechanical losses)
= 8838− 900 = 7938 W
T7939 = 185.27N −m(Tsh is the useful torque)sh = 9.55×409.167
%
η
=
O/P= 793
20× 500 × 100 = 79.38%.VIL
Example 3.20 A d.c. shunt machine while running as a generator develops

a voltage of 250 V at 1000 r.p.m. on no-load. Ra = 0.5 and Rf = 250 . When
machine runs as a motor, it takes 4 A at 250 V on no-load. Calculate the
speed and efficiency when it runs as a motor taking 40 A at 250 V, if flux is
weakened by 4% due to armature reaction.
Solution: When the machine runs at 1000 r.p.m. as a generator, it develops

250 V. Hence, when run as a motor at 1000 r.p.m. on no-load, it should
develop a back e.m.f. of 250 V.
∴ N1 = 1000 r.p.m.; Eb1 = 250 V. When taking 40 A, If = 250 =1A; Ia = 40− 1
= 39 A.250
Eb2 = 250− 39× 0.5 = 230.5 V
N 1 = Eb1 × φ2
N2 Eb2 φ1
1000= 250 × 0.96φ
N2 230.5 φ
N2 = 960 r.p.m.
No-load input = 250×= 1000 W Ia0 = 4− 1 =3A No-load armature copper

loss = 32 × 0.5 = 4.5 W Constant loss 1000− 4.5 = 995.5 W.
At line current of 40 A, Ia = 39 A.
Armature Cu loss = 392 × 0.5 = 760.5 W Total loss = 760.5+ 995.5 = 1756
W Input = 250× 40 = 10,000 W
Output = 8,244 W
%8244 ×= 82.44%.η =10,000

3.7. Testing of d.c. motors
The efficiency of a d.c. motor is given by
% Output 100η = Input ×
This is the most important parameter to be considered. Motors are tested to

determine the efficiency. In motors, since the input is electrical it is easy to
determine the input by measurement.
Input = VIL Watts The losses are determined and the efficiency calculated
as
% Input − losses× 100 (3.13)η = Input
The losses are given by,
Ploss = PCu + Pi + Pmech (3.14) where
PCu = Copper losses

Pi = Iron loss
Pmech = Mechanical loss or friction and windage loss
Pi+ Pmech are called stray losses. In a shunt motor, shunt copper loss is a
constant. Hence, Pi + Pmech + shunt copper loss together are called constant
loss.
While testing we can use
(i) Direct methods
(ii) Indirect methods.
In direct method, the motor is actually loaded and the efficiency calculated
by directly measuring input and output (or losses). In indirect methods, the
efficiency is predicted or estimated without actually loading the motor. We
consider a few simple tests to determine the efficiency of the d.c. motor.
3.7.1. Brake test

This is a direct method of testing. It simply consists of applying a brake to
the motor as shown in Fig. 3.16.
In Fig. 3.16(a) the brake band is fixed with help of blocks gripping the
pulley. One end of the band is fixed to earth via a spring balanceS and other
end connected to a suspended weight W1. The motor is running and load is
adjusted till it carries the full load current.
Let
W1 = suspended weight in kg.
W2 = reading on spring balance in kg-wt.
R
S2 S1
W1
W
2
S
(a) (b)R Figure 3.16 Brake Test.
The net pull on the band due to friction at the pulley is(W1 − W2)9.81 N.
Let
R = radius of the pulley (or brakedrum) in m.
N = motor speed in r.p.m.
Shaft torque of motor Tsh = 9.81(W1 − W2)R N − m

Motor output
=
Tsh × 2πNW = 9.81(W1 − W2)R × 2πN 60 60
= 1.027(W1 − W2)RN Watts

% Output 100 = 1.027(W1 − W2)RN(3.15)η = Input × VIL
A second method for the brake test is shown in Fig. 3.16(b). Here a rope is
wound round the pulley and its two ends are attached to two spring
balancesS1 andS2. The force acting tangentially on the pulley is equal to the
difference between the readings of the two spring balances.
Motor output = 1.027(S1 − S2)RN Watts (3.16)

This method is used for only small motors. In large motors, it is difficult to
dissipate the large amount of heat generated at the brake.
Example 3.21 In a brake test the effective load on the pulley was 35 kg, the
diameter of the pulley 60 cm and speed 12 r.p.s. The motor took 45 A at
220 V. Calculate output power and efficiency of the motor.
Solution: N = 12× 60 = 720 r.p.m.

Pout = 1.027 WRN
= 1.027× 35× 0.6 7202 ×
% = 7,764.1 W
7,764.1 = 78.42%η =
220× 45
Example 3.22 The following readings are obtained when doing a load test
on a d.c. shunt motor using a brake drum:
Spring balance readings: 10 kg and 30 kg

Diameter of brake drum: 40 cm
Speed of the motor: 930 r.p.m.
V = 200 V; line current = 25 A
Find shaft torque, output power, and efficiency.
Solution:
T sh = 9.81(S1 − S2)R
= 9.81(30− 10)0.2
= 39.24N − m
Output
=
2πNTsh= 2× π × 930× 39.24 60 60
= 3,821.6 W
%3,821.6 × 100 = 76.43%.η =200× 25
3.7.2. Swinburne’s test
This test is also called the no-load test. It is an indirect method of testing
and the efficiency can be predetermined at any load by just conducting the
no-load test. This test is applicable only to those machines in which flux is
practically constant i.e. shunt machines predominently and compound
machines.
The connections and meters are shown in Fig. 3.17. The shunt machine is
run as a motor on no-load, at its rated speed and rated voltage. The rated
values are stamped on the name-plate of the machine.
−A1 ++
IL0
VA
I
f0 A +
2
− − Figure 3.17 Swinburne’s test.
On no-load, the input current IL0 is measured by the ammeter A1 and the
shunt field current If0 by ammeter A2. The supply voltage V is measured by
the voltmeter.
Ia0 = IL0 − If0
No-load input = VIL0 Watts
Armature copper loss = I2 Raa0

Constant losses = VIL0 − I2 Ra = Wca0
(Note that since there is no-load, output is zero. Hence the input supplied is
equal to losses).
Knowing the constant losses we can calculate the efficiency of the machine
as a generator or motor at any load as follows:
Efficiency when running as a motor

Let the current drawn on load be IL. The field current remains the same
hence, Ia = IL − If0; Input = VIL
Armature copper loss = I2Raa
Total loss = I2Ra + Wca
Input
−
losses
×
100
=
VI
L
−
(I
2
%aRa + Wc) × 100 (3.17)ηm =Input VIL
Efficiency when running as a generator

Let the load current be IL.
Ia = If0 + IL; Output = VIL
Total loss = I2Ra + Wca
% VILOutput × 100 =VIL + (I2Ra + Wc) × 100 (3.18)η = Output + lossesa

Advantages of Swinburne’s test
• It requires less power, since the test is conducted on no-load.
• The efficiency can be predetermined at any load, for both generator and
motor action.
Disadvantages of Swinburne’s test
• Iron losses are assumed constant. The iron losses change with load due to
distortion of flux owing to armature reaction, which is not accounted for.
• We cannot determine other conditions such as temperature rise,
satisfactory commutation etc. on load, since the machine is not actually
loaded.
In conducting the test, the armature resistance Ra0 is measured at the

ambient temperature, say t◦C when the machine is fully loaded, the
temperature increases to t◦C. The0
resistance at that temperature is got from
Rat = Ra0[1+ α(t − t0)] (3.19) where α is the temperature coefficient of

copper and is generally taken as1 .234.5
Example 3.23 A 220 V d.c. shunt motor takes a current 2.5 A on no-load. If
Ra = 0.8 andRf = 200 , estimate the efficiency when drawing a current of 25
A. State any assumptions made.
Solution: No load input = VIL0 = 220× 2.5 = 550 W
220 = 1.1 AI =
f 200
Ia0 = 2.5− 1.1 = 1.4 A

Constant loss = 550− (1.42 × 0.8) = 548.4 W Input on load = VIL = 220× 25
= 5,500 W Armature copper loss2 × 0.8 = 456.97 W = (25− 1.1)
Total loss = 456.97+ 548.4 = 1,005.37 W
Output = 5,500− 1,005.37 = 4,494.63 W
% 4,494.63 × 100 = 81.72%η =5,500

Assumptions
• Mechanical losses are constant.

• Armature reaction does not affect iron loss.
• Effect of heating neglected.
Example 3.24 In Example 3.23, estimate the efficiency if the shunt

machine runs as a generator supplying 25 A at 220 V.
Solution: Ia = 25+ 1.1 = 26.1 A.
I2Ra = (26.1)2 × 0.8 = 545 Wa
The constant losses remain the same.
Total loss = 545+ 548.4 = 1093.4 W

Output = 25× 220 = 5,500 W
Input = Output+ losses = 5,500+ 1093.4 = 6593.4
%5500 × 100 = 83.4%.η =6593.4
Example 3.25 A 200 V shunt motor develops an output of 17,158 kW when

taking 20.2 kW. Rf = 50 and Ra = 0.06 . What is efficiency and power input
at an output of 10 kW.
Solution: Given
Output = 17158 W Input = 20200 W Losses = 3042 W IL = 20200= 101 A; If =

2004A200 50 =
Ia = 101− 4 = 97 A
I2Ra = 972 × 0.06 = 569.54a
Constant losses = 3042− 564.54 = 2477.46 = W
When output is 10 kW, let armature current beIa.
IL = (Ia + 4)
Input power = Output + I2Ra + Constant lossesa
(Ia + 4)200 = 10000+ 0.06I2 + 2477.46a
0.06I2 − 200Ia + 11677.46 = 0a
200± 192.87= 59.4 A or 3274 A.I a =2× 0.06

The larger value does not correspond to the given output.
∴ Ia = 59.4 A
IL = 59.4+ 4 = 63.4 A
%10,000 ×= 78.86%.η =200× 63.4
Example 3.26 In a test on a d.c. shunt machine at 250 V, the results are as
follows (i) At no-load, IL = 36 A and If = 12 A.
(ii) When6Vis applied to armature circuit at rest a current of 400 A is
produced. Determine efficiency at half-load and at full-load conditions as a
generator if full-load is 200 kW.
Solution: Ra =6 = 0.015 .400
Ia0 = 36− 12 = 24 A I 2 Ra = 242 × 0.015 = 8.64 Wa0

Constant loss = 36× 250− 8.64 = 8991.4 W.
Half load as generator

Output = 200 = 100 kW2
100
×
10
3
IL =250 = 400 A
Ia = IL + If = 400+ 12 = 412 A Total loss = 412 2 × 0.015+ 8991.4 = 11,537
W = 11.537 kW
%100 × 100 = 89.66%.η =100+ 11.53
Full load as generator
Output
=
200 kW;
I
L
=
200× 103 250 = 800 A I a = 800+ 12 = 812 A;
Total loss = 8122 × 0.015+ 8991.4 = 18,881.56 = 18.88 kW
%200 = 91.37%.η =200+ 18.88
3.8. D.C. motor starters
Starters are devices provided with d.c. motors to ensure safe starting of the
motor. The relationship between the back e.m.f. and terminal voltage is
given by
V = Eb + IaRa (Shunt motor)
V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rse)(Series motor) where V is the supply voltage and Eb

is the back e.m.f. The armature current in a shunt motor is given by
Ia =V − Eb (3.20)Ra
and in a series motor Ia = V − Eb(3.21)Ra + Rse
The values of Ra and Rse are very small. The back e.m.f. can be computed
from the formula
Eb = ZNφP.60 A
When the motor starts from rest, the speed is zero. Hence, the back e.m.f. is
not yet developed in the armature. If we consider a 220 V d.c. shunt motor
with an armature resistance of, say, 0.5 , the armature current would be
Ia = 220− 0 = 440 A0.5

at the time of starting, which is much beyond the rated current of the motor.
This excessive current will damage the commutator, brushes and armature
winding. To avoid this, a resistance is introduced in series with the armature
for the duration of the starting period, around 5–10 seconds, to limit the
starting current. Once the motor picks up speed, the resistance is gradually
cut out, since the motor develops back e.m.f. and the armature current starts
decreasing. The connection of the starting resistanceRs is shown in Fig.
3.18.
It is to be noted that the external resistanceRs is connected in series with the

armature and not in the line. Hence, the shunt field current is independent
ofRs.
Commercial starters have protection equipment along with the starting
resistance. A typical starter for the d.c. shunt motor is the three point starter.
3.8.1. Three point starter
The three point starter is shown in Fig. 3.19.
+ IL Ia RS If
VA
− Figure 3.18 Motor starter.
Rs ON
OFF 23 4 5 6 7 8 9 101
SL
E Spring
M
A D BC
+ R Supply
h
− Figure 3.19 Three point starter.
The starter has three terminals marked A, B and C. The terminal ‘A’ is
connected to the positive of the supply terminal, ‘B’ to the field and ‘C’ to
armature.
The starting arm L is connected to point A, through an over current or

overload release M. To start the motor, the main switch is closed and the
starting arm moved slowly to the right. As soon as the arm makes contact
with the first stud 1, the supply is connected to the field circuit. At the same
time the starting resistance Rs is placed in series with the armature. The
starting resistance is made of copper and has a number of studs, which
make contact with the arm. The starting current drawn by the armature is
given by
I
s= Ra +
V. R
s
As the arm is moved further right, the starting resistance is gradually cut
out, till when the arm reaches the running position, the resistance is all cut
out. The other components and their applications are given below.
• The arm moves over the studs against a strong spring which tends to
restore it to OFF position.
• A soft iron piece attached to the arm is held by the electromagnet E in the
ON position.
• The electromagnet E is energised by the shunt current. It is called HOLD-

ON coil, LOW VOLTAGE or NO VOLTAGE release. It holds the arm in
the on position. If there is a disconnection of supply or a break in the field
circuit, it is de-energised and releases the arm, which is then pulled back to
OFF position. If due to some reason, the field circuit becomes open, the
HOLD-ON coil de-energises and the arm immediately springs to OFF
position, thus preventing the motor from running away (N ∝ 1. Hence if φ =
0, N becomes dangerously high!).φ
• The over current release M consists of an electromagnet connected in the

supply line. If the motor sets overloaded, then D is lifted up and short
circuits the hold on coil. Hence the arm is released and returns to OFF
position.
The disadvantage of the three point starter is that as the arm is moved from
stud No. 1 to the last stud, the field current has to travel back through that
portion of the starting resistance that has been cut out of the armature
circuit. This results in a slight decrease of field current.
Modern motors are protected with thermal relays in which a bimetallic strip
is heated at the same rate as the motor. Above a certain temperature, this
relay trips and opens the line contactor, thereby isolating the motor from the
supply. This provides overload protection.
3.8.2. Series motor starter

A typical face-plate type of reversing controller is shown in Fig. 3.20.
F
Reverse orward
Line
−+
Series field
Figure 3.20 Series motor starter.
The regulating lever consists of three pieces separated by strips of

insulation. The outside parts form the electrical connections. The center part
is insulated from them. By moving the regulating lever, resistance can be
cut in and out of the motor circuit. Reversing is obtained by moving the
lever in the opposite direction, in which case connections to the armature
are reversed. Such an arrangement is employed where series motors are
used in cranes, hoists and street cars.
3.9. Speed control of d.c. shunt motors

We know Eb = ZNφP = V − IaRa60 A
N = V − IaRa 60 A= KV − IaRa (3.22)Zφ P φ
If IaField
Rheostat
I
L
+
V
If0
− Figure 3.21 Flux control.
We can also write
b
N = KE (3.23)
φ
Thus, the speed can be controlled by varying (i) the flux per pole, φ (ii)
resistance Ra in the armature circuit (iii) applied voltageV.
3.9.1. Flux control
From (3.22) we see that N ∝1. Thus, by decreasing the flux the speed is
increased andφ
vice versa. The flux can be changed, by changing the field current. This is
achieved by using a rheostat in series with the field winding as shown in
Fig. 3.21.
The field current is small. Hence, the power rating of the rheostat is not
large. Power loss in the rheostat is also not very high, because of the low
current. Speed can be increased to the ratio of 2 : 1 by this method. If field
is weakened further, commutation is affected. When the motor speed drops
due to loading, this method is useful in keeping the speed constant at the
rated value by decreasing the field current, so as to compensate for the
decrease in speed.
3.9.2. Armature control

This method is used when we need speeds below the rated speed. The
voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a variable rheostat in
series with the armature or by
+ + If Ia IL If Ia IL
VV
If0
− − (a) Series rheostat (b) Potential divider Figure 3.22 armature control.
applying a reduced voltage by supplying the armature through a potential
divider network, as shown in Fig. 3.22.
In Fig. 3.22(a), as the controller resistance is increased, the potential drop

across the armature decreases, and hence the speed is reduced. From (3.22)
we can see that for a constant load torque, the speed is approximately
proportional to the p.d. across the armature. In Fig. 3.22(b), we have a
potential divider arrangement, wherein the rheostats can be adjusted to
supply a voltage 0–V volts to the armature.
Let Ra be the resistance of the armature corresponding to no-load speed
N0.Ifnowa resistance is inserted in series with the armature such that the
total resistance isRt, then
N = V − IaRt (3.24)N0 V − Ia0Ra
If we neglect Ia0Ra (Ra being very small) compared to V,weget
N = N0 1− IaRt (3.25)V
For a given value of Rt, the speed is a linear function of Ia as shown in Fig.
3.23. If Ia = V , then from (3.25) we can see that N becomes zero. This value
of armatureRtcurrent is called the stalling current. It indicates the maximum armature current.
N0
N
Im
Ia Figure 3.23 NVsIa.
This method is not very useful, since the speed changes with change in
load. Further, the armature current being large, a lot of power is wasted in
the rheostat.
Example 3.27 A 500 V shunt motor runs at its rated speed of 500 r.p.m.
when armature current is 200 A. The armature resistance is 0.12 . Calculate
speed when the shunt rheostat is inserted to reduce field by 20% and the
armature current is 100 A.
Solution:
Eb1 = 500− 200× 0.12 = 476 V Eb2 = 500− 100× 0.12 = 488 V
φ2 = 0.8φ; N1 = 500 r.p.m.; N2 =? N2 = Eb2 × φ1

N1 Eb1 φ2
N2= 488 ×φ1
500 476 0.8φ1
N2 = 640.76 r.p.m.
Example 3.28 A 250 A d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 .
It takes an armature current of 50 A on load and runs at 750 r.p.m. If the
motor flux is reduced by 10% without changing load torque, find the new
speed.
Solution: Since load torque is same, Ta ∝ φIa,
φ1Ia1 = φ2Ia2 Ia1 = 50 A; φ2 = 0.9φ1
φ 150 = 0.9φ1Ia2
Ia2 = 55.6 A
Eb1 = 250− (50× 0.2) = 240 V Eb2 = 250− (55.6× 0.2) = 238.88 V
N2 = 238.88× φ1
750 240 0.9φ1
N2 = 829.44 r.p.m.
Example 3.29 A 220 V d.c. shunt motor runs at 800 r.p.m. and takes an
armature current of 50 A. What is the resistance to be added to the field
circuit to increase the speed to 1000 r.p.m. at an armature current of 80
A,Ra = 0.15 and Rf = 200 .
Solution: Eb1 = 220− 50× 0.15 = 212.5 V Eb2 = 220− 80× 0.15 = 208 V
220
= 1.1 A; If2 = 220If1 =200 Rt N2 = Eb2 × φ1 = Eb2 × If1 N1 Eb1 φ2 Eb1 If2
(We assume flux is proportional to field current)
1000 208 × 1.1

800 = 212.5 230/Rt
Rt = 267
Rt = Rf + R ⇒ R = 267− 200 = 67 Hence a resistance of 67 is to be added
in series with the field.
220 = 0.824 AIf2 = 267 1.1× 50Ratio of torques T1 = If1Ia1 =0.824× 80T2 If2Ia2
T1 = 0.834T2
or T2 = 1.2T1
Example 3.30 A 250 V d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5
and a field resistance of 250 . It drives a load of constant torque. The speed
is 600 r.p.m. when the armature current is 20 A. What resistance should be
inserted in the field circuit to raise the speed to 800 r.p.m.?
Solution: Assuming the field is not saturated, φ ∝ If1 and φ2 ∝ If2. N2 = Eb2
× φ1∴ N1 Eb1 φ2
Since torque is constant φ1Ia1 = φ2Ia2
Ia2 = φ1Ia1 = If1 × Ia1φ2 If2
250 =1A; I 2 = 250; I 2 = 20×1 = 2RtI 1 =
f a f 250 Rt 250 25Rt
Eb1 = 250− (20× 0.5) = 240 V
2 Rt × 0.5 = 250− RtEb2 = 250−
25 25
250 − Rt 1∴ 800 25
600 = 240× 250/Rt
0.04R2 − 250Rt + 80,000 = 0t
Solving, Rt = 337.5 .
Additional resistance is 337.5− 250 = 87.5 . Example 3.31 A 220 V shunt
motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 and takes a current of 40 A on full
load. By how much must the main flux be reduced to raise the speed by
50%, if the torque developed is constant?
Solution: Let
φ1 = x; I 1 = 40 A
a φx
If1
Ia2 = × Ia1 = 40xIf2
N2 = 1.5N1 (increase in speed by 50%) Eb1 = 220− 40× 0.5 = 200 V Eb2 =
220− 40x × 0.5 = (220− 20x)V
N 2 = Eb2 × φ1
N1 Eb1 φ2
1.5 = 220− 20x× x200
20x2 − 11x + 15 = 0
x = 9.4 or 1.6.
Since the speed increases by 50%, 9.4 is not a practical value. 1.6− 1= 3∴ φ1
= 1.6 φ1 − φ2= 1.6 8φ2 φ1
% change in flux 3 × 100 = 37.5%. =8
Example 3.32 A 240 V d.c. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.25
and runs at 1000 r.p.m. taking an armature current of 40 A. It is desired to
reduce the speed to 800 r.p.m. If the armature current remains the same,
find the additional resistance to be connected in series with the armature
circuit. With this resistance, if the armature current decreases to 20 A, what
is the speed of the motor?
Solution: Eb1 = 240− 0.25× 40 = 230 V

Eb2 = 240− R × 40
Eb1 = N1 (assuming flux is constant)
Eb2 N2
1000 230 ⇒ E 2 = 184 V
b 800 =Eb2
184 = 240− 40R ⇒ R = 1.4
Additional resistance = R − Ra = 1.4− 0.25 = 1.15 When armature current
decreases to 20 A, Eb3 = 240− 20(1.4) = 212 V
212 × 1000 = 921.7 r.p.m.N =
3 230
Example 3.33 A 250 V d.c. shunt motor has an armature current of 20 A,

running at 1000 r.p.m. on full load torque. What resistance must be inserted
in series with the armature to reduce the speed to 500 r.p.m. at the same
torque? What will be the speed if load torque is halved with this resistance?
Ra = 0.5 .
Solution:
Eb1 = 250− 0.5× 20 = 240 V

Eb2 = 250− R × 20
250− 20R= 500 ⇒ R = 6.5240 1000
Additional resistance = R − Ra = 6.5− 0.5 = 6 . When load torque is halved,

armature current reduces by half∴ Ia3 = 10 A.
N3 250− 10× 6.5⇒ N3 = 771 r.p.m.1000 = 240
Example 3.34 A 250 V d.c. shunt motor with armature resistance of 0.5
runs at 600 r.p.m. on full load taking an armature current of 20 A. A 1
resistor is connected in series with armature. Find the speed at half full-load
torque, with this resistor in the armature.
Solution: When torque is half full load the current is 10 A.

Eb1 = 250− 20× 0.5 = 240 V Eb2 = 250− 10× 1.5 = 235 V
235 = 587.5 r.p.m.N = 600×
2 240
Example 3.35 A 250 V, 50 h.p. d.c. shunt motor has an efficiency of 90%
when running at 1000 r.p.m. on full load. Ra = 0.1 and Rf = 25 . Find the
gross torque and the shaft torque; the starting resistance to limit starting
current to 1.5 times full load current and the starting torque.
Solution:
Output = 50h.p. = 50× 746 = 37,300 W Output 9.55× 37,300Tsh = 9.55× speed =
1000
= 356.2N − m 250 = 2 A; Input current =37,300If =125 250× 0.9
= 165.8 A
Ia = 165.8− 2 = 163.8 A
Eb = 250− (163.8× 0.1) = 233.62 V
EbIa = 9.55× 233.62× 163.8Ta = 9.55× N 1000

= 365.45N − m Limit of starting current = 165.8× 1.5 = 248.7 A
Permissible armature current = 248.7− 2 = 246.7 A
Resistance in armature circuit250 = 1.013 =246.7
Ra = 0.1
Starting resistance = 1.013− 0.1 = 0.913 .
Starting torque would be 1.5 times full load torque since current is 1.5
times.
Tst = 1.5× 365.45 = 548.12N − m.
3.10. Speed control of series motors
3.10.1. Flux control
The flux can be controlled in a number of ways since the armature and field
winding are in series.
(i) Field diverters
The series field winding is shunted by a variable resistance called the field
diverter, shown in Fig. 3.24
Any current can be passed through the diverter by adjusting its resistance.
This changes the current through the field winding in parallel and hence
controls the flux. The flux is decreased using the diverter and hence speed
can be increased.
(ii) Armature diverters
A diverter is connected across the armature, to obtain speeds less than

normal speed. For a given constant torque the armature current is reduced
due to the armature diverter. Since T ∝ φIa, flux must increase which
reduces the speed. The speed is controlled by changing the diverter. The
armature diverter is shown in Fig. 3.25.
+ Ia
V
− Figure 3.24 Field diverter.
+
V
− Figure 3.25 Armature diverter.
(iii) tapped field coil
The field coil is provided with taps so that the number of turns can be
changed as shown in Fig. 3.25.
3.10.2. Rheostatic control
In this method a variable resistance is connected in series with the field and
armature. Since the full motor current passes through this resistor there is
power loss in it.
Example 3.36 A 240 V d.c. series motor takes 40 A when delivering rated
output at 1500 r.p.m. The series resistance is 0.3 . What additional
resistance is to be added to obtain rated torque (i) at starting (ii) at 1000
r.p.m.
I
L
+
V
− Figure 3.26 Tapped field coil.
Solution: Since torque is same current is 40 A. 240 (i) 40 =R + 0.3 ⇒ R = 5.7
(ii)
Eb1 = 240− 40× 0.3 = 228 V; N1 = 1500 r.p.m. Eb2 = 240− (40× R); N2 =
1000 r.p.m. Eb1 = N1
Eb2 N2
240− (40× R)= 1000∴ 228 1500
R = 2.2 .
Additional resistance = 2.2− 0.3 = 1.9
Example 3.37 A 200 V d.c. series motor takes 40 A when running at 700
r.p.m. Calculate the speed at which the motor will run and the current taken
from the supply if the field is shunted by a resistance equal to the field
resistance and the load torque is increased by 50%. Ra = 0.15 and Rse = 0.1 .
Solution: In a series motor prior to saturation,

T
a
∝
I
2a
T1 ∝ 402
When diverter is used, only
Ia2 passes through field. Therefore, φ ∝ Ia2
2
22
T
2
∝
φ
2
I
a
2
∝
I
2
a2
2
T
2
=
I
2
a2
2× 402T1
T2 = 1.5T1 (50% increase) I
2
∴
1.5
=
a2
2× 402 ⇒ Ia2 = 69.3 A E b1 = 220− (40× 0.25) = 210 V
0.1 = 206.14 VE = 220− 69.3× 0.15
b2 =2
N2 = Eb2 × φ1;N2 = 206.14 ×40 N E φ 700 210 69.3/2 N = 793.2 r.p.m.
1 b1 2 2
Questions
1. What is back e.m.f.?
2. A d.c. motor connected to a 460 V supply has an armature resistance of

0.15 . Calculate the back e.m.f. when armature current is 120 A. What is the
armature current when back e.m.f. is 447.4 V. [442 V; 84 A]
3. Derive the torque equation of a d.c. motor.

4. What is shaft torque? Why is it less than gross torque?
5. Determine the armature torque developed and shaft torque of a 220 V, 4-
pole series motor with 800 conductors wave connected and supplying 8.2
kW by taking 45 A from the mains. The flux per pole is 25 mWb and
armature resistance is 0.6 [Ta = 286.2N −mTsh = 27.5N − m]
6. A 220 d.c. shunt motor runs at 500 r.p.m. when armature current is 50 A.
Calculate the speed if the torque is doubled. Ra = 0.2 . [476 r.p.m.]
7. A 4-pole, 240 V, wave connected shunt motor gives 1119 kW when
running at 1000 r.p.m. and drawing an armature current of 50 A and field
current of 10 A. It has 540 conductors.Ra = 0.1 . Brush drop is 1 volt/brush.
find useful torque, flux/pole, rotational losses and efficiency. [Ta = 111N −
m;Tsh = 106.9N − m;φ = 12.9 mWb; rotational losses = 460 W; η = 91.4%]
8. A d.c. shunt machine generates 250 V on open circuit at 1000 r.p.m.Ra =
0.5 and Rf = 250 . On no-load as motor, the machine draws 4 A. Calculate
speed when it runs as motor drawing 40 A at 250 V, if armature reaction
weakens field by 4% [960 r.p.m.]
9. What are the important characteristics of d.c. motors?
10. Explain the main characteristics of d.c. shunt motors?
11. A 500 V d.c. shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.5 and field
resistance of 200 . When loaded and taking an input of 25 kW, it runs at 400
r.p.m. Find the speed at which it must be driven as a shunt generator to
supply a power output of 25 kW at a terminal voltage of 500 V [442 r.p.m.]
12. Explain the characteristics of d.c. series motors?
13. What are the applications of d.c. motors?
14. What are performance curves? Plot typical curves for d.c. shunt and
series motors. 15. A d.c. series motor has the following parameters: 496
wave wound conductors; 4 pole; Rse = 0.14 ; Friction, windage and iron
loss = 810 W. Calculate (i) gross torque (ii) useful torque (iii) speed and (iv)
η if motor current is 50 A. [173.5 N–m; 642 r.p.m.; 86.9%]
16. A shunt motor takes 5 A on no-load at 200 V. Rf = 150 and Ra = 0.1 .
Determine output and efficiency of motor when the input current is 120 A
at 200 V. [89.8%]
17. Explain the flux control method for speed control of d.c. motors.
18. What is rheostatic control?
19. Why is starter required for d.c. motors?
20. With a neat sketch, clearly explain the three point starter for a d.c. shunt
motor. 21. A 250 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 and runs
at 1200 r.p.m. when the armature current is 80 A. If the torque remains
unchanged, find the speed and armature current when field is strengthened
by 25%. [998 r.p.m.; 64 A] 22. A 250 V d.c. shunt motor has armature
circuit resistance of 0.5 and a field circuit resistance of 125 and a field
circuit resistance of 125 . It drives a load at 1000 r.p.m. and takes 30 A. The
field circuit resistance is then increased to 150 . Calculate final speed and
armature current. [1186 r.p.m.; 33.6 A]
23. Explain Swinburne’s test of a d.c. shunt machine. How can the
efficiency be predetermined from the test results.
24. What are the reasons for a motor slowing down on load?
25. If a d.c. motor fails to run when supply is switched on, what could be
the possible reasons?
CHAPTER - 4
Transformers
Learning objectives
Working Principle
Ratings
Construction of care-type and shell-type
E.m.f equation
Phasor diagrams on no-load and load
Equivalent circuit
OC and SC tests
Predetermination of efficiency and regulation.
459
4.1. Introduction
The transformer can simply be defined as a device which transforms electric

power from one circuit to another, by means of changing the alternating
voltage or current. It has no rotating parts and is a static device. It is a device
which has revolutionized electric power transmission and distribution. It is
extensively used in all applications where voltage/current has to be
converted from one level to another. They are available in a wide variety of
ratings from a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts, for applications in electric
power distribution and transmission, communication, control circuits,
adapters, instrumentation, radio, television etc.
4.2. Working principle of a transformer
A transformer is a static device that transfers electric power in one circuit to

another circuit, at the same frequency. The alternating voltage can be
increased or decreased with a corresponding decrease or increase in the
current respectively. The transformer works on the principle of mutual
induction, between two (or more) inductively (magnetically) coupled coils.
There is no electrical connectivity between the two coils. The two coils are
wound on a common core as shown in Fig. 4.1. One of the coils, called
theprimary winding, is connected to a source of alternating voltage. This
voltage, drives an alternating current through the primary winding, which
sets up an alternating flux through the core. This flux, links with a second
winding called the secondary winding, to produce a mutually induced e.m.f
(according to Faraday’s law of induction). In this process of voltage by
induction, the frequency remains unchanged when the secondary voltage is
greater than the primary voltage it is called a step-up transformer. When the
secondary voltage is less than primary voltage it is called a step-down
transformer.
4.2.1. Transformer ratings
• Rated primary voltage: It is the voltage to be applied to the primary

winding.
• Rated secondary voltage: It is the voltage across the secondary terminals at
no-load when the rated voltage is applied across the primary terminals.
• Rated power: It is the power rating indicated by the manufacturer, in terms
of kVA.
• Rated currents: The rated currents for the primary and secondary windings
are indicated on the name plate and calculated using the kVA rating of the
transformer and the respective voltage rating of the windings.
• Rated frequency: It is the frequency of operation for which the transformer
has been designed.
Iron core
Primary winding Secondary winding
Figure 4.1 Transformer.
4.3. Transformer construction
All transformers have the following parts:
A laminated steel core, which provides the path for the magnetic flux.•
• Two or more coils (also called windings) having mutual inductance and
insulated from each other. Other parts are,
◦ A container to hold the assembled core and windings.

◦ A medium to insulate core and its windings from its container.
◦ Bushings for insulating and bringing the terminals of the windings out of
the tank.
Basically the transformers are classified into two types based on their
construction.
4.3.1. Core-type transformers
Here, the windings surround the core as shown in Fig. 4.1. The core is made
of siliconsteel laminations which are either rectangular or L-shaped. To
provide maximum linkage between the two windings they are interleaved to
reduce leakage flux, as shown in Fig. 4.2.
The coils are form wound and are of cylindrical type. The coils may be
rectangular, oval or circular. The cores may be of different shapes as shown
in Fig. 4.3. Basically they are rectangular with one or more steps.
SS
PP
Laminated core Figure 4.2 Windings interleaved.
Figure 4.3 Various types of cores.
Core stepping gives a high space factor and reduces the length of the mean
turn, thus reducing the I2R losses. Three stepped cores are most popular.
4.3.2. Shell-type transformers
In the shell-type transformers the core surrounds a considerable part of the
windings. The cross section of the shell-type transformer is shown in Fig.
4.4.
The low-voltage coils are placed near the core to reduce amount of
insulation required. The cores and coils of transformers must be provided
with rigid mechanical bracing to prevent movement, vibrations and
insulation damage. Transformers are housed in tightly fitted sheet-metal
tanks, filled with a special insulating oil (mineral oil or a special synthetic
fluid) which helps to cool the coils and also provide additional insulation.
The oil must be free from sulphur, alkalies and moisture.
Core Core
LV HV
HV LV
Figure 4.4 Shell type transformer.
The sides of the transformers are sometimes provided with corrugations or

with vibrators to provide sufficient cooling area. Large transformers are
provided with chambers, called breathers, to permit the oil to expand or
contract as its temperature increases or decreases. Atmospheric moisture is
trapped in the breathers. The life of the transformer unit depends on the
quality of the insulating materials. The leads are brought out of their cases
through suitable bushings. For medium voltages porcelain bushings are used.
For high voltage installations, oil-filled bushings are used.
The choice between core-type and shell-type transformers is based on a
number of factors such as voltage rating, kVA rating, weight, insulation
stress, heat distribution etc. A few points to be noted are
• The core-type in general has a longer mean length of core and shorter mean
length of coil turn.
• The core-type has a smaller cross-section of iron and so will need more
number of coil turns to produce the required flux.
• There is more room for insulation in core type; hence it is preferred for
high-voltage applications.
• The shell-type has better mechanical bracing.
4.4. Single phase transformer
We consider an ideal transformer first. An ideal transformer is one in which
the windings do not have ohmic resistance and there is no magnetic leakage.
This means that there is
a
V1 E1 E2 V2
b Figure 4.5 Transformer voltages.
no loss in the winding due to heat (heat loss = I2R, which is zero when
resistance is neglected) and core losses. Though such a transformer cannot
be realized, it is useful to understand the theory of a transformer.
4.4.1. Ideal transformer on no-load
Consider the ideal transformer with secondary open. Such a transformer is

said to be on no-load, since no load is connected to the secondary winding.
Let the primary be connected to a sinusoidally varying alternating voltage
V1. This causes a current Iµ to flow in the primary winding. This current is
purely inductive, since we have assumed the winding resistance is zero.
Therefore, the current will lag the voltage V1 by 90◦. This current
magnetizes the core. It sets up an alternating flux φ, in the core, which is
proportional to and in phase with the current Iµ.
This alternating flux links with both the primary and secondary windings,
producing induced voltages in them. A self-induced e.m.f. E1 is produced in
the primary winding, in phase opposition to the terminal voltageV1.
Similarly, an e.m.f.,E2, is produced in the secondary winding by the
principle of mutual induction. It is in phase opposition toV1.
The instantaneous voltages and the phasor diagram of the ideal transformer
on no-load are shown in Fig. 4.6.
4.4.2. E.M.F. equation
We use the following notations:
: Number of turns of primary winding N1

N2: Number of turns of secondary winding f: Frequency of the a.c. input to
primary φm: Maximum flux in webers, in the core.
V 1 * Note: The phasor voltage V1 E1 here represents Eba (voltage drop

from b to a) of Fig. 4.5.
i (lags V1 by 90°)Iµ
φ e1 (lags V1 by 180°)
E1
e
2
(lags V1 by 180°) E2 (a) Instantaneous voltages (b) Phasor diagram Figure
4.6 Voltages of an ideal transformer on no-load.
φ φm
Tt 4
T=1
f
Figure 4.7 Flux.
Consider the sinusoidal flux shown in Fig. 4.7. The alternating flux has the
same frequency as the applied voltage V1. The flux changes from 0 to φm in
a time T =1 secs.4 4fTherefore the average rate of change of flux is given by,
Average rate of change of flux = φm = 4fφm Volts (4.1)1
4f
The average rate of change of flux is nothing but the induced e.m.f. E1
(Faraday’s law). Therefore
Average induced e.m.f./turn = 4fφm (4.2) In a sinusoidally varying quantity,
Form factor =r.m.s. value = 1.11average value
Hence,
r.m.s. value = 1.11× average value.
Therefore
r.m.s. value of e.m.f./turn = 1.11× 4fφm
= 4.44fφm Volt (4.3)
The r.m.s. value of the total induced e.m.f. is given by r.m.s. value of
e.m.f./turn×number of turns.
∴ E1 = 4.44fφmN1 (4.4)
Now
φm = Bm × A (flux = flux density× area) (4.5) ∴ E1 = 4.44fN1BmA (4.6)
Similarly the induced e.m.f. in secondary winding is given by
E2 = 4.44fN2BmA (4.7)
From (4.6) and (4.7) it is seen that
E1 = E2 = 4.44fBmA (4.8)
N1 N2
This means that e.m.f./turn is same in both the primary and secondary
windings. In an ideal transformer V1 = E1 and V2 = E2, where V2 is the
secondary terminal voltage.
4.4.3. Voltage transformation ratio From (4.8) we get
E2 = N2 = K (4.9)
E1 N1
The constant K is called the voltage transformation ratio.
• when N2>N1, E2>E1 and the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
• when N2<N1, E2<E1 and the transformer is called a step-down transformer.
In an ideal transformer, the input VA = output VA. (VA is called volt-
Amperes and is the product of the r.m.s. voltage and r.m.s. current).
V1I1 = V2I2
or
I2 = V1 = N1 = 1 (4.10)
I1 V2 N2 K
Thus, the current ratio is inverse of the voltage ratio.
Example 4.1 A 25 kVA transformer has 250 turns on the primary and 50
turns on the secondary. The primary is connected to 1100 V, 50 Hz mains.
Find the secondary voltage and the currents in the two windings. Also find
the maximum flux in the core.
Solution:
V 1 = N1
V2 N2
1100= 250V2 = 220 VV2 50 ;
Primary current
I
1
=
25× 103
1100 = 22.727 A Secondary current
I
2
=
I
1
×
N1 = 22.727× 250 N 50 = 113.63 A
2
The flux is found, using (4.4)
E1 = V1; 1100 = 4.44× 50× φm × 250 φm = 0.019 wb
Example 4.2 The flux density in the core of a 110/1100 Volts, 50 Hz, single
phase transformer is 1.0 Wb/m2. The e.m.f./turn is 7.85 V. Determine the
primary and secondary turns and the area of the core.
Solution:
E1 = e.m.f./turn× N1
110 = 7.85× N1
110 = 14 turnsN =
1 7.85
E1 = 4.44fN1BmA
110 = 4.44× 50× 14× 1.0× A A = 0.0354m 2
Example 4.3 A single phase transformer has 400 turns in primary and 1200
turns in secondary. The net cross sectional area of the core is 60 cm2. The
primary winding is connected to a 50 Hz supply at 440 V. Find the peak
value of flux density in the core and the voltage induced in the secondary
winding.
Solution:
V1 = 440 V
N2 × V1 = 1200 440 = 1320 VV2 =N1 400 ×

440 = 4.44× 50× 400× Bm × (60× 10−4) Bm = 0.825 Wb/m2
Example 4.4 The core of a 100 kVA, 11 kV/440 V, 50 Hz, single phase
transformer has a cross section of 20 cm × 20 cm with a stacking factor of
0.92 and a maximum core density of 1.3 T. Find the primary and secondary
turns and e.m.f./turn.
Solution: The stacking factor reduces the effective cross section area.
A = (20× 20× 0.92) × 10−4 = 0.0368 m2
B m = 1.3 T
11, 000 = 4.44× 50× N1 × 1.3× 0.0368
N1 = 1036 (take closest integer)
440 × 1036 = 41N2 =11, 000

e.m.f./turn 11, 000 = 10.618 V/turn. =1036
4.5. Transformer with resistance and magnetic leakage
(Practical transformer)
The ideal transformer helps to understand the working concept of the

transformer. However, under practical conditions the assumptions made of
zero resistance in the windings and no magnetic leakage, are not valid.
Both the primary and secondary winding have resistance, because of which
voltage drop takes place in them. A greater portion of the flux is confined
through the core and links with both the windings. However, a small portion,
called the leakage flux, completes its path through the air surrounding the
coils, as shown in Fig. 4.8.
Since the leakage flux flows largely in the air gap, it varies linearly with
current. The primary leakage flux varies linearly with primary current and
secondary leakage flux varies linearly with secondary current. This leakage
flux can be represented by a leakage inductance, which is nothing but the
primary (secondary) leakage flux per ampere of
Core
Mutual flux
Leakage flux Figure 4.8 Magnetic flux in a transformer.
a I1 I2 R1 X1 X2 R2 V1 E1 E2 Load
b Figure 4.9 Practical transformer.
primary (secondary) current. The reactance corresponding to this inductance
is known as the primary (secondary) leakage reactance.
A transformer with winding resistance and magnetic leakage can be
represented by an ideal transformer which series resistance and inductance
4.5.1. Phasor diagram of transformer on no-load
Under no-load condition, the secondary winding is open and the primary is
connected to a voltage source V1. The transformer draws current I0, the no-
load primary current. I0 consists of the following components:
(i) Magnetizing component Iµ: The function of this component is to sustain

the alternating flux in the core. It is in quadrature with the voltage V1.
V1
IwIo
φ0 φ
Iµ
E1
E2 Figure 4.10 No-load phasor diagram.
(ii) Working componentIw: This is also called the active or iron-loss
component. It is in phase with V1 and supplies the no-load losses. The losses
on no-load are
• Eddy current loss, which is due to the flow of eddy currents in the core.
• Hysteresis loss, which is the loss in the core due to reversals of the
alternating flux. These two together are called the iron-loss.
• Copper loss in the primary winding
The phasor diagram on no-load is shown in Fig. 4.10. From the phasor
diagram we can see that
Iµ = I0 sinφ0 (4.11) Iw = I0 cosφ0 (4.12)
2 + I2 (4.13)I0 = I
wµ
The total input power on no-load is
P0 = V1I0 cosφ0 = V1Iw. (4.14)
We note the following points
• The no-load primary current is very small compared to the full load
primary current. It is about 1% to 2% of full load current.
• As I0 is very small, the copper loss in the primary winding (I2R1) is
negligible.0
• On no-load, the output is zero. Therefore the input power P0, is equal to the
losses on no-load (Input power = output power+ losses).
• As copper loss is negligible, the input power on no-load is practically equal
to the iron-loss.
• As the core loss is responsible for the shift in current phasor angle, φ0 is
called the hysteresis angle of advance.
Example 4.5 A 2,200/200 V transformer draws 0.65 A primary current on

no-load and absorbs 375 W. Find the magnetizing current, the loss
component of the current and the power factor.
Solution:
Power factor P0 = V1I0 cosφ0 = V1Iw

375 = 0.17 AI =
w 2, 200
2 − I2 = (0.65)2 − (0.17)2 = 0.627 AIµ = I0 w

Iw = I0 cosφ0 = 0.17 A
Iw = 0.17 = 0.261 = cosφ0 =
I0 0.65
φ0 = 74.83 ◦
Example 4.6 A 300/3000 V transformer draws 0.6 A at a power factor of
0.33 on no-load. Calculate the current components and the power drawn.
Solution:
IW = I0 cosφ0 = 0.6× 0.33 = 0.198 A φ 0 = cos−1(0.33) = 70.73◦

Iµ = I0 sinφ0 = 0.566 A
P0 = V1I0 cosφ0 = 300× 0.198
= 59.4 W.
Example 4.7 A single phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and
50 turns on the secondary winding. The no-load current is 1.0 A at a p.f. of
0.2. The power drawn on no-load is 50 W. Calculate the voltages across the
primary and secondary winding, the active and reactive components of the
current and the flux density in the core, if area of cross section is 0.004 m2
and frequency is 50 Hz.
Solution:
P0 = V1I0 cosφ0
50 = V1 × 1.0× 0.2
V1 = 250 V
V1 = N1 ⇒ V2 = V1N2 = 250× 50 = 25 V
V2 N2 N1 500
Iw = I0 cosφ0 = 1.0× 0.2 = 0.2 A (active component)
Iµ = I2 − I2 = 1.02 − 0.22 = 0.98 A (reactive component)0 w
V 1 = 4.44fN1φm
250 = 4.44× 50× 500× φm
φm = 2.25× 10−3 wb
φm = 2.25× 10−3 2.Bm =A 0.004 = 0.563 Wb/m

4.5.2. Transformer on load
When the secondary is loaded the following sequence of events take place.
1. A secondary current I2 is set up. The magnitude and phase of I2 with

respect to V2
depends on the load. If the load is resistive I2 is in phase with V2, if it is
inductive I2
lags V2 and if it is capacitive I2 leads V2.
2. The secondary current I2, sets up an m.m.f. N2I2 and a flux φ2, in phase
opposition to the main flux φ, set up by Iµ, the magnetizing current
component ofI0.
3. The flux φ2 weakens the flux in the core and hence, momentarilyE1
reduces. 4. The voltageV1now causes more current to flow, because of
reducedE1. This additional current is designated I2.
5. The current I2 sets up an m.m.f. N1I2, which sets up a flux φ2 which is
equal and opposite to the flux φ2. Hence, the two cancel each other.
6. The total flux in the core is φ + φ2 + φ2 = φ, since φ2=−φ2.

7. Thus the flux, through the core practically remains a constant under all
load conditions.
8. Since φ2 = φ2 (magnitude)
N2I2 = N1I2
N2I2 = KI2. (4.14a)I =
2 N1
9. Hence, on-load, the primary winding has two current components:

• The no-load current I0
• The current I2 = KI2, anti-phase with I2.
The total primary current is the vector sum ofI0 and I2.
4.5.3. Phasor diagram on-load

From Fig. 4.9, we write the voltage equations for the input and output loops.
V1 = I1R1 + jI1X1 − E1 = I1(R1 + jX1) − E1 = I1Z1 − E1 (4.15)
(Note: In (4.15), E1 = Eba. A few authors prefer to call Eab as E1 in which
case V1 = I1R1 + jI1X1 + E1)
V2 = E2 − I2R2 − jI2X2 = E2 − I2(R2 + jX2) (4.16) = E2 − I2Z2
From (4.15) and (4.16) we draw the phasor diagram for different types of
load.
I1X1
V1 I1R1
−E1
I′ I12
φ1 I0
I2
V2 E1
I2R2
I
2
X
E
22
Figure 4.11 Transformer on resistive load.
Resistive load
In a resistive loadI2 is in-phase withV2. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig.
4.11. In the phasor diagram note the following.
• The no-load current I0 is very small and lags V1 by almost 90◦.

• E1 and E2 are in-phase.
• I2 is in phase with V2.
• The resistive drops are parallel to the respective currents i.e. I1R1 is parallel
to I1 and I2R2 is parallel to I2. The reactive drops lead the respective currents
by 90◦.
• The load component of the primary current,I2, is in phase opposition to the
secondary current I2.
(a) I1X1 (b) I1X1 I1R1
V1 −E1V1 I R
1 1 I1
I
′
2 I1−E 1
1I
2φ
1
φ1 I0
I0
φI2 φ
V2
I2 V
2 E1 E1
I2R2 I2R2 E2I X E
2 2 2 I2X2
Figure 4.12 Transformer on (a) Inductive load (b) capacitive load.
Inductive and capacitive load
In case of an inductive load, I2 lagsV2 by an angle determined by the power

factor of the load. It is good to remember that most of the loads are inductive
loads. With a capacitive load, I2 lead V2. The phasor diagrams for inductive
and capacitive loads are shown in Fig. 4.12a and Fig. 4.12b, respectively.
Except for the phase relationship betweenV2 and I2, the phasor diagrams are
drawn as in the case of resistive load.
The angle φ1, between V1 and I1, gives the power factor angle of the
transformer.
4.5.4. Equivalent resistance and reactance
Equivalent resistance
The primary and secondary windings have a resistance of R1 and R2

respectively. The resistances can be transferred to an equivalent resistance,
to any one of the two windings, such that the total copper loss remains
unchanged. The copper loss in the secondary winding is I2R2. Now let R2 be
an equivalent resistance in the primary winding, which2
could give the same copper loss. So,
I2R2 = I2R21 2
or
R
2
=
I12 I2 R2 (4.17)
Now I2 =1, whereI2 is the load component of the primary current as in (4.14).
However,I2 K
if we neglect ∼ I1, since I1 = I2 + I0 ∼ I2. Therefore, (4.17) can be written as
I0, I2 = =
R2 = R2 (4.18)K2
R2 is termed as the equivalent resistance of secondary, referred to primary.
Similarly, the equivalent resistance of the primary, referred to the secondary
is
R1 = K2R1 (4.19)
Now the equivalent or effective resistance of the transformer, referred to the
primary is
R01 = R1 + R2 = R1 + R2 (4.20)K2
Similarly, the equivalent or effective resistance of the transformer, referred
to the secondary is
R02 = R2 + R1 = R2 + K2R1 (4.21)
Note:
• In shifting any resistance from primary to secondary, multiply byK2.
• In shifting any resistance from secondary to primary, divide byK2.
Equivalent reactance
The equivalent reactance of secondary referred to primary is
X2 = X2 (4.22)K2
and equivalent reactance of primary referred to secondary is
X1 = K2X1 (4.23)
The equivalent reactance of the transformer, referred to the primary is
X01 = X1 + X2 = X1 + X2 (4.24)K2
and
X02 = X2 + X1 = X2 + K2X1 (4.25)
Total Impedance
The total impedance of the transformer, referred to primary is
Z01 = R2 + X2 (4.26)01 01
and total impedance referred to secondary is
Z02 = R2 + X2 (4.27)02 02
Example 4.8 A 25 kVA, 2200/240 V, 50 Hz transformer has a HV winding
resistance of 0.1 and leakage reactance of 0.2 . The LV winding resistance
and leakage reactance are 0.032 and 0.015 respectively. Find the equivalent
resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the (i) LV side (ii) HV side.
Solution:
K =240 = 0.109; V1 = 2200 V; V2 = 240 V.2200
0.1 ; X1 = 0.2 ; R2 = 0.032 ; X2 = 0.015 ;R1 =
(i) Equivalent values referred to LV side.
Here, we have taken the HV side as primary and LV side as secondary
R02 = R2 + K2R1 = 0.032+ (0.109)2 × 0.1 = 0.0332 X02 = X2 + K2R1 =
0.015+ (0.109)2 × 0.1 = 0.0162
2 + X2 = (0.0332)2 + (0.0162)2Z02 = R
02 02
= 0.037
(ii) Equivalent values referred to HV side
R
01
=
R
1
+
R2 = 0.1+ 0.032
(0.109)2 = 2.793K2
X
01
=
X
1
+
X2 = 0.2+ 0.015
(0.109)2 = 1.462K2
Z01 = R2 + X2 = 3.152 .01 01
Example 4.9 A 50 kVA, 4400/220 V transformer has the following values:

R1 = 3.48 ; X1 = 5.2 ; R2 = 0.01 ; X2 = 0.015 . Calculate the equivalent
resistance and reactance (i) referred to primary (ii) referred to secondary (iii)
total copper loss using individual resistances and check it using the
equivalent values.
Solution:
(i)
R01 = R1 + R2; K =220 = 0.05K2 4400 0.01 R01 = 3.48+(0.05)2 = 7.48
X
01
=
X
1
+
X2 = 5.2+ 0.016
(0.05)2 = 11.6 .K2
(ii)
R02 = R2 + K2R1 = 0.01+ (0.05)2 × 3.48 = 0.0187 2R1 = 0.016+ (0.05)2 ×
5.2 = 0.029X02 = X2 + K
(iii) Copper loss = I2R1 + I2R21 2
I
1
=
kVA= 50× 103
4400 = 11.36 AV1
I
2
=
kVA= 50× 103
220 = 227.27 AV2
Cu loss = (11.36)2 × 3.48+ (227.27)2 × 0.01 = 965.6 W
Also
Cu loss = I2R01 = (11.36)2 × 7.481
Cu loss = 965.3 W
2R02 = (227.27)2 × 0.0187 = I
2
965.8 W.=
(The minor differences are due to numerical rounding).
Example 4.10 The full load copper loss on the HV side of a 100 kVA,
11,000/220 V, single phase transformer, is 0.55 kW and on the LV side, 0.45
kW. Calculate R1, R2 and R01, R02.
Solution:
I
1
=
100× 103
11, 000 = 9.09 A
I
2
=
100× 103
220 = 454.54 A
220 = 0.02K =
11, 000
Cu loss in primary = I2R11
0.55× 103 = (9.09)2 × R1
R1 = 6.656
Cu loss in secondary = I2R22
0.45× 103 = (454.54)2 × R2 2.178× 10−3R2 =
R
01
=
R
1
+
R2 = 6.656+ 2.178× 10−3
K2 (0.02)2 = 12.101
R02 = R2 + K2R1 = 2.178× 10−3 + (0.02)2 × 6.656 = 4.84× 10−3
Example 4.11 A single phase transformer rated 440/110 V, takes a no-load

current of 4 A at 0.2 p.f. lagging. If the secondary supplies a current of 100A
at a p.f. 0.8 lagging, find the current taken by the primary.
Solution:
K
=
110
1
= 4; I0 =4A; I2 = I2N2 = 100× 1 = 25 A440 N1 4 φ0 = cos−1(0.2) = 78.46◦
φ2 = cos−1(0.8) = 36.86◦
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 4.13.
I1
I
1
V1 2
78.46° I0
36.86°φ
I2
V2 Figure 4.13 Example 4.11.
Angle between I0 and I2 (refer to Fig. 4.13) is
78.46◦ − 36.86◦ = 41.6◦
I1 is vector sum of I0 and I2. We use law of parallelogram to calculate it as
I1 = 42 + 252 + 2× 4× 25× cos(41.6◦) = 28.1◦
I1 lags V1 by
36.86◦ + 41.6◦ ◦.2 = 57.66
Example 4.12 A transformer has a turns ratio N2 = 0.25. The secondary load
currentN1
is 80 A at 0.8 p.f. lag and the primary current is 25 A at 0.707 p.f. lag. Find
the no-load current and its phase with respect to V1.
V1 I1 I
1
2
36.86°
45°I0φ0
36.86°φ
I2 V Figure 4.14 Example 4.12.
2
Solution:
φ2 = cos−1 0.8 = 36.86◦ 1 0.707 = 45◦φ1 = cos−
I2 = 80 A; I1 = I0 + I2 = 25 A I 2 = 80× 0.25 = 20 A
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 4.14.
We add the components in phase with V1 and in quadrature with it as
follows:
I2 cosφ2 + I0 cosφ0 = I1 cosφ1

20× cos 36.86◦ + I0 cosφ0 = 25× cos(45◦) I0 cosφ0 = 1.675 A
I2 sinφ2 + I0 sinφ0 = I1 sinφ1

20× sin 36.86◦ + I0 sinφ0 = 25× sin(45◦) I0 sinφ0 = 5.68 A
tan I0 sinφ0 = 3.391φ0 =I0 cosφ0

φ0 = 73.57◦
I0 =5.68 =5.68 = 5.922 A.sinφ0 0.959

Example 4.13 A single-phase transformer has following data:
R1 = 25 ;X1 = 100 ;R2 = 0.05 ;X2 = 0.25 ; turns ratio 20 : 1;I0 = 1.25 A
leading fluxφ by 30◦;I2 = 200 A at 0.8 p.f. lag;V2 = 500 V. Determine the
primary applied voltage, primary p.f. and transformer efficiency.
Solution: (Refer to Fig. 4.12a).

Lets takeV2 as the reference phasor. The p.f. of secondary is 0.8 lag, which
gives angle between V2 and I2.
∴ V2 = 500∠0◦ (reference)
I2 = 200∠ − cos−1 0.8 = 200∠ − 26.86◦ = 160− j120 A negative angle

because p.f. is lag
Z2 = 0.05+ j0.25 = 0.255∠78.69◦
E2 = V2 + I2Z2
= 500∠0◦ + 200∠ − 36.86◦ × 0.255∠78.69◦

= 500+ j0+ 51∠41.83◦ = 500+ 38+ j34.01
= 538+ j34.01 = 539.07∠3.167◦
E2 E2 = 20E2 = 10, 760+ j680.2 VE1 =K =1/20
−E1=−10, 760− j680.2 V = 10, 781∠ − 176.38◦
160− j120 =−8+ j6I =−KI2=−
2 20
The angle between I0 and V2 is angle between V2 and E2 + 90◦ + angle
between I0 and φ (refer Fig. 4.12a)
3.617◦ + 90◦ + 30◦ = 123.617◦ ∴ I0 = 1.25∠123.617◦=−0.692+ j1.041
I 1 = I2 + I0=−8.692+ j7.041 = 11.186∠141◦ Z1 = 25+ j100 =

103.077∠75.96◦ V1=−E1 + I1Z1
= (−10, 760− j680.2) + (11.186∠141◦ × 103.077∠75.96◦) =−10, 760−

j680.2− 921.32− j693.26
=−11.681.32− j1, 373.46 = 11.761.78∠ − 173.3◦ = 11, 761.78∠186.7◦
Phase angle between V1 and I1 = 186.7◦ − 141◦ = 45.7◦

Primary p.f. = cos(45.7◦) = 0.689 lag. Secondary output = V2I2 cosφ2 = 500×
200× 0.8 = 80, 000 W
Iron loss = No-load input = V1I0 cosφ0 = 11, 761.78× 1.25× cos 60◦ = 7,
351.1 W
R2 = 25+ (20)2 × 0.05 = 45R01 = R1 +K2
Copper loss = I2R01 = (11.186)2 × 45 = 5.630.7 W1
Input = Output+ losses = 80, 000+ 7, 351.1+ 5, 630.7 = 92, 981.8 W
Output 80, 000 = 86%.η = Input = 92, 981.8
4.6. Equivalent circuit
An equivalent circuit is a circuit representation of the equations which
describe the behaviour of the device. In drawing the equivalent circuit of the
transformer, the transformer itself is represented by an ideal transformer and
the resistance and reactance are shown externally as shown in Fig. 4.15.
In Fig. 4.15, the effect of no-load circuit components are represented by a

resistance R0, through which IW flows and a reactance X0, through which Iµ
flows.
I
1
I
′
2 I2
V1 R1 X1 I0 R2 X2 IwIµ RL R0X0 E1 E2 V2
XL
Load
Ideal tranformer Figure 4.15 Equivalent circuit of a transformer.
As a second step in simplifying the equivalent circuit all the secondary
parameters can be transferred to equivalent primary parameters as follows:
R2 = R2; X2 = X2;K2 K2
RL; X = XL;R =
L L K2 K2
V2 ; I = I2K.V =
2 2 K
The equivalent circuit can now be redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.16.
4.6.1. Approximate equivalent circuit
The equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.16, can be simplified by noting that E1

differs fromV1 by a very small amount and that I1 ∼ I2 since I0 I2. Therefore,
the parallel combination=
of R0 and X0 can be shifted as shown in Fig. 4.17.
4.7. Performance of transformers

The two main parameters used for evaluation of the performance of the
transformer are efficiency and regulation.
I
1
R
1
X
1
I
′
′ R′2 X
2 2 I2
I0
R
′L
V
1
R
0
X
0
V
′2
X
′
L
Figure 4.16 Equivalent circuit, with secondary quantities transferred to
primary.
I
1
I
′ ′
′ R1 X1 R X R01 X012 2 2 I1 I′
2
I0 I0
R′L R′L R0 X0 V1 R0 X0V1
X
′ X′
LL
Figure 4.17 Approximate equivalent circuit.
4.7.1. Efficiency of transformer
The efficiency η = Output . Here, output refers to the output active power
supplied by theInput
transformer to the load (in Watts) and input refers to the active power drawn
from the supply (in Watts). In percentage we can say,
%η = Output 100 (4.28)Input ×

Input = Output + Losses. (4.29) The losses in the transformer are,
• Cu loss in primary and secondary winding. The total Cu loss = I2R1 + I2R2
=I
2
12
R01 = I2R02.1
The copper loss is proportional to (current)2 or (kVA)2. This means that at
half full load, the copper loss would be one fourth that at full load.
• The iron loss in the core of the transformer. It is also called core loss. The
core loss is made of the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. Hysteresis
loss,
Wh = PB1.6 f; P is a constant (4.30)max
(4.30) is the Steinmetz’s empirical relation to compute hysteresis loss.
2 f 2; Q is a constant (4.31)W = QB
e max
Because the core flux is practically a constant, the core losses remain
constant for all loads. These losses are minimized by using steel of high
silicon content for the core and using very thin laminations.
As discussed earlier, the no-load power input is equal to the core losses.
4.7.2. Regulation of a transformer
When the transformer is loaded, keeping the primary voltage a constant, the
secondary voltage decreases because of the voltage drop in the winding. Let
0V2, be the no-load secondary terminal voltage. The regulation is defined as
%R = 0V2 − V2 × 100 (4.32)

0V2
where V2 is the full-load, secondary terminal voltage. The change in the
voltage from no-load to full-load can be calculated as follows.
When there is no-load, the voltage drop in the primary winding is negligible,
since I0 is very small. Therefore,
V1 E1 and E2 = KE1 = KV1 Further, E2 =0V2, the secondary terminal no-
load voltage. We now draw the phasor diagram as shown in Fig. 4.18.
E
E 2 = 0V 2 φ2
A C Dφ V φ
2 2 2
I2 I2R02
B
I2X02
Figure 4.18 Approximate voltage drop (lagging p.f.).
0V2 I2X02
I2 φ2 V I R
2 2 02
Figure 4.19 Approximate voltage drop (leading p.f.).
The no-load terminal voltage = 0V2.
The approximate voltage drop can be taken to be AD = AC + CD = I2R02

cosφ2 + I2X02 sinφ2. In Fig. 4.18, the load current is assumed to be lagging
the terminal voltage. For a leading p.f., the figure is redrawn as shown in
Fig. 4.19.
The approximate voltage drop is given by

I2R02 cosφ2 − I2X02 sinφ2. In general the approximate voltage drop for a
transformer is given by
I2R02 cosφ2 ± I2X02 sinφ2 (4.33)
The % voltage drop, which is nothing but % regulation is given by
%R = I2R02 cosφ2 ± I2X02 sinφ2× 100 (4.34)
0V2
100× I2R02cosφ2 ± 100I2X02sinφ2= 0V2 0V2
= vr cosφ2 ± vx sinφ2 (4.35)
Here vr is the percentage resistive drop,
100× I2R02(4.36)vr =
0V2
and vx is the percentage reactive drop,
v
x
=
100× I2X02(4.37)
0V2
The regulation thus defined is called % regulation down (this is normally

used). If the voltage drop is taken as a percentage of full load voltage instead
of no-load voltage, it is called regulation up.
%Regulation (up) = 0V2 − V2 × 100 (4.38)V2

The value of the regulation should be low for a good transformer. A low
regulation, implies that the secondary voltage is a constant over varying load
conditions.
4.8. Transformer tests
The performance of the transformer, in terms of efficiency and regulation

can be pre determined by performing suitable tests. The two tests are (i) no-
load test (ii) short-circuit test. These tests, do not require direct loading of
the transformer and are economical and convenient.
4.8.1. Open-circuit test or no-load test

The purpose of this test is to determine the no-load or core losses and the no-
load current I0, which are used to find R0 and X0 of the equivalent circuit.
The circuit connection for this test is shown in Fig. 4.20.
In this test,
• One of the windings, usually the high voltage winding is left open.
• The other winding, usually the low voltage winding is connected to its
normal rated voltage.
• The wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter are connected as shown in the
figure. W0 I0 A
V1 V V V
2
LV HV Figure 4.20 No-load test.
• With rated voltage applied to the primary, normal flux will be set up in the
core, and we will have normal iron losses in the core, as indicated by the
wattmeter.
• The ammeter reads the no-load current I0.
• The voltmeters read the respective terminal voltages and the ratio of V2/V1
gives the turns ratio K.
The calculations are as follows:
core loss/iron loss) = W0 (4.39a)Wi(
cos W0 = V1I0 cosφ0 (4.39b) W0 (4.39c)φ0 =V1I0
Iµ = I0 sinφ0; X0 = V1 (4.39d)Iµ
V1 (4.39e)I = I cosφ ; R =
w 0 0 0 Iw
Example 4.14 The no-load test on a single phase transformer gave the
following results:
V1 = 220 V; V2 = 110 V; I0 = 0.5 A; W0 = 40 W. Find the turns ratio,
Iw,Iµ,Ro and X0 and the iron loss.
Solution:
N2 = 110 = 1(i) K =
N1 220 2
(ii) cos
φ
0
=
W0 = 40
220× 0.5 = 0.3636V1I0
sin φ0 = 0.9315
Iµ = I0 sinφ0 = 0.5× 0.9315 = 0.466 A I w = I0 sinφ0 = 0.5× 0.3636 =
0.181866 A
(iii) V1 =220 = 1210.12 R0 =Iw 0.1818

V1 =220 = 472.1X0 =
Iµ 0.466
(iv) Iron loss W0 = 40 W.
4.8.2. Short-circuit text
This test is used to compute the equivalent resistance and reactance as
referred to one of the windings and the full load copper loss. The test set up
is shown in Fig. 4.21 In this test,
• One of the windings, usually the low voltage winding is solidly short-
circuited.
Wsc
Isc A
V1 V Vsc
HV LV Figure 4.21 Short circuit test.
I1
R1 X1 R2′′2 V′ = 02 Short circuitV1 = Vsc
Figure 4.22 Equivalent circuit under short circuited secondary.
• A low voltage (around 5–10% of normal primary voltage) at rated
frequency is applied such that rated current flows through the primary
winding
• Since the voltage is only around 5 to 10% of the rated value, the mutual
fluxφ produced in the core is very small. Hence the core losses can be
neglected. The equivalent circuit under this condition is shown in Fig. 4.22.
• The output terminals being short circuited, there is no power supplied from
the secondary to any external load. Also, the core losses are negligible.
Hence, the input power drawn is equal to the full load copper loss of the
transformer.
LetWsc be the wattmeter reading,Isc be the ammeter reading andVsc be the

voltmeter reading , of Fig. 4.21. Then the calculations are as follows:
Full load copper loss = Wsc (4.40a) Wsc = I2R01 (4.40b)sc

Wsc (4.40c)R =
01 I2
sc
Vsc (4.40d)Z01 =Isc
X01 = Z2 − R2 (4.40e)01 01
It is to be noted that the applied voltage is consumed in the impedance drop
of the windings.
4.8.3. Predetermination of efficiency and regulation from OC and SC
test data
The test data can be used to predetermine the efficiency and regulation of the
transformer, without actually loading it. One way to calculate the efficiency
and regulation, under given load conditions, is to actually load the
transformer, measure the input power, output power and the voltages, to
calculate the efficiency and regulation by using,
% output 100 (4.41)η =Input ×
%R = 0V2 − V2 × 100 (4.42)
0V2
In predetermination, we do not load the transformer, but make a prediction
of the efficiency and regulation for different loads.
Let W0 andWscbe the wattmeter readings for the OC and SC tests

respectively. Similarly, let I0 and Isc be the ammeter readings of the OC and
SC tests respectively. Let x be the fraction of the full load output for which
%η and %R have to be calculated and cosφ be the power factor of the load
Now,
output =Rated kVA× x × cosφW
↓↓ ↓ (4.43) Full load percentage power factor

Iron losses (core losses) = W0 (4.44)
Copper loss is = x2Wsc (4.45) (Copper loss is proportional to square of the

current. Hence, when load current changes by a fraction x, the copper loss
changes by a factor x2)
From (4.43), (4.44), (4.45) we calculate %η as
% output × 100 (4.46)η = output + Iron loss + Cu loss
To calculate regulation we find R01 and X01 using (4.40a and 4.40c).
Z
01
=
Vsc
Isc
WscR01 =
I2
sc
X
01
=
Z
2 − R2
01 01
These values are transferred to the secondary side as R02 = K2R01; X02 =
K2X01
The voltage drop for a secondary currentI2 is given by R02I2 cosφ ± X02I2
sinφ
where I2 is x times the rated full load current. Then
% R02I2 cosφ ± X02I2 sinφ(4.47)R = 0V2
In (4.47) 0V2 is the rated secondary voltage and I2 = x × full load current.
4.8.4. Condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer
Full load Cu loss = I2R01 = WCu1
Iron loss = W0 = Wi
Primary input = V1I1 cosφ1
Output Input − losses= V1I1 cosφ1 − I2R01 − Wiη = Input = 1 Input V1I1 cosφ1
= 1− WiI1R01 − V I cosφ V cosφ
1 1 1 1 1
The current I1 changes with load, while V1 is normally maintained constant
at the rated value. Differentiating η, with respect to I1,weget
R01 Wi
dI1
dη=−
V1 cosφ1 +V1I2 cosφ11
The efficiency is maximum when dη = 0. Hence,dI1
Wi
V1 cosφ1
R01 = V1I2 cosφ1
1
2
or Wi = I R01 = Wcu.1
Therefore, the efficiency is maximum at the load where
Cu loss = Iron loss (4.48)
The output current corresponding to this is
I2 =Wi (4.49)R02
The load at which maximum efficiency occurs is
full load
×
Wi Wcu
The transformer being a static device, the efficiency is very high. The copper
loss is dependent on the current and the iron loss on the voltage. Hence, the
total loss depends on (VA) and not on the power factor. Therefore the rating
of the transformer is in kVA.
4.8.5. Separation of core losses

The total core loss is given by (4.30) and (4.31).
PB1.6 f 2 + QB2 f 2 (4.50)Wi =max max
If we find the iron loss (from no-load test) at two different frequencies but
with same flux density, then we can evaluate P and Q in (4.50) and
individually find eddy current and hysteresis losses.
Example 4.15 A 5 kVA, 220/1100 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer gave

the following test results:
OC test (LV side): 220 V; 0.9 A; 75 W SC test (HV side): 50 V; 4.545 A;
120 W
Calculate the parameters of the equivalent circuit referred to LV side.
Solution:
cos
φ
0
=
W0 = 75
220× 0.9 = 0.379 AI1I0
Iw = I0 cosφ0 = 0.9× 0.379 = 0.341 A I µ = I0 sinφ0 = 0.9× 0.925 = 0.833 A
V1 =220 = 645.2R0 =
Iw 0.341
V1 =220 = 264.1X0 =
Iµ 0.833
Z02 (since in SC test measurements are on HV side) Vsc =50 = 11Isc 4.545
R
02
=
Wsc = 100
(
4.545
)
2
= 5.81I2
sc
X02 = Z2 − R2 = 112 − 5.812 = 9.3402 02
R02 =5.81 = 0.2324R01 =
K2 1100 2
220
X02 9.34 0.3736 .X01 =
K2 =25 =
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.15.
R01 X01
0.2324Ω 0.3736Ω
220V 645.2Ω 264.1Ω Load (referred to primary)
Note that when we draw the equivalent circuit, all parameters must be
referred to the same side. Since, generally in the OC test and SC test we
make measurements on LV side and HV side respectively, ensure that the
equivalent values are transferred to the same side.
Example 4.16 A 25 kVA, 2200/220 V, 50 Hz transformer, has the following

test data: OC test (LV side): 220 V, 4 A, 150 W
SC test (HV side): 90 V, 10 A, 350 W
Determine
(i) The efficiency and regulation at full load, unify power factor.
(ii) The efficiency and regulation at half full-load, 0.8 p.f. lag
(iii) The efficiency and regulation at half full load, 0.8 p.f. lead.
Solution:
Full load current on HV side = 25,000 11.36 A.2,200 =
The SC test is conducted at 10 A. Therefore the full load Cu loss is given by
W
Cu
=
350
×
11.362
10 = 451.7 W Wi = 150 W
Wsc = 350 = 3.5R02 =I2 102sc
Vsc = 90 = 9Z02 =Isc 10
X02 = Z2 − R2 = 8.2902 02
(i) Efficiency and regulation at full load u.p.f. Output = x × kVA× p.f. = 1×
25× 1 = 25 kW = 25,000 W Wi = 150 W;
WCu = 451.7 W
% 25,000 = 97.65%η = 25,000+ 150+ 451.7
%R = R02I2 cosφ + X02I2 sinφ× 100

0V2
11.36(3.5× 1+ 8.29× 0) × 100= 1.8%= 2,200
(ii) The efficiency and regulation at half full load 0.8 p.f. lag.
Current at half full load = 11.36 = 5.68 A2
Output = 1 × 25× 0.8 = 10 kW = 10,000 W2
Wi = 150 W;
451.7 = 112.925 WW =
Cu 4
%
η
=
10,000
10,000+ 150+ 112.925 × 100 = 97.43% % 5.68(3.5× 0.8+ 8.29× 0.6)× 100 = 2.01%R
= 2,200
(iii) The efficiency and regulation at half full load 0.8 p.f. load.
The efficiency does not change if the p.f. is changed from 0.8 lag to 0.8 lead,
as the losses remain the same.
∴ %η = 97.43%
%R = R02I2 cosφ − X02I2 sinφ × 100 (for leading p.f.)0V2
5.68(3.5× 0.8− 8.29× 0.6)× 100=−0.561%= 2,200
Example 4.17 The test results on a 250/500 V transformer is given below:

OC test (LV side): 250 V, 1 A, 80 W
SC test (HV side): 20 V, 12 A, 100 W.
Determine the equivalent circuit referred to primary LV side. Also determine

the input voltage applied and the efficiency when the output is 10 A at 500
V, 0.8 p.f. lag.
Solution:
K = 500 = 2250
OC test data
cos80 = 0.32φ0 = W0 =250V1I0
Iw = I0 cosφ0 = 1× 0.32 = 0.32 A I µ = I0 sinφ0 = 1× 0.95 = 0.95 A V1 = 250 =
781.25R0 =Iw 0.32
V1 = 250 = 263.16X0 =
Iµ 0.95
SC test data 20 = 1.57Z02 = Vsc = 12Isc
Wsc = 100 = 0.694R02 =
I2 122sc
X 02 = Z2 − R2 = 1.51902 02
These are values referred to HV side we now refer them to LV side.
R02 = 0.694 = 0.174R01 =
K2 22
X02 = 1.519 = 0.38X01 =K2 22

The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.24
(ii) To calculate the applied input voltage we draw the phasor diagram by
using the equivalent circuit.
The output current is 10 A at 500 V, 0.8 p.f. log.

I2 = 10 A
I2 = KI2 = 2× 10 = 20 A

I
1
I
′2
R01 X01 0.174Ω 0.38Ω
250V
R
0
X
0
V
′
2
781.25Ω 263.16Ω
Figure 4.24 Equivalent circuit, example 4.17.
B
V
I X
′ 1 01 1
V1 I R V sinφ φ = cos-10.8
1 01 1 1 1
IAOC V1cosφ1 I1R01 Figure 4.25 Phasor diagram, Example 4.17.
In the figureV1 is the no-load primary voltage, of 250 V. As the secondary is
loaded,
• If primary voltage is kept constant, the secondary terminal voltage drops.
• If secondary terminal voltage drops, the primary voltage has to be

increased to keep it a constant. This increase must be equal to the drop in the
equivalent impedance referred to the primary. V1 is the increased voltage.
Referring to Fig. 4.25,
OB2 = OC2 + BC2 OB = V1 = (V1 cosφ1 + I1R01)2 + (V1 sinφ1 + I1X01)2

= (250× 0.8+ 20× 0.174)2 + (250× 0.6+ 20× 0.38)2 = 257.4 V
Output = V2I2 cosφ = 500× 10× 0.8 = 4000 W

Wi = 80 W; WCu = I2R02 = 102 × 0.694 = 69.4 W2
%
η
=
4000
4000+ 80+ 69.4 × 100 = 96.4%
Example 4.18 The test results on a 20 kVA, 2200/220 V 50 Hz transformer
is as follows:
OC test: 220 V, 4.2 A, 150 W (LV side)
SC test: 85 V, 11 A, 350 W (HV side)
Find the regulation at full load (i) 0.8 p.f. lag (ii) 0.8 p.f. lead (iii) u.p.f.
What is the p.f. on short-circuit?
Solution: The OC test data is not necessary to compute the regulation.
350 = 2.892(on HV side)R =
01 112
85 = 7.727Z01 =
11
2 2
X01 = Z − R = 7.16501 01
Full load current = 20,000 9.09 Aon HV side 2,200 =
%R(0.8 p.f. lag) = 9.09(2.892× 0.8+ 7.165× 0.6)× 100 = 2.73%2,200
% 9.09(2.892× 0.8− 7.165× 0.6)× 100=−0.82%R(0.8 p.f. lead) = 2,200
% 9.09(2.892× 1+ 7.165× 0)× 100 = 1.195%R(u.p.f.) = 2,200
p.f. on short circuit R01 = 2.892 = 0.374 lag. =Z01 7.727
Example 4.19 A 230/230 V, 3 kVA transformer gave the following results.
OC test: 230 V, 2 A, 90 W
SC test: 15 V, 13 A, 100 W
Determine the regulation and efficiency at full load 0.8 p.f. lag.
Solution:
Rated current = 3000 13 A.230 =
WCu(full load) = 100 W Wi = 90 W 3000× 0.8%η = 3000× 0.8+ 100+ 90 × 100
= 92.66% 15 = 1.154Z (from SC test) =
02 13
100 = 0.592R02 =
132
X02 = 1.1542 − 0.5922 = 0.99
% 13[0.592× 0.8+ 0.99× 0.6]× 100 = 6.03%.R = 230
Example 4.20 In a 25 kVA, 2200/220 V, single-phase transformer, the iron

loss is 350 W and full load copper loss is 400 W. Plot the curve of efficiency
vs. output for (i) upf (ii) 0.8 p.f. lag. Find the load kVA corresponding to
maximum efficiency.
Solution:
(i) u.p.f.
Let’s assume different fractions of full load and calculate efficiency.
1th 12
1
4 FL : Wi = 350 W; WCu = 4004 = 25 W; output = 25× 1000× = 6, 250 W.4
%
η
=
6,250
6,250+ 350+ 25 × 100 = 94.34%
1 12
2 FL : Wi = 350 W; WCu = 400×2 = 100 W;
output = 25× 1000× 1 = 12, 500 W2
%η = 12, 500 × 100 = 96.52%12, 500+ 350+ 100
3
th 3 2
FL : Wi = 350 W; WCu = 400×4 = 225 W;4
output = 25× 1000× 3 = 18, 750 W.4
%η = 18,750 = 97.02%18,750+ 350+ 225
FL : Wi = 350 W; WCu = 400 W; Output = 25, 000 W. %η = 97.08%

We repeat the calculations for a p.f. of 0.8 lag.
(ii) 0.8 p.f. lag
1 FL : W = 350 W; W = 25 W; output = 25, 000× 1 × 0.8 = 5000 W.
i Cu 44
%
η
=
5000
5000+ 350+ 25 = 93.02%
1 FL : W = 350 W; W = 100 W; Output = 18, 500× 0.8 = 10,000 W.
i Cu 2
10,000%η = 10,000+ 350+ 100 = 95.69% 3thFL : Wi = 350 W; WCu = 225 W;
Output = 18, 750× 0.8 = 15,000 W.4
15,000%η = 15,000+ 350+ 225 = 96.31%
Table 4.1 Output kW %η Output kW %η
6.25 94.34 5 97.02

12.5 96.52 10 95.69
18.75 97.02 15 96.37
23.38 97.09 18.7 96.39
25.0 97.08 20 96.38
FL : Wi = 350 W; WCu = 400 W; Output = 25, 000× 0.8 = 20, 000 W.

% 20,000 = 96.38%η =
20,000+ 350+ 400
The load at which maximum efficiency occurs is
FL kVAIron loss = 25350 = 23.38 kVAFL Cu loss 400
At upf, 23.38 kVA = 23.38 kW.
At 0.8 p.f., 23.38 kVA = 18.704 kW.
The maximum efficiency is computed for both cases. At maximum
efficiency, Wi = WCu.
Maximum efficiency at u.p.f. =23, 380 × 100 = 97.09%23, 380+ 350+ 350
Maximum efficiency at 0.8 p.f.18704 = 96.39%. =18704+ 350+ 350
The results are tabulated in Table 4.1.
The efficiency vs output is plotted in Fig. 4.26.
Example 4.21 IfW1 andW2 are the iron loss and full load copper loss of a
transformer, find their ratio if maximum efficiency occurs at 80% FL.
100%
p.f. = 1.0
%η p.f. = 0.8 95%
10 Output (Kw)20 Figure 4.26 Example 4.21.
Solution: At 0.8 FL, Copper loss = W2(0.8)2 since maximum efficiency

occurs here, iron loss is equal to copper loss.
W1 = W2(0.8)2 W1 = 0.64.W2
Example 4.22 A 230 V, 2.5 kVA transformer has an iron loss of 100 W at
40-Hz and 70 W at 30 Hz. Find the loss at 50 Hz.
Solution:
Wi = We + Wh (eddy currenty loss) We ∝ f 2 (hysteresis loss) Wh ∝ f
∴ Wi = Af + Bf 2
At 40 Hz
100 = A × 40+ B × 402
40A + 1600B = 100.
At 30 Hz
70 = A × 30+ B × 302
30A + 900B = 70.
Solving we get A
=
11and B = 1
6 60
Loss at 50 Hz = 11 50+ 1 × (50)2 = 133.33 W.6 × 60
Example 4.23 A 10 kVA, 2500/250 V, single phase transformer gave the
following test results.
OC test: 250 V, 0.8 A, 50 W SC test: 60 V, 3 A, 45 W.
Calculate (i) Efficiency at half FL, 0.8 p.f. lag
(ii) Load kVA at which maximum efficiency occurs and maximum efficiency
at 0.8 p.f. lag.
(iii) Regulation at 0.8 p.f. lag and 0.8 p.f. lead, FL.
Solution:
(i) Full load current = 10,000 4A.2,500 =
Full load copper loss
W
Cu
=
45
×
42
3 = 80 W
(This is because SC test has been conducted at 3 A). At half FL, 0.8 p.f. lag,
the efficiency is given by
%
η
=
10
×
1000
×
0.8
×
1
2 × 100 10
×
1000
×
0.8
×
1 + 50+ 80× 12
22
4000 × 100 = 98.28%.=
4000+ 50+ 20
(ii) Load kVA at which maximum η occurs
FL kVAWi = 1050 = 7.9 kVA.WCu 80
7.9× 1000× 0.8 × 100 = 98.44%ηmax(0.8 p.f.lag) = (7.9× 1000× 0.8) + 50+ 50
(iii)
R02 = 45 5 ; Z02 = 60 20 ;9 =3 = X02 = 202 − 52 = 19.36 .
% 4(5× 0.8+ 19.36× 0.6) × 100 = 2.5%R(0.8 p.f. lag) =2500
%R(0.8 p.f. lead) = 4(5× 0.8− 19.36× 0.6) × 100=−1.21%2500
Example 4.24 A50 kVA,1− φ transformer has an iron loss of 500 W and full
load copper loss of 900 W(i).
(i) Find the load at which maximum efficiency is achieved at u.p.f. (ii) At
what load will efficiency be 96.8% at u.p.f.
(iii) What is maximum efficiency at 0.9 p.f.?
Solution:
Load at which maximum efficiency occurs
=
FL kVA Wi WCu
= 50×500 = 37.26 kVA900
(i) At u.p.f., the efficiency at 37.26 kVA, is
%η = 37.26× 1000× 1 × 100 = 97.38%.37.26× 1000+ 500+ 500
(ii) Let x be the fraction of full load at which η = 96.8% at u.p.f.
50× 1000× x0.968 = 50× 1000× x + 500+ x2900. Solving, x = 0.3822 and x =
1.45.
Thus, we get an η of 96.8% at 38.22% and 145% of full load. (iii) Maximum
efficiency at 0.9 p.f. is obtained similar to (i).
37.26× 1000× 0.9%η = 37.26× 1000× 0.9+ 500+ 500 × 100 = 97.1%.
Example 4.25 A transformer has a percentage resistive drop of 1.8% and a
reactance drop of 5.4%. What is the power at which regulation is (i) zero (ii)
positive maximum.
Solution:
(i) %R = vr cosφ ± Vx sinφ Regulation can be zero only at leading pf.
0 = Vr cosφ − vx sinφ
0 = 1.8 cosφ − 5.4 sinφ
tan
φ
=
1.8 = 0.333 leading; φ = 18.44◦ 5.4
p.f. = cosφ = 0.949 lead
(ii) The maximum positive regulation occurs at lagging pf.
%R = Vr cosφ + vx sinφ
dR =−v sinφ + v cosφ = 0
x x dφ
tan
φ
=
5.4 = 3; φ = 71.56◦ 1.8
p.f. = cosφ = 0.316 lag
Example 4.26 A 600 kVA transformer, has an efficiency 92% at both full
load and half load u.p.f. Determine its efficiency at 75% full load at 0.8 pf
lag.
Solution: xkVA× cosφη = xkVA× cosφ + Wi + x2WCu At FL u.p.f., x = 1, 1×
600× 10.92 = 1× 600× 1+ Wi + WCu Wi + WCu = 52.174 kW (4.51)
At
1 FL u.p.f., x = 1
22
1 × 600× 1
0.92 = 2
1 × 600× 1+ W + (1)2WCu
i 22
1
Wi + WCu = 26.087 kW (4.52)4
Solving (4.51) and (4.52) we get, Wi = 17.39 kW; WCu = 34.78 kW.
η at 75% FL, 0.8 pf lag
3
% 4 × 600× 0.8 × 100η = 3 × 600× 0.8+ 17.39+ (3)2 × 34.78
44
= 90.69%
Example 4.27 A 200 kVA transformer has an efficiency of 98% at full load.
If the maximum efficiency occurs at 3 full load, find the iron and copper
losses. The p.f. of the load is 0.8.4
Solution: Full load output at 0.8 pf = 200 × 0.8 = 160 kW. Since η = 98%,
full load input = 160 = 163.265 kW.0.98
Losses = 163.26− 160 = 3.265 kW
Full load losses = Wi + WCu = 3.265 kW (4.53)
Maximum η occurs at 3 FL = 160× 3 = 120 kW.4 4
At this load the copper loss is equal to iron loss.
∴
32
4 WCu = Wi
9 WCu = Wi (4.54)16
Substituting (4.54) in (4.53), we get
9 WCu + WCu = 3.265 kW
16
or WCu = 2.896 kW Wi = 1.1754 kW
Example 4.28 A 25 kVA, single phase transformer, 2200/220 V, has a

primary resistance of 1.0 and secondary resistance of 0.01 . Find the
equivalent resistance referred to secondary. If the iron loss is 80% of the full
load copper loss, find FL efficiency at 0.8 pf.
Solution:
K
=
220 = 1
2200 10
2
R
1
=
0.01
+
1
×
1
2
R02 = R2 + K10 = 0.02
Full load current = 25× 1000 = 113.63 A220
Full load Cu loss = (113.63)2 × 0.02 = 258.23 W
Iron loss = 80% of 258.23 W = 206.59 W
% 25× 0.8 × 100 = 97.7%η = 25× 0.8+ 0.258+ 0.206
Example 4.29 A 10 kVA; 500/250 V, single-phase transformer gave

following test result:
The maximum efficiency occurs at 1.2 times full load, u.p.f. Find the
maximum efficiency.
Solution:
FL current
=
10× 103 500 = 20 A
Since SC test has been conducted at rated current, the full load Cu loss = 150
W. The maximum efficiency occurs at 1.2 times full load. The Cu loss at that
load= (1.2)2×150 = 216 W. since, at maximum efficiency iron loss= copper
loss, iron loss = 216 W.
3
Maximum efficiency
=
1.2× 10× 10
1.2× 10× 103 + 216+ 216 × 100 = 96.53%.
Example 4.30 A 20 kVA, 440/220 V, 1− φ, 50 Hz, transformer has an iron

loss of
324 W. The copper loss is 100 W at half full load. Determine efficiency at
full load
0.8 pf and load at which maximum efficiency occurs.
Solution:
Cu loss at 12 FL = 100 W
Cu loss at FL = 100× 4 = 400 W∴
Iron loss = 324. 20× 0.8 %η at 0.8 p.f., FL =20× 0.8+ 0.4+ 0.324 × 100 = 95.67%
Load at which maximum
η
occurs
=
20
×
324
400
= 18 kVA.
4.9. All-Day Efficiency

The commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as
Output in Wattsη = Input in Watts .
In distribution transformers, typically, the load keeps changing during the

day and the transformer also runs at no-load for a couple of hours in a day.
This means that the core loss occurs throughout the day, as the transformer is
energised and copper loss keeps varying. In such cases, the efficiency is
defined in terms of energy consumed.
Output in kWh(for 24 hours)ηall−day = Input in kWh

This is always less than the commercial efficiency. The load pattern during
the day has to be known to evaluate the all-day efficiency.
Example 4.31 Find the all-day efficiency of 500 kVA distribution

transformer whose copper loss and iron loss at full load are 4.5 kW and 3.5
kW respectively. During 24 hours, the load pattern is as follows:
No. of hours Load (kW) pf
6 400 0.8
10 300 0.75
4 100 0.8
40
• 400 kW at 0.8 pf = 400 = 500 kVA0.8

Cu loss at 500 kVA = 4.5 kW.
300 = 400 kVA• 300 kW at 0.75 pf =
0.75
Cu loss at 400 KVA
=
4.5
×
4002 500 = 2.88 kW
• 100 kW at 0.8 pf = 125 kVA
Cu loss at 125 kVA
=
4.5
×
1252
500 = 0.28 kW
Total Cu loss in 24 hrs = (4.5× 6) + (2.88× 10) + (0.281× 4) = 56.924 kWh

Total iron loss in 24 hrs = 3.5× 24 = 84 kWh.
Total output = (400× 6) + (300× 10) + (100× 4) = 5800 kWh
5800%ηall−day = 5800+ 56.924+ 84 × 100 = 97.6%. Example 4.32 A 100 kVA

transformer has a full load Cu loss of 1.6 kW and iron loss of 1.5 kW. It
operates on FL for 3 hours, half load for 4 hours and negligible load rest of
the time, during the day. Calculate all-day efficiency.
Solution:
Cu loss during day
=
1.6
×
3
+
1.6 × 12 2 × 4 = 6.4 kWh
Compare this with FL Iron loss = 1.5× 24 = 36 kWh
Output = 100× 3+ 50× 4 = 500 kWh
% 500 = 92.2%ηall−day = 500+ 36+ 6.4
100 = 97% η = 100+ 1.6+ 1.5
4.10. Auto transformer
It is a single winding transformer, with a part of the winding common to

both primary and secondary. The two windings are not electrically isolated
from each other. The principle of operation is same as a two winding
transformer. It is generally used, when transformation ratio is close to unity.
The auto transformer is shown in Fig. 4.27.
As compared to a two winding transformer, an auto transformer has higher

efficiency and smaller size for the same output.
The volume and hence weight of copper required depends on length and area
of cross section. The length of the winding depends on the number of turns
and the area of cross section on the current. In Fig. 4.27(a) Wt of Cu in
section AC isα(N1− N2)I1,WtofCu in section BC is ∝ N2(I2 − I1)
∴ Total weight of Cu ∝ (N1 − N2)I1 + N2(I2 − I1)

If it were a two winding transformer, Wt of Cu required∝ N1I1 + N2I2
∴ Wt of Cu in auto-transformer = (N1 − N2)I1 + N2(I2 − I1) = 1− KWt of Cu in 2 winding
transformer N1I1 + N2I2
I1 A I2
V1 C I2 I1 Load V2
Load V2 V1
(I2 −I1) (I1 −I2)
I1 B I2 I1 I2 (a) (b)
Figure 4.27 Auto transformer.
(using I2 = 1 andN2 = K)I1 K N1
∴ Wt of Cu in auto transformer = (1− K) Wt in 2 winding transformer
Saving = kWt(2 winding Transformer) The power transformed inductively is
(1− K) input and power transferred conductively is K × input. Auto
transformers are used when
• K is close to unity.
• As starters for induction motors to give a voltage of 50–60% rated voltage.
• As furnace transformer.
• Control transformer.
Questions
1 Briefly explain the working principle of a transformer.

2 Give the constructional details of the two main types of transformers.
3 Derive the e.m.f. equation of a transformer.
4 Prove that the flux through the core is almost a constant.
5 Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a transformer, on no-load.
6 Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance and reactance of the

transformer referred to a single winding.
7 What are core losses? How can they be minimized?

8 Explain the OC and SC tests conducted on the transformer.
9 Clearly explain how the equivalent circuit of the transformer can be

obtained from the test results.
10 Why does the transformer draw current even under no-load?
11 Justify the fact that the open circuit test wattmeter reading gives the iron
loss in the transformer and the SC test the full load copper loss.
12 What is regulation? Derive an expression for regulation of the
transformer.
13 Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of the transformer.

14 At what load does the maximum efficiency occur.
15 How would you separate the core loss components?
16 What is all-day efficiency? How is it different from commercial
efficiency?
17 Explain the phasor diagram of a transformer, when supplying a lagging
load.
18 Show that the regulation can be zero under leading pf loads.
20 What is a step-up transformer?
21 The primary of a transformer takes1Aatapfof 0.4, when connected to 200

V, 50 Hz, with secondary open.N1 = 2N2. If a load of 50 A at 0.8 pf lag is
connected, find the primary current drawn.
Ans 25.9 A.
22 A 400/200 V, 1 − φ transformer is supplying a load of 25 A at a pf of
0.866 lag on no load the current and power factor are 2 A and 0.208
respectively. Find primary current on load.
Ans 13.9 a, lagging V1 by 36.1◦.
23 A 30 kVA, 2400/120 V, 50 Hz transformer has a high voltage winding

resistance of 0.1 and a leakage reactance of 0.22 . The LV winding resistance
and reactance are 0.035 and 0.012 respectively. Find the equivalent
resistance and reactance referred to (i) HV side (ii) LV side.
Ans (i) 14.1 ; 5.02 ; (ii) 0.03525 ; 0.01255 .
24 A transformer is connected to 2200 V, 40 Hz supply. The core loss is 800

W, with 600 W due to hysteresis and 200 W due to eddy current losses.
What is the core loss if supply voltage is 3300 V, 60 Hz.
Ans 1350 W.
25 The following is the test results on a 25 kVA, 2200/220 V, 50 Hz
transformer:
OC test (LV side): 220 V, 4 A, 150 W

Determine the regulation at 0.8 p.f. lagging current and % η at full load and
half load at 0.8 p.f. lag.
Ans R = 4.045%; ηFL = 97.07%; η1FL = 97.44%.2
26 A 10 kVA, 400/200 V single phase 50 Hz transformer, has a maximum

efficiency of 92% at 80% FL, u.p.f. Determine the efficiency at full load 0.8
p.f. lag. Ans 90%.
27 In a 50 kVA, 11 KV/400 V transformer, the iron and copper losses are

500 W and 600 W respectively under full load. Calculate the %η at FL u.p.f.,
and the iron and copper losses at the load where maximum efficiency occurs.
Ans %η = 97.85%; Wi = WCu = 500 W.
28 A 50 kVA, 2200/110 V transformer when tested gave following results:

OC test (LV side): 400 W, 10 A, 110 V
SC test (HV side): 808 W, 20.5 A, 90 V.
Compute all parameters of equivalent circuit referred to HV side.
Ans R0 = 12.1 K; X0 = 4.72 K; R01 = 1.923 ; X01 = 4.39 .
CHAPTER - 5
Three phase induction motors
Learning objectives
AC motors
General principle of induction motor Construction: Squirrel cage and slip
ring
Rotating magnetic field
Torque expression
Torque - slip characteristics
Losses in induction motor
Calculation of efficiency
Methods of starting
519
5.1. Introduction
AC motors are becoming widespread in industrial drives in the recent past.

Broadly a.c. motors can be classified into synchronous motors and
asynchronous motors. Synchronous motors run at synchronous speed given
by Ns =120f , where f is the frequency of theP
supply voltage and P is the number of poles. Asynchronous motors run at
speeds lower than the synchronous speed. They are basically induction
motors and commutator motors. Various constructions are possible in these
motors.
Of all the motors, the three phase induction motor is extensively used. It
offers many advantages such as,
• Simple and rugged construction

• Low cost
• Reliable
• Reasonably good power factor and efficiency
• Does not need additional starting motor
• Minimum maintenance.
The main disadvantages are
• Speed cannot be varied widely

• Speed decreases with increase in load
• Starting torque is lower than d.c. shunt motor.
In the following sections we study the three phase induction motor in detail.
5.2. Construction
The three phase induction motor essentially consists of (a) rotor (b) stator.
The stator is made up of a number of stampings, slotted to house the

windings. The stator has a three phase winding fed from a three phase
supply. It is wound for a definite number of poles. The rotors are of two
types: squirrel cage and wound rotor.
5.2.1. Squirrel - Cage rotor
This rotor has the simplest construction and is the most rugged. The
construction is shown in Fig. 5.1.
Rotor Skewed shaft
rotor slots End-ring
Ball bearings
Figure 5.1 Squirrel cage rotor.
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots to carry
rotor conductors. The rotor slots are given a slight skew. The skew has the
following effects.
• It helps the motor run quietly
• Helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the
rotor teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct attraction between
the two.
• Increases rotor resistance

• Increases slip for a given torque
• Increases impedance at a given slip.
The rotor conductors are heavy bars of copper, aluminium or alloys. One bar
is placed in each slot. The bars are brazed/welded/bolted to two short-
circuiting end-rings. The rotor bars are permanently short circuited on
themselves. Hence, no external resistance can be added to them.
5.2.2. Wound rotor or phase-wound rotor
The rotor is also called a slip-ring rotor. The rotor consists of 3-phase double
layer distributed winding. It is wound for same number of poles as the stator.
The three phase windings are connected internally in a star. The other three
terminals are brought out and connected to three insulated slip-rings
mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. These brushes are
externally connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. Thus additional
resistance can be connected in the rotor as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Stator
Slip rings
Rotor
Starting resistance
Figure 5.2 Slip ring induction motor.
The three phase stator winding, supplied with three phase voltage, produces
a rotating magnetic field.
5.3. Production of rotating magnetic field
Consider three-phase windings displaced in space by 120◦ and supplied by

three-phase voltages displaced in time by 120◦. These voltages produce
currents in the stator windings which produce time varying flux. The three
fluxes are described as follows
1 =m sinwt
2 =m sin(wt − 120◦)
◦
3 =m sin(wt + 120 ) (5.1)
[Remember1 −2 −3 are produced in three windings displaced in space by

120◦]. We now consider different points to evaluate the total flux.
2
120°
1
120° φ2 φ3 60° 3
(a) (b)φr
Figure 5.3 (a) Axis of three phase windings. (b) Fluxes whenωt = 0◦.
(i) wt = 0◦. Substituting in (5.1)
√
3
m; 3 =2 m.1 = 0; 2=−
√3
2
The three vectors are plotted as in Fig. 5.3.
In Fig. 5.3(a) the positive axis of the three fluxes is shown. In Fig. 5.3(b) we
plot the fluxes. If a flux is negative, it is plotted in a direction opposite to the
positive axis. The total fluxr is given by
√3 cos 60◦ 3 .r = 2× 2 m 2 = 2 m
(ii) ωt = 60◦ substituting in (5.1)
√
3
m; 2=−2 m; 3 = 0.1 =
√3
2
These fluxes are plotted in Fig. 5.4.
√3 cos 60◦ 3
.r = 2× 2 m 2 = 2 m
Comparing with the case whenωt = 0◦, the resultant flux is the same. But has
rotated by 60◦.
(iii) ωt = 120◦
√
3
m; 2 = 0; 3=−2 m.1 =
√3
2
φ1
φr φ2
Figure 5.4 Fluxes whenwt = 60◦.
φr φ2
φ1
The fluxes are plotted in Fig. 5.5.
√3 cos 60◦ 3
.r = 2× 2 m 2 = 2 m
(iv)
wt
=
180
◦√3
1 = 0; 2 =
√3 ; 3=−
m 2 m2
√3 cos 60◦ 3 = 2×
r 2 m 2 =2 m
It can be observed from Fig. 5.3 to 5.6 that the resultant flux remains
constant and is equal to 3 m. It rotates in space in the clockwise direction.
Thus, the three-phase stator windings2
supplied with three-phase balanced voltage produces a flux with the
following properties:
• The resultant flux is constant and 1.5 times the maximum value of the flux
due to any phase
√ 3φm √ 3 φm 22
• The resultant flux rotates around the stator in the air gap, at synchronous
speed given by NS = 120f .P
If the phase sequence is reversed, the direction of rotation of the flux is
reversed.
5.4. Principle of operation
When the stator windings are fed by the three phase supply, a rotating
magnetic flux is set up. The flux passes through the air-gap, and cuts the
rotor conductors which are still stationary. An e.m.f is induced by induction
in the rotor conductors, because of the relative speed between the rotating
flux and the rotor conductors. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is same as
the supply frequency and its magnitude is proportional to the relative
velocity between the flux and the conductors. Since the rotor bars are short
circuited in cage motors and are closed in slip-ring motors, rotor current is
produced. The direction of the current is such as to oppose the cause,
according to Lenz’s law. The cause here is the relative speed between the
flux and the conductors. The rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the
rotating flux, thus reducing the relative speed between them.
The rotor never catches up with the rotating flux. If it did so, the relative
speed which is the cause for the rotation would become zero. Hence, the
induced e.m.f and current in the rotor would become zero momentarily. The
flux continues to rotate, giving a relative speed again. Thus, the rotor always
runs at a speed less than the flux which is rotating at the synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speedNs and the actual speedN is
called the slip. It can be measured in r.p.m. More often it is expressed as %
slip defined as
% slip s = Ns − N × 100 (5.2)Ns
Note that the rotating flux (also called revolving field) is rotating at
synchronous speed with respect to stator and at slip speed (NS − N) with
respect to rotor.
5.5. Frequency of rotor current
The frequency depends on the relative speed between the flux and the rotor.
When the rotor is stationary the frequency of the rotor current is same as the
supply frequency. When the rotor starts rotating, the frequency f of rotor
currents is given by
f = sf
Example 5.1 Obtain the synchronous speed for different number of poles.
Solution: The synchronous speed is given by
120f.Ns = P
f = 50 Hz in India. So we can calculate the synchronous speed for different
number of poles.
No. of poles NS rpm
2 3000
4 1500
8 750
12 500
16 375
20 300
Remember that the rotor always runs close to the synchronous speed, but
always less than that.
Example 5.2 A slip ring induction motor runs at 285 r.p.m when connected
to a 50 Hz supply. How many poles does it have? What is the slip?
Solution: Since the rotor speed is close to synchronous speed, we pick the
speed Ns, close to it (refer Example 5.1). Ns = 300 r.p.m. corresponding to P
= 20.
%s = 300− 285 × 100 = 5%300
Example 5.3
Example 5.3 induction motor has 2 slots/pole/phase. If supply is 50 Hz

calculate (i) number of poles (ii) total stator slots (iii) speed of the rotating
flux.
Solution:
(i) Number of poles = 2× slots/pole/phase = 2× 2 = 4
(ii) Total number of slots = slots/pole/phase× number of poles× number of
phases = 2× 4× 3 = 24
(iii) Speed of rotating flux = Ns = 120f = 120× 50 = 1500 r.p.m.P 4
Example 5.4 A 4-pole, A 4-pole, induction motor operates from a 50 Hz
supply. Calculate
(i) Speed of the rotating flux

(ii) Speed of rotor when slip is 0.05
(iii) Rotor current frequency at a slip of 0.05
(iv) Frequency of rotor current at standstill (rest)
Solution:
(i) Field revolves at synchronous speed,Ns = 120f = 120× 50 = 1500 r.p.mP 4
(ii) Ns − N= 0.05Ns
1500− N = 0.05; N = 1425 r.p.m.
1500
(iii) f = sf = 0.05× 50 = 2.5 Hz
(iv) At standstill N = 0 and s = 1. f = 50 Hz.
Example 5.5Example 5.5 induction motor runs at 1740 r.p.m. What is the
frequency of rotor currents if supply frequency is 60 Hz?
Solution: 120× 60 = 1800 r.p.m.N =
s 4
%s= 1800− 1740 × 100 = 3.33%1800
f = sf = 0.033× 60 =2Hz
Example 5.6 A 12 pole alternator driven at 500 r.p.m supplies power to an
8-pole A 12 pole alternator driven at 500 r.p.m supplies power to an 8-pole .
IM whose slip is 2.5%. Calculate the speed of induction motor.
Solution:
Alternator
Induction motor
12 pole 8 pole, 500 r.p.m. 2.5% slip N = ?

The frequency of the voltage generated by the alternator is got from,
500 = 120× f ⇒ f = 50 Hz.12
This is the supply frequency to the induction motor. The synchronus speed
of the induction motor
Ns = 120× 50 = 750 r.p.m.8
0.025
=
750− N
750
N = 731.25 r.p.m.
5.6. Torque developed
The torque developed by the rotor of the induction motor is given by
T ∝ I2 cos 2 = KI2 cos 2. (5.3)
where I2 = rotor current at standstill, cos2 = rotor power factor and K = a
constant. If the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill isE2, then
∝ E2 and
T = K E2I2 cos 2 (5.4)
As2, the angle between the rotor induced e.m.f and rotor current increases,
cos2 decreases and hence torque is reduced.
5.6.1. Starting torque
The torque developed by the rotor at starting is called the starting torque.
Let
rotor induced e.m.f/phase at standstill E2 =
I2 = rotor current/phase at standstill
X2 = rotor reactance/phase at standstill
(Note that since rotor frequency f = sf, is a function of slip the reactance is
not a constant)
Z2 = rotor impedance/phase at standstill
=
R
2 + X2
22
E2 =E2 ;I2 =
Z2 R2 + X2
22
R2 = R2cos 2 = Z2 R2 + X2
22
Standstill torque or starting torque
Tst = K1E2I2 cos 2
E2× R2= K1E2R2(5.5)= K1E2 2
2
+
X
2
R
2
+
X
2
R
2 + X2
R2 2 2 22 2
3
3E
22
R
22
The constant K1 =2πns, ns is synchronous speed in r.p.s.∴ Tst =2πns R2 + X2.
22
If supply voltage is a constant, the flux and hence E2 is a constant.
Therefore,
R2 Tst = K2R2 + X2 (5.6)
22
Thus, the starting torque depends on the rotor resistance and standstill
reactance.
The resistance of a cage motor is small compared to its reactance. Hence, the
power factor is low. Therefore the starting torque of a cage motor is small.
Hence, such motors cannot be used where the motor has to start against a
heavy load.
Slip-ring motors on the other hand have a facility to insert an external

resistance. Hence the power factor can be improved by adding external
resistance as shown in Fig. 5.2. The external resistance is gradually cut out
as the motor picks up speed.
5.6.2. Condition for maximum starting torque

We differentiate (5.6) to obtain the condition for maximum starting torque as
follows:
dT
st
=
K
2
R2 22 + X2 − R2(2R2)= 0dR2 (R2 + X2)2 2
Or
R
2 + X2 = 2R2
222
Or R2 = X2 (5.7)
Thus the starting torque is maximum when the rotor resistance is equal to the
standstill rotor reactance.
5.6.3. Torque under running conditions
When the rotor starts running, the relative speed decreases. Therefore, the
induced e.m.f. in the rotor also decreases. Let
Er = rotor e.m.f./phase under running conditions.
Ir = rotor current / phase under running conditions.
Er = sE2 (5.8) Xr = sX2; (5.9)
Due to decrease in the rotor current frequency by a factor s, the reactance is

decreased. Similarly, since the induced e.m.f. in the rotor is proportional to
the relative speed, it is also decreased by a factor of s.
Tr ∝ ErIrCos2r (5.10)
Now Ir =Z (5.11) Er =sE2
2 + (sX2)2r R
2
Cos2r =X (5.12) R2 =R2
2 + (sX2)2r R
2
Substituting (5.11) and (5.12) in (5.10) we get
Tr = K1sE22R2 (5.13)R2 + (sX2)2
2
The constant
K
1 =2πn
3 where
s s is synchronous speed in r.p.s. n

5.6.4. Condition for maximum torque under running conditions From
(5.13) we set
A
=
1
=
KR
2 + (sX2)2
2
T SE22R2
R
2 sX2
=
K
22
sE22 + E22R2
2 X2dA = K−R2 +2
E22R2s2E22= 0ds
R
2
=
X
2
2 ⇒ R2 = s2X2 or R2 = sX2.
s2E22 E22R2 2 2
Hence, under running conditions the torque is maximum at the slip where
R2 = sX2 (5.14)
Since, sX2 is the rotor reactance per phase under running condition, the
maximum torque is obtained at that value of slip which makes the rotor
reactance per phase equal to the rotor resistance per phase.
Substituting R2 = sX2 in (5.13) we get the maximum torque as

K R2E22R2 KE22 X2
(5.15)Tmax = = 2R2 + R2 × X
2 2X
22 X2
From (5.15) we can see that

• The maximum torque is independent of the rotor resistance.
• The speed at which maximum torque occurs is determined by the rotor

resistance [i.e. R2 = sX2]. Therefore by varying the rotor resistance it is
possible to vary the speed at which maximum torque occurs. This is possible
only in slip ring motors.
• The maximum torque varies as square of the applied voltage.

• The maximum torque is inversely proportional to the rotor standstill
reactance. Hence, it must be kept as low as possible.
• To obtain maximum torque at starting, the rotor resistance must be equal to
rotor standstill reactance.
5.6.5. Break down Torque
The maximum torque is also called the breakdown torque,Tb. The slip at
which it occurs is called the breakdown or pull-out slip sb. The torque at any
slip s is given by
2T = Tb (sb/s) + (s/sb)(5.16)
5.6.6. Full load torque
The full load torque is given by
sfR2Tf ∝ R2 + (sfX2)2 (5.17)
2
where sf is the slip at full load torque.
1 Tmax ∝2X2 (from 5.15) (5.18)
Dividing (5.17) by (5.18)
Tf = 2sfa
a2 + s2 (5.19)Tmax f
where a = R2 .X2 To generalize, the operating torque at any slips is given by,
Torque at slip s = 2as
a2 + s2 (5.20)Maximum torque
In particular at starting s = 1.
∴
Tst = 2a
1+ a2 (5.21)Tmax
Example 5.7
Example 5.7 star connected rotor has an induced e.m.f. of 75 volts at

standstill. The rotor resistance = 1 and reactance = 3.5 . Calculate the
current/phase and power factor, when (i) rotor is short-circuited (ii) the slip
rings are connected to an external resistance of 2.8 per phase.
Solution:
E
2
=
75 = 43.3 V Since its star connected phase voltage = line voltage √ √ (i) R2 = 1
3 3
; X2 = 3.5
Z2 = √12 + 3.52 = 3.64
Rotor current/phase = 43.3 = 11.89 A3.64
P .f = R2 =1 = 0.274Z2 3.64
(ii) R2 = 1+ 2.8 = 3.8
X
2
= 3.5
= √3.82 + 3.52 = 5.166 .Z2
Rotor current/phase =43.3 = 8.38 A5.166
p.f =3.8 = 0.736.5.166

Example 5.8 A 415 V, 50 Hz delta-connected induction motor has a star-
connected slip-ring rotor. The phase transformation ratio is 3.5. The rotor
resistance is 0.012 and standstill leakage reactance is 0.25 per phase.
Determine
(i) Rotor current at start when slip-rings are shorted.

(ii) Rotor p.f when slip rings are shorted ands = 1.
(iii) Rotor current and p.f at 4% slip with slip-rings shorted.
(iv) The external resistance per phase required to obtain a starting current of
50A in
stator supply lines.

Solution: The stator is delta connected.
∴ phase voltage is equal to line voltage.
Transformation ratio is 3.5.
∴ rotor voltage = 415 = 118.57 V.3.5
(i) = √0.0122 + 0.252 = 0.2503 Z2
Rotor current at start = 118.57 = 473.71 A0.2503
(ii) p.f = R2 =0.012 = 0.048 lag.Z2 0.2503
(iii) s = 0.04; Xr = sX2 = 0.04× 0.25 = 0.01

Zr = √0.0122 + 0.012 = 0.0156
Er = sE2 = 0.04× 118.57 = 4.743 V
4.743 = 304.038I2 =0.0156

p.f =0.012 = 0.77 lag.0.0156
(iv) when supply current is 50A, rotor current = 50×3.5 = 175 A (like in a
transformer I2 = I1). E2 = 118.57 V.K
∴ Z2 = 118.57 = 0.678 .175

X2 = 0.25 (since it is starting current we take standstill reactance). R2 =
√0.6782 − 0.252 = 0.63 .
Extra resistance = 0.63− 0.012 = 0.618 .
Example 5.9 A three phase slip ring induction motor has a star connected
rotor with an induced e.m.f. of 100 Volts between slip rings at standstill
when normal voltage is applied to the stator. The rotor winding resistance
per phase is 0.3 and standstill leakage reactance pe phase is 1.5 . Calculate
(i) rotor current/phase when running at a slip of 5% (ii) the slip and rotor
current/phase when maximum torque is developed.
Solution: E2/phase = 100 = 57.735 V53

(i) Er = sE2 = 0.05× 57.735 = 2.89 V Xr = sX2 = 0.05× 1.5 = 0.075 Zr =
√0.32 + 0.0752 = 0.309 Rotor current/phase =2.89 = 9.35A0.309
(ii) when maximum torque is developed

R2 = sX2.
R2 = 0.3 = 0.2s =X2 1.5
Xr = 0.2× 1.5 = 0.3
0.32 + 0.32 = 0.42Zr =

Er = sE2 = 0.2× 57.735 = 11.547 V
11.547 = 27.49 A.I =
2 0.42
Example 5.10 Calculate the torque exerted by a 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase

induction motor operating at 3% slip, which develops a maximum torque of
150 kg-m at a speed of 1440 r.p.m.
Solution:
Sb (break sown slip) = 1500− 1440 = 0.041500
From (5.16)
2 = 150 2 T = Tb sb + s 0.04 + 0.03 s sb 0.03 0.04 = 144 N− m.
Example 5.11 A 3-phase 400/200 V, Y-Y connected induction motor has a

rotor resistance of 0.06 and reactance of 0.3 standstill per phase. What
additional resistance must be added to make starting torque equal to the
maximum torque.
Solution:Tst = 2a
1+ a2; Tst = TmaxTmax
2a 1 =1+ a2 ⇒ a = 1.
a
=
R
2
R
;1
=
2
X2 0.3;
External resistance per phase = 0.3−0.06 = 0.24 (subtract the rotor
resistance/phase).
Example 5.12 A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 8 pole induction motor has a full load slip
of 2%. The rotor resistance per phase is 0.01 and reactance per phase at
standstill is 0.05 . Find ratio of maximum to full-load torque and speed at
which maximum torque occurs.
Solution:
Ns = 120× 50 = 750 r.p.m.8
sb = R2 = 0.01 = 0.2. (Slip for maximum torque)X2 0.05
Corresponding speed = (1− 0.2) × 750
= 600 r.p.m.
R2 = 0.2; sf = 2% = 0.02a =
X2
Tf = 2sfa
a2 + s2 = 2× 0.02× 0.2= 0.198Tmax f 0.22 + 0.022
Tmax = 5.05.
Tf
Example 5.13 A 12-pole, 3-phase, 600-V, 50 Hz, star-connected, induction

motor has rotor-resistance and stand-still reactance of 0.025 and 0.6 per
phase respectively. Calculate (i) speed at which maximum torque occurs (ii)
ratio of full-load torque to maximum torque, if the full load speed is 490
r.p.m.
Solution:
Ns = 120× 50 = 500 r.p.m.12
R2 = 0.025 ; X2 = 0.6 ;
R2 = 0.025 = 0.0416a =
X2 0.6
(i) Slip at which maximum torque torque occurs is whenR2 = smX2 or
sm = R2 = 0.0416.X2
Corresponding speed = 500(1− 0.0416) = 479.2 r.p.m (ii) Full load speed =
490 r.p.m.
sf = 500− 490= 0.02.500
Full-load torque = 2
a
2
+
s
2
=
2× 0.0416× 0.02asf
Maximum torquef 0.04162 + 0.022 = 0.781.
Example 5.14 A 1000 HP, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 16-pole induction motor has a
rotor resistance of (0.02+ j0.15) at standstill. Full-load torque is obtained at
360 r.p.m. Calculate (i) the speed at which maximum torque occurs (ii) ratio
of maximum torque to full-load torque (iii) rotor resistance to be added to
get maximum starting torque.
Solution:
Ns = 120× 50 = 375 r.p.m.16
NFL = 360 r.p.m.
375− 360= 0.04sf = 375
R2 = 0.02 = 0.1333a =
X2 0.15
(i) The slip at maximum torque = a = 0.1333
Nm = Ns(1− s) = 375(1− 0.1333) = 325 r.p.m.
(ii)
Tf = 2asf
a2 + s2 = 2× (0.1333) × 0.04 = 0.55Tmax f (0.1333)2 + (0.04)2
or Tmax =1 = 1.82.Tf 0.55
The maximum torque is 1.82 times the full load torque.

(iii) For maximum starting torque R2 = X2.
Present resistance is 0.02 . Reactance is 0.15 . Extra resistance needed is

0.15− 0.02 = 0.13 .
Example 5.15 A 4 pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor
resistance and reactance of 0.02 and 0.1 per phase respectively. What is the
additional rotor resistance per phase required to give three-fourth of the
maximum torque at starting.
Solution:
Tst =2
1
+
a
2
=
3a
Tmax 4
3a2 − 8a + 3 = 0 ⇒ a = 0.45 and 2.214.
We reject 2.214 since the ratio is too large to be practical.
∴ a = 0.45 = R2 + r [r is additional resistance]X2
R2 + r = 0.45× 0.1 = 0.045.
Addition resistance = 0.045− 0.02 = 0.025 per phase.
Example 5.16 An 8-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase slip ring induction motor has
effective rotor resistance of 0.075 /phase. Stalling speed is 648 r.p.m. How
much resistance must be inserted to obtain maximum torque at starting.
Solution:
Ns = 120× 50 = 750 r.p.m.8
Starting speed corresponds to the maximum torque.
sm = 750− 648= 0.136.750
Now under maximum torque conditionsm = R2 .X2
0.136 = 0.075 ⇒ X2 = 0.551X2
To obtain maximum torque at starting, the resistance/phase=
reactance/phase.∴additional rotor resistance needed = 0.551− 0.075 = 0.476 .
Example 5.17 A three phase induction rotor having a 6-pole star-connected

stator winding, runs on 240 V, 50 Hz supply. The rotor resistance and
standstill reactance are 0.1 and 0.8 /phase respectively. The ratio of stator
turns to rotor turns is 2.0. Full load slip is 4%. Calculate the full load torque,
maximum torque and speed at maximum torque.
Solution: The turns ratio gives the induced e.m.f in rotor [similar to
transformer]
Turns ratio
=
rotor turns/phase = 1
stator turns/phase 1.8
1∴ E2 = E1 ×
1.8
240 E2 =240 = 77 V; s = 0.04E1 = √3; √
1.8 3
120× 50 = 1000 r.p.m.N =
s 6
1000= 50r.p.s.ns = 60 3
3 sE22R2Tf = 2πns R2 + (sX2)2
2
= 0.04× 772 × 0.13 × (0.1)2 + (0.04× 0.8)22π(50/3)
= 61.63 N-m
For maximum torque the slip
sm(or sb) = R2 = 0.1 = 0.125X2 0.8
Tmax = 0.125× 772 × 0.13 × (0.1)2 + (0.125× 0.8)22π(50/3)
= 106.158 N-m.
We can also find Tmax as
3
E
22
3
77
2
Tmax =2πns 2X2 =2π(50/3) 2× 0.8 = 106.158 N-m.
Speed corresponding to maximum torque is
Nm = 1000(1− 0.125) = 875 r.p.m.
5.7. Torque-slip characteristics (or Torque-Speed
Characteristics)
We have seen KsE2R2T = R2 + (sX2)22
when s =0(N = Ns), the torque is zero.
At speeds close to synchronous speed,s is small. Hence,sX2 is small
compared toR2 and can be neglected.
∴ T ∝ s or T ∝ s(if R2 is a constant)R2
So for low slips, the torque-slip curve is a straight line. As the slip increases
(with decreasing speed) the torque also increases and reaches a maximum at
a slip where R2 = sX2. This torque is the pull-out torque, stalling torque or
breakdown torque. When slip further increases, then R2 becomes negligible
compared tosX2. Hence for large slips,
T ∝s ∝ 1.(sX2)2 s
6R
Torque 3R N − MR
1.0 0.5 0 Slip
0 50% 100% Speed as % of Ns Figure 5.7 Torque-slip characteristics.
This gives a rectangular hyperbola. Thus, if the load torque increases beyond
the maximum torque of the induction motor, the motor stalls. Hence the
name stalling torque. The torque-slip characteristics is shown in Fig. 5.7.
It can be seen that the value of the maximum torque does not depend onR2.
However, the slip at which the maximum torque occurs depends on the value
ofR2.
Since T ∝ sE22 andE2 ∝ V (the supply voltage) the torque at any speed is
proportional to the square of the applied voltage. The change in the supply
voltage affects the starting torque and the running torque. When the voltage
falls the torque also falls. To maintain the same torque, the speed decreases
and slip increases.
If V changes to V , slip s to s and torque T to T then

T= sV 2 2T s V
5.8. Power stages in an induction motor The various power stages are
shown in Fig. 5.8. We can also depict it as shown in Fig. 5.9.
Motor input in stator Stator Cu
Rotor loss and inputcore loss
Rotor Mechanical copper power in rotor loss gross torpue Tg Friction and
windage
loss
Rotor output
Figure 5.8 Power stages in Induction motor.
Motor input (P1)
Stator copper and iron losses Rotor input (P2)
Rotor Cu loss Mechanical power
developed (Pm) or
Gross torque (Tg)
Friction and windage losses Rotor output (Pout)
Figure 5.9 Alternative representation of power stages.
The iron losses in the stator (or core losses) are practically constant. They
constitute the eddy current and hysteresis losses, which depend on the supply
frequency and the flux density. The rotor iron loss is negligible because the
rotor current frequency is very small (sf) under running conditions.
The gross torque is due to the mechanical power,Pm developed in rotor. It is

given by
Pm Tg =2πN/60 (in terms of Pm) (5.22) or
T
g
=
P2
2πNs/60 (in terms of rotor input) (5.23)
(N—actual speed; Ns—synchronous speed). The shaft torque is given by
Pout
Tsh =2πN/60 (5.24)
The difference between Tg and Tsh is due to the friction and windage losses.
5.8.1. Relationship between various power stages
Stator input P1 = Stator output+ stator losses

The rotor input P2 = stator output.
Rotor gross output or the mechanical power developedPm = P2−rotor copper
losses. This power gives rise to the gross torque.
Pm = 2πNTg Watts.60
If copper losses in rotor were absent then the mechanical power developed is
equal to the rotor input and rotor would run at synchronous speed.
∴ P2 = 2πNsTg Watts.60
P2 is nothing but power across the air gap.
Rotor copper loss
=
P
m
−
P
2
=
T
g
×
2π(Ns − N)
60
Rotor copper loss= Ns − N= slipRotor input Ns

∴ Rotor copper loss = s × rotor input
Rotor gross output = Rotor input− rotor copper loss (5.25) = P2 − P2s =
P2(1− s)
∴ Pm = P2(1− s) (5.26) Rotor gross output,Pm = 1− s = N(5.27)Rotor input,P2 Ns
Pm is nothing but efficiency.
P2
N
∴ rotor efficiency = (5.28)Ns
Thus if a power P2 is delivered to the rotor across the air gap,sP2 is lost as
copper loss and (1− s)P2 appears as gross output. Therefore, it is necessary
to maintain the slip as low as possible. The useful torque is the gross torque
minus the friction and windage losses.
Example 5.18 The power input to the rotor of a 440 V, 50 Hz, 6 pole, 3-
phase induction motor is 100 KW. The rotor e.m.f alternates at 100 cycles
per minute. Calculate the slip, the rotor speed and the rotor copper loss per
phase.
Solution:
Rotor frequencyf = 100cycles per minute
100 1.667 Hz.=
60 =
f = sf
1.667 = s × 60 ⇒ s = 0.033 or3.3% Rotor speed N = (1− s)Ns = (1− 0.033) ×
1000 = 966.67 r.p.m.
s × rotor inputRotor copper loss/phase =
3
0.033× 100= 1.1 kW.= 3
Example 5.19
Example 5.19 , 50 Hz, 4-pole, Y connected induction motor has a full load
speed of 1430 r.p.m. The rotor impedence is 0.4 + j4.0 per phase. The
rotor/stator turn ratio is 0.8. Calculate (i) Full load torque (ii) rotor current
(iii) full load rotor copper loss (iv) power output if friction and windage loss
is 450 W (v) maximum torque and speed at which it occurs (vi) starting
current (vii) starting torque
Solution:
Ns = 120× 50 = 1500 r.p.m4
1500 = 25 r.p.sn =
s 60
1500− 1430= 0.0467s = 1500
415 = 239.6 V; E = 0.8× 239.6 = 191.68 VE =
2 1 √3
(i) 3 sE22R2Tf = 2πns R2 + (sX2)22
3 × 0.0467× 191.682 × 0.4= 2π × 25 0.42 + (0.0467× 4)2
= 67.25 N-m.
(ii) Ir = 2 + (sX2)2 = 0.0467× 191.68sE2 √0.42 + 0.18682R2
20.27 A.=
(iii) Total rotor copper loss = 3I2R2r
= 3× 20.272 × 0.4 = 493 W (iv)
P
m
=
2πNT= 2π × 1430× 67.25 60 60
= 10, 070.64 W.
(v)
At maximum torque sb = R2 = 0.4 0.1X2 4 =
3 sbE22R2Tmax = 2πns R2 + (sbX2)22
3 × 0.1× 191.682 × 0.4= 2π × 25 0.42 + (0.1× 4)2
= 87.71 N-m.
Speed at maximum torque = (1− sb)Ns = (1− 0.1) × 1500 = 1350 r.p.m.
(vi)
Starting current =E2 = √191.68 2 + X2 0.42 + 42R2 2
47.68 A.=
(vii)
At starting s = 1.
∴
T
st
=
3
2
π
×
25
×
191.682 × 0.4 0.42 + 42
= 17.37 N-m.
It can be seen that the starting torque is 25.8% of full load torque and the
maximum torque is 130.42% the full load torque.
5.8.2. Synchronous watt
Synchronous watt is the torque which would develop a power of 1 Watt, at
synchronous speed.
2πNs Rotor input = Tsw 60
∴ Tsw = P2 × 60 (synchronous Watts)2πNs
Example 5.20 A 25 HP, 4 pole induction motor has an efficiency of 90%

and speed of 1440 r.p.m at full load. If mechanical losses are 25% of total
losses calculate the synchronous Watt.
Solution:
Motor output = 25× 746 = 18.65 KW
Motor input 18.65 = 20.722 KW =0.9
Total losses = 20.722− 18.65 = 2.072 KW 25% Mechanical loss = 0.25×
2.072
= 0.518 KW = 518 W. Pm, Rotor mechanical power developed =
output+mechanical losses= 18.65+0.518 = 19.168 KW
Tsw = 19, 168× 60= 122 N-m.2 1500
Example 5.21 The power input to a 415 V, 50 HZ, 4 pole, 3-phase induction
motor running at 1460 r.p.m. is 25 KW. The stator copper losses are 750 W
and the mechanical losses amount to 1000 W. Calculate (i) slip (ii) rotor
copper loss (iii) shaft torque (iv) efficiency.
Solution:
(i)
Ns = 1500 r.p.m.
1500− 1460 = 0.0266 or 2.66%s =
1500
(ii)
Motor input, P1 = 25 KW.
Stator copper loss = 750 W
Rotor input = P2 = P1 − Pscu = 25000− 750 = 24250 W = 24.25 KW Rotor
copper loss = sP2 = 0.0266× 24.25 = 0.645 KW
(iii)
Pm = P2 − rotor cu loss = 24.25− 0.645 = 23.605 KW
Pout = Pm − mechanical losses

= 23.605− 1 = 22.605 KW
Tsh × 2πNPout = 60
22605× 60 = 147.85 N-M.Tsh =2π × 1460

(iv)
% η = 22.605 × 100 = 90.42%25

Example 5.22Example 5.22 , 50-Hz,15 kW induction motor drives a
constant torque load at rated frequency, rated voltage and rated kW output
and has a speed of 970 r.p.m. and an efficiency of 92%. Calculate (i) the new
operating speed if there is a drop of 10% in voltage and 5% drop in
frequency (ii) the new output power. Assume losses are constant.
Solution:
V2 = 0.9× 230 = 207 V (reduction of 10 %) f2 = 0.95× 50 = 47.5 Hz
(reduction of 5%)
120× 50 = 1000 r.p.m.N =
s1 6
120× 47.5 = 950 r.p.mNs2 =6
1000− 970= 0.03;s1 = 1000
Since load torque remains constant,
sv2
f remains constant. S1V12= S2V22 f1 f2
s
2
=
s
1
V12 f2
V2 f1
230 2 47.5 = 0.0351= 0.03
207 50
N2 = (1− s2)Ns2 = 950(1− 0.0351) = 916.65 r.p.m.
P = 2πNT ; since torque is constant,60
P1 = N1; P1 = 15KW; N1 = 970 r.p.m;
P2 N2
N2 = 916.65 r.p.m.
N2 = 15× 916.65P2 = P1 ×
N1 970 = 14.175 KW.
Example 5.23 A 400-V, 60 Hz, 4 pole, 3-phase induction motor runs at a
speed of 1750 r.p.m when connected to 400-V. What is the speed if voltage
increases to 475 V.
Solution:
Ns = 120× 60 = 1800 r.p.m4
1800− 1750= 0.0278.s1 = 1800
s
1
=
V
1
2 4002 = 475s V
2 2
s
2
=
0.0278
×
4002
475 = 0.0392.
N2 = (1− s)Ns = (1− 0.0392)1800 = 1729.4 r.p.m.
Example 5.24 A 150 HP, 3300-V, 50 Hz, 3-phase star connected induction
motor has a synchronous speed of 500 r.p.m. The full load slip is 2% and full
load p.f is 0.85. Stator copper loss = 2.5 KW; stator iron loss = 3.5 KW and
rotational loss = 1.2 KW. calculate (i) rotor copper loss (ii) Line current (iii)
Full-load efficiency. Draw the power flow diagram.
Solution:
Motor output = 150 H.P = 150× 746 = 111.9 KW1000
Mechanical power developed in rotor, Pm = output + rotational losses =
111.9+ 1.2 = 113.1 KW.
(i) s 0.02 Rotor copper loss = Pm ×1− s =1− 0.02 × 113.1 = 2.31 KW
(ii)
P2, Rotor input = Pm + rotor copper loss = 113.1+ 2.31 = 115.41 KW Stator
input = P2 + stator copper loss+ Iron loss = 115.41+ 2.5+ 3.5 = 121.41 KW.
Input current121410 = 24.99 A = √3× 3300× 0.85
(iii)
%η =111.9 × 100 = 92.16%121.41
The power flow diagram can be depicted as follows.
Stator Rotor input input 121.41 kW 115.41 Mechanical power developed, Pm
113.1 kW
Output 111.9 kW
Stator copper loss + iron loss 2.5 + 3.5 = 6 kW Rotor copper loss 2.31 kW
Mechanical losses 1.2 kW
Example 5.25 An 18 KW, 4 pole 50 Hz, 3 phase induction motor has

friction and windage loss of 2.5% of output. The full load slip is 4.2%.
Compute the full load (a) rotor copper loss (b) rotor input (c) shaft torque (d)
gross torque.
Solution:
Motor output Pout = 18 KW

Mechanical power Pm = Pout + friction and windage losses = 18+ (0.025×
18)
= 18.45 KW
(a) s 0.042 rotor copper loss = Pm1− s =1− 0.042 × 18.45 = 0.809 KW
(b)
rotor input = Pm + rotor loss = 18.45+ 0.809 = 19.259 KW
(c)
Ns = 1500 r.p.m; s = 0.042
N = (1− 0.042)1500 = 1437 r.p.m.
Pout = 9.55× 1800 = 119.62 N-mT = 9.55
sh N 1437
(d)
Gross torque = 9.55Pm 9.55× 18450 = 122.61 N-mN =1437
5.9. Starting of induction motors
Just like a d.c. motor, if full rated voltage is applied across the induction
motor stator, a large inrush current flows. This starting current is around 5-7
times the rated current. However, the starting torque is only about 1.5 to 2.5
times the full-load torque. The large starting current causes a drop in the line
voltage which is undesirable. Also the very high starting current may
damage the station windings. Therefore it is not advisable to start large
motors (above 25 KW) directly. Different starting methods are discussed
below.
5.9.1. Direct-on-Line [DOL] starting

Let us see the relationship between starting torque and starting current with
respect to the full load quantities.
We know rotor input = 2πNT = KT60

Rotor copper loss = s × rotor input = sKT Rotor copper loss = 3I22R2 = sKT
I22∴ T ∝s
Now the rotor current, I2α stator current, I1
T
∝
I
2
1
s
At starting s = 1; ∴ Tst = KIst2 (5.29) KI
2
Similarly
T
f
=
f
sf (5.30)
Where If is the full load current and sf is the full load slip. Dividing (5.29) by
(5.30) we get
T
st
=
I
st
2
sf
Suppose Tf If
Ist = 7 and slip s = 0.04, then
f If
Tst = 72 × 0.04 = 1.96.
Tf
V
xV
3-f
supply
Switch
Primary resistors
Stator
Rotor
Figure 5.10 Primary resistor starting.
Thus we can see that while the starting current is 7 times the full load
current, the starting torque is only 1.96 times. Hence, DOL starting is not
preferred except in case of small motors.
5.9.2. Stator rheostat starter or primary resistor starter
The connection for connecting resistors is shown in Fig. 5.10. In this method
variable resistors are connected to the stator coils as shown in Fig. 5.10, such
that the value of the resistance is maximum at starting and slowly reduced
while the motor picks up its full speed.
Reduced voltage is applied to the stator because of the drops in the resistors.
If Isc is the starting current with full voltage and Ist is the starting current
with reduced voltage and the voltage applied is xV, then Ist = xIsc Tst = x2Tsc
Tst= x2 Isc2
T
f
I
s
ff
This method is suitable only for small machines. The advantages are
• High power factor during start because of the resistors.

• smooth acceleration
• Less expensive than auto transformer starter
Disadvantages are
• Heat dissipated in the resistors increases with the rating of the motor.
• Power wasted in resistors.
• Low torque efficiency.
5.9.3. Auto transformer starter

The auto transformer starter is shown in Fig. 5.11.
In this method a reduced voltage is obtained by taking tappings from a three

phase auto transformer. They have 50%, 60% and 80% tappings so that the
voltage can be adjusted to get the required starting torque. The switches
shown may be air-break or air-immersed (for large motors).
Suppose the motor is started with an auto transformer having a

transformation ratio K.If Isc is the starting current with normal voltage and
applied voltage is KV, then the starting current Ist is given by
Ist = KIsc (5.31)

Isc is also the short circuit current.
3−φ
supply Auto-transformer
Start
Run
Stator
Rotor
Figure 5.11 Auto transformer starter.
This is the motor input current. The autotransformer primary winding

current which is nothing but the supply current is given by supply current =
KIst. This ratio of the staring torque with reduced voltage to the full load
torque is given by
22
Tst =Ist s = K2 Isc s (5.32)
f f Tf If If
Advantages of autotransformer starter
• Voltage is reduced by transformation and therefore current and power
drawn from supply mains is also reduced in comparison to resistor starting.
• Adjustment of starting voltage by selection of proper tap on the auto

transformer.
• Availability of the highest torque per ampere of supply current.
• Suitable for long starting duration.
• Can be used to start star or delta connected motors.
Disadvantages
• Low power factor
• Higher cost for low rating motors.
5.9.4. Star-delta starter
In this method the stator windings are connected in star at starting and in
delta while running. The applied voltage is reduced by a factor of
1
√ when connected in star. The current is reduced by
1 and the torque by 1 3
√3 3. The connections are shown in Fig. 5.12.
Tst= 1 Isc2
T
f
3
I
s
ff
Here, Isc and If represent the phase currents.
The star-delta starter is equivalent to an autotransformer starter with a ratio
of
1
√ .3
The above three methods can be used for either squirrel cage or slip ring
motors. However, since additional resistance can be included in the rotor of
the slip ring motors we have rotor rheostat starting for these motors.
5.9.5. Rotor rheostat control

These motors are started with full applied voltage. The control resistor is
connected in a star as shown in Fig. 5.13.
The resistance is introduced during starting and then gradually cut off. The
additional resistance enables to develop a high starting torque with
reasonable starting current. Hence, these motors can be started on load.
Example 5.26 The short circuit current of a small 3-phase induction motor is
3 times the full-load current. Determine the starting torque as a percentage of
full-load torque if full-load slip is 3%.
3-f supplyIst
V3V
Stator
I
st
/Phase = I
st
/Line = V Stator√ 3 ZRun √ 3 Isc
Rotor V Z Z StartIsc
Z
Isc/Phase = ZV
I
sc
/Line =
√
3 V Z Figure 5.12 Star-delta starter.
Solution: The short circuit current is nothing but the starting current, since
its the current drawn when rotor is at rest.
∴ Isc = sIf; sf = 0.03.
2
Starting torque
T
st = Tf
IscsfIf
2
=
T
f
3If 0.03 = 0.27T
fIf
Starting torque is 27% of full-load torque.
Start Run
Figure 5.13 Rotor rheostat starter.
Example 5.27 A three phase, squirrel cage induction motor has a short-
circuit current equal to 4 times the full load current. Find the starting torque
as a percentage of full load torque if the motor is started by
(i) direct switching to supply

(ii) star-delta starter (iii) auto-transformer
In (iii) the stator current is limited to twice the full load current and full load
slip is 2.8%
Solution: Isc = 4If; s = 0.028 (i) Direct switching.
T
st
=
Isc2
2
If fTf = (4) × 0.028× Tf = 0.448Tf = 44.8% of Tf.s
(ii) Star-delta starter
T
st
=
1
I
2
sc sfTf = 0.149Tf or 14.9% of Tf.3 If
(iii) Auto-transformer
K2Isc = 2If K
=
21
I
If =2If = √
2sc 4If
21 2
Tst = K2 Isc sfTf = √2 (4)2 × 0.03 TfIf
= 0.224 Tf or 22.4% of Tf
Example 5.28 Find the percentage tapping required on an auto-transformer

required to start a squirrel cage induction motor against 1 full-load torque.
The short circuit4
current is 4 times the full-load current and full load slip is 3%.
Solution:
T
st
1
= 4; Isc = 4If; sf = 0.03Tf
T
st
=
k
2
I
2
sc sfT I
f f
1 = K2×[4]2 × 0.03 ⇒ K = 0.722.
4
The % tap is 72.2%.
Example 5.29
Example 5.29 , 50 HZ, 6-pole cage motor takes 6 times full load current at
standstill and develops 1.75 times the full load running torque. If the full
load current is 28 A,
(i) What voltage must be applied to produce full-load torque at starting. (ii)
What current does this voltage produce?
(iii) If autotransformer starter is used what is the line current?
(iv) What is the starting torque if starting line current is limited to full load
current?
Solution:
(i) T ∝ V 2
1.75 Tf ∝ 4152 (first case)

Tf ∝ V 2 (starting torque is equal to full load torque)
1.75
T
f
=
415
2
⇒ V = 313.71 V.Tf V 2
(ii) The current is proportional to voltage.
(iii)
(iv) 6If ∝ 415 (first case) I ∝ 313.71
6× 313.71 × 28 = 130 A.I =415

313.71= 0.756 K = 415
Line current = K2Isc = 0.7562 × 6× 28 = 96 A 120× 50 = 1000 r.p.m Ns =6

1000− 950= 0.05sf = 1000
Given that line current is full load current.

28 = K2Isc = K2 × 6× 28 1
K = √6
Tst = K2 Isc 2 1(6)2 × 0.05
Tf I s
f f =6
= 0.3
The starting torque is 30% of full load torque. Example 5.30 The full-load
efficiency and power factor of 12 KW, 440 V, 3-phase induction motor are
85% and 0.8 log respectively. The blocked rotor line current is 45 A at 220
V. Calculate the ratio of starting to full-load current, if the motor is provided
with a star-delta starter. Neglect the magnetising current.
Solution: Short circuit current with full voltage is

Isc = 45× 440 = 90 A220
Full load Input = 12 KW = 14.12 KW. √
0.85
3× 440× If × 0.85 = 14, 120 If = 23.1 A.
In star delta starter,
Ist = Isc = 90 = 52 A√3 √3
5.2 = 2.256I I =
st f 23.1
Example 5.31
Example 5.31 50 Hz, 400 V, connected induction motor runs at

960 r.p.m. on full-load. It takes 86.4 A on direct starting. The full load
efficiency is
88% and p.f. is 0.85. Find ratio of starting torque to full-load torque with a
star-delta starter.
Solution:
Isc/phase = 86.4 49.88 A√3 =
1 28.8 A.Ist phase = √ × Isc phase =
/ 3 /
Full load input = 15× 746 = 12, 716 W.
√
0.88
3× 400× IL × 0.85 = 12, 716
IL = 21.59 A (This is line current on full load)
Full load 21.59 = 12.46 A. IL/Phase = √3
1000− 950= 0.05= 1000
T
st
=
I
st
2 28.82
sf =12.46 × 0.05 = 0.267Tf If
Tst = 26.7% of full load torque.
5.10. Equivalent circuit of induction motor
The energy transfer from stator to rotor in an induction motor takes place
entirely inductively through the magnetic flux linking the two. Essentially
therefore it is like a transformer. On no-load, the motor draws a current I0. I0
is made up of two components (i) the working or iron loss component Iw,
which supplies the no-load motor losses and (ii) the magnetizing
componentIµ which sets up magnetic flux in the core and the air gap.
On load the primary currentI1 consists of two componentsI0 andI2. We can

write the following equations:
Rotor input/phase = E1I2cosφ
Total rotor input = 3E1I2cosφ
Loss in rotor = 3I2R2 = 3I2Ercosφ2
I
2
=
KI
2
⇒
I
2
=
I2
K
Er = sE2 and E2 = KE1 ∴ Er = KsE1

∴ Loss in rotor = 3×I2 (KsE1)cosφK
= (3E1I2 cosφ) × s = s × rotor input
R
1
X
1
I
1
I
′ ′
′R X
222
+
I
0
I
′
2 = KI2
R2I I R′ =
w µ K2 V1 R
2
X0 E2 = E1
0
R′ X2L X′ 2 = K2
R′ = R′ 1 − 1L 2 s −
Figure 5.14
Rotor output = rotor input− rotor loss
= (1− s) rotor input
rotor efficiency rotor output 1− s = N (5.33) =rotor input = Ns
When motor is loaded the rotor current
sE2 =E2 (5.34)I2 = 2 + (sX2)2 R22 2R
2 s + X2
We can view the rotor circuit as being connected to a source Er = sE2,
consisting of a fixed resistance R2 and variable reactance sX2 or as being
connected to a source E2, consisting of a variable resistance R2 and a
reactanceX2.Now R2 can be split as follows:s s
R2 1 1 R2 (5.35) = R2 + −
s s
1 The componentR2 s − 1 is called the load resistance. It is the electrical
equivalent of the mechanical load on the rotor. The equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig. 5.14. If K = 1, E2 = E1, the equivalent circuit becomes as
shown in figure Fig. 5.15.
R1 X1 I1 I′ R2 X22
I0
Iw Iµ X0 RL = R2 1 − 1R0 s
Figure 5.15
5.11. Tests on induction motor
The no-load and blocked-rotor tests can give the values of the elements of
the equivalent circuit.
5.11.1. No-load test
In this test, the motor is run on no load at rated voltage. The currentI0 drawn
on no-load, the voltage, V, and the power drawn, W0 are measured. Now
Y
0
=
I0
V0
Here V0 is the voltage. If star windings are used in stator, the measured
voltage should be divided by √3. The reading of the watermeter W0, gives
losses on no-load, since the output is zero. These losses are
• Stator copper loss on no load, 3I2R,0

•
Stator core loss
=
3
G
0
V
2
0
• Loss due to friction and windage loss.
The core loss and mechanical losses together are called fixed losses. In no-
load test we can separate out the stator copper losses and mechanical losses
from W0 to get the core loss. Then core loss
=
3
G
0
V
20
B
0
=
Y
2 − G2
00
R
0
and
X
0
are found from
Z
0
=
1
G
0
−
jB
0
. The real part ofZ0 isR0 and the imaginary part of Z0 is X0.
5.11.2. Blocked rotor test
This test is also called locked rotor test or short-circuit test. The rotor is
locked (not allowed to move) and voltage is applied till rated currents flow
through the stator windings. The power drawn under this condition is also
measured. If the voltage, current and power are respectively Vsc, Isc and
Wsc,weget
Z
01
=
Vsc
Isc
WscR01 =
3I2
sc
X
01
=
Z
0
1
2
−R
2 01
Here R01, X01 and Z01 are quantities referred to stator.
R2 = R01 − R1 and X2 = X01 − X1 where R1 and X1 are stator resistance
and reactance respectively.
Example 5.32Example 5.32φ induction motor are,
V0 = 110 V(Line-Line) I0 = 10 A
W0 = 450Watts.
The stator resistance/phase is 0.05 ; friction and windage losses are 135 W
and the motor is star connected. Calculate R0 and X0.
Solution:
Stator copper loss = 3I2R1 = 3× 102 × 0.05 = 15 W0
110 = 63.5 VV0 = √
3
3G0V 2 = 3000
300 G0 =(63.5)2 × 3 = 0.0248
Y0 =10 = 0.15763.5
B0 = 0.1572 − 0.02482 0.155=
1 1Z0 = 0.0248− j0.155 = 0.157− 81◦ = 1+ j6.29 R0 = 1

X0 = 6.29 .
Example 5.33
Example 5.33 , star connected induction motor takes 25 A at a line voltage

of 30 V with blocked rotor. The power input is 420 W, and core loss is 30 W
at this voltage. The d.c. resistance between a pair of stator terminals is 0.1 .
The ratio of a.c to d.c resistance is 1.6. Find the equivalent leakage
reactance/phase of the motor and the stator and rotor resistance per phase.
Solution:
Vs = 30 = 17.3 V.√3
Is = 25 A
17.3 0.692Z01 = =
25
stator and copper losses = 420− 30 = 390 W 3× 252 × R01 = 390. ∴ R01 =
0.208 .
R01 is equivalent resistance of motor referred to the stator.
Leakage reactance/phaseX01 = 0.6922 − 0.2082 = 0.66 .
Stator resistance is measured between two terminals.
A
r
BC
The resistance ‘r’ between two terminals will include the resistance of two
phases in series. Therefore resistance of stator/phase = 0.1 0.05 .2 =
a.c resistance = 0.05× 1.6 = 0.08
Hence, effective resistance of rotor reflected to stator is 0.208− 0.08 = 0.128
.
Questions
1. Explain the constructional features of the slip ring and squirrel cage
induction motors.
2. Clearly explain how the rotating magnetic field is produced.
3. Briefly explain the principle of operation of the induction motor.
4. Define slip.
5. Obtain the expression for the torque developed by the induction motor.
6. An 8-pole induction motor, fed from a 50 Hz supply runs at 735 r.p.m.

What are the magnitudes of (i) synchronous speed (ii) slip speed (iii) per unit
slip (iv) percentage slip.
Ans: [750 r.p.m; 15 r.p.m; 0.02; 27.]

7. A 6-pole 50 Hz slip ring induction motor runs with a speed of 970 r.p.m.
Calculate the percentage slip and frequency of rotor currents. [3%; 1.5 Hz]
8. An 8-pole altenator runs at 750 r.p.m and supplies a 6 pole induction

motor running at a slip of 3%. What is the speed of the induction motor and
the frequency of the rotor induced e.m.f? [970 r.p.m; 1.5 Hz]
rotor induced e.m.f? [970 r.p.m; 1.5 Hz]
induction motor are 0.024 and 0.12 respectively. Find the speed at maximum
torque. Also find the additional rotor resistance per phase required to
develop 80% of maximum torque at starting. [1200 r.p.m; 0.036 ] 10. Obtain
the condition for (i) maximum torque during start (ii) maximum torque
under running conditions.
11. Draw the torque-slip characteristics of a three-phase induction motor.

12. Clearly explain the effect of supply voltage and supply frequency on
torque and speed.
13. A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a slip-ring rotor with a
resistance of 0.04 and standstill reactance of 0.2 per phase. Find the amount
of resistance to be inserted in each rotor phase to obtain full-load torque at
starting? What is the power factor in the rotor at starting? Slip at full load is
3% [0.084 ; 0.516 p.f]
; 0.516 p.f]
inductor motor has a rotor resistance per phase of 0.1 and standstill reactance
per phase of 0.4 . The rotor induced e.m.f per phase is 100 V when
stationary. Calculate the rotor current and rotor power factor (a) when
stationary (b) when running with a slip of 5%.
15. A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a voltage between slip-

rings on opencircuit of 520 V. The star connected rotor has a standstill
reactance and resistance of 20 and 0.4 per phase respectively. Determine:
(a) The full load torque if full-load speed is 1,425 r.p.m.

(b) ratio of starting torque to full-load torque
(c) Additional rotor resistance required to give maximum torque at standstill

[200 N-m; 0.82; 1.6 ]
16. A 6-pole, 3 phase induction motor has a rotor resistance and reactance of
0.02 and 0.1 respectively per phase. At what speed would it develop
maximum torque? Find out the value of resistance necessary to give half of
maximum torque at starting. [800 r.p.m; 0.007 ]
17. Show that the rotor efficiency is given by N.Ns

18. Define synchronous watt.
19. Draw a neat diagram to show the power stages in a three phase induction
motor. 20. Obtain the equivalent circuit of an induction motor.
21. The power input to the rotor of a 440-V, 50-Hz, 3-phase, 6-pole
induction motor is 60 kW. It is observed that the rotor e.m.f. makes 90 cycles
per minute. Calculate (a) slip (b) rotor speed (c) rotor copper loss per phase
(d) mechanical power developed (e) rotor resistance per phase if rotor
current is 60 A. [0.03; 970r.p.m; 600W; 58.2 kW; 0.167 ]
22. A 500 V, 50 Hz, 3 phase induction motor develops 14.92 kW inclusive of

mechanical losses when running at 995 r.p.m, with 0.87 p.f. Calculate slip;
rotor copper loss; total input if stator losses are 1,500 W; line current;
number of cycles per minute of the rotor e.m.f. [0.005; 75W; 16.5 kW; 22 A.
CHAPTER - 6
Alternators
Learning objectives
Principle of operation
Armature windings
Winding factor
Induced e.m.f.
Alternator on load
Synchronous reactance
Vector diagram of loaded alternator OC and SC tests
Voltage regulation by synchronous impedance method
Synchronization of alternator
573
Stator frame Stator core

Cage winding End rings
Spider Cage bars
Exciter
Brushes Slots StatorRotor
Rings Stator terminals Figure 6.1 Alternator construction.
6.1. Introduction
Alternators are a.c. generators. They are also called synchronous generators.
They run at a constant speed called the synchronous speed. They operate on
the same fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction as the d.c.
generators (remember the e.m.f. induced in the armature of a d.c. generator
is a.c?). In a d.c. generator the armature rotates and the field is stationary. In
an alternator the field rotates and the armature is stationary. The field is
called the rotor and the armature is called the stator. The stator has three
phase windings which produce balanced three phase voltages.
6.2. Construction
The constructional details are shown in Fig. 6.1.
6.2.1. Stator frame
The stator consists of a cast-iron frame, which supports the armature core. It
is used for holding the armature stampings and windings in position.
Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame itself.
Wide-open Semi-closed Closed Figure 6.2 Stator slots.

6.2.2. Stator core
The core is supported by the stator frame and is built up of laminations of

special magnetic iron or steel alloy. The core is laminated to minimise loss
due to eddy currents. The laminations are insulated from each other and have
spaces between them for following the cooling air to pass through. The slots
for housing the armature conductors lie along the inner periphery of the core.
The slots are of different shapes as shown in Fig. 6.2.
6.2.3. Salient pole rotor

Alternators have two types of rotors:
• Salient pole rotor

• Non-salient pole rotor
The salient pole rotor is also called the projecting type pole. It is used in low
and medium speed alternators. It has a number of projecting (salient) poles,
having their cores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy magnetic wheel
generally of cast iron as shown in Fig. 6.3.
Such rotors have short axial length and large diameter. The poles and the
pole-shoes are laminated to minimize heating due to eddy currents.
6.2.4. Non-salient pole or smooth cylindrical rotor
Non salient pole rotors are used in high speed turbo alternators which are
driven by steamturbines. The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel
cylinder, having a number of slots milled out at intervals as shown in Fig.
6.4.
N Field winding Projected pole
SS
Bolt MechanicalShaftsupport
N
Figure 6.3 Salient pole rotor.

Non-salient Polar area Pole
N Slots
D.C. supply
S
Field windings (a) (b)
Figure 6.4 Non salient pole rotor.
They are designed for 2 pole or 4 pole turbo-generators, running at 3600

r.p.m. or 1800 r.p.m. respectively. The polar regions are left unslotted. The
field coils are placed in the slots and are so arranged that the flux density is
maximum on the polar central line and gradually falls away on either side.
The poles do not project out from surface of rotor. Hence, they are called
non-salient poles. Such rotors are characterised by small diameters and long
axial length. This construction gives better balance and lesser windage
losses.
6.2.5. Damper windings
These are copper bars which are short-circuited at both ends by heavy
copper rings located on the pole-shoes. They are useful in preventing
hunting; which is speed fluctuations, in alternators and provide starting
torque in synchronous motors. Turbo-generators usually do not have damper
windings because the solid field poles act as dampers. Under normal running
conditions, damper windings do not carry any current because the rotor runs
at running conditions, damper windings do not carry any current because the
rotor runs at φ voltage under unbalanced conditions.
6.2.6. Armature windings
D.C. machines have closed windings, but alternator windings are open,
which means that no closed path exists for the armature currents in the
winding it self. Generally, alternators are connected in star. One end of each
phase winding is joined to the neutral point and the other end brought out.
There are two popular types of windings used for three phase alternators:
• Single layer winding

• Double layer winding
With respect to windings we define the following terms.
Pole pitch: It is defined as the distance between two adjacent poles,

expressed as the number of armature conductors/pole or slots per pole. For
example, if we have 12 slots, then the pole pitch for a 4-pole alternator is 3
slots/pole.
Coil span: The distance between two sides of a coil is the coil-spam.
Full pitch: If the coil spam is equal to the pole-pitch, then the winding is
said to have full-pitch. This means if, one side of the coil is under the center
of a N-pole, then the other side of the same coil should be under the center
of S-pole, which is 180◦ electrical apart. When the coil-span is full-pitched,
the e.m.f’s induced in the two sides of the coil are added together.
Pitch-factor or chording-factor
Consider a 4-pole alternator with 24 slots. The pole-pitch is 24 /4 = 6

slots/pole. Therefore, a coil whose first coil side is in slot number 1, will
have the second coil side in slot number (1+ 6) 7. This is shown in Fig. 6.5.
NS
24 12 34 5 67 8 …
Pole pitch
Figure 6.5 Pitch-factor.
If the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 6, then it is said to be fractional-
pitched or short-pitched coil. The coil span is now 5 of pole pitch. It falls
short by 1 pole pitch or
180
◦
66
= 30◦ electrical. Short pitch windings are used for the following reasons:6
• Save copper of end connections.

• To reduce harmonics in generated e.m.f.
• Reduce eddy current and hysteresis losses.
The total voltage induced in the coil is reduced, because the voltages
induced in the two coil sides are out of phase and their vectorial sum is less
than their arithmetic sum. The pitch-factor or chording factor (Kp or Kc) is
defined as
Vector sum of induced e.m.f. in coil sides per coil (6.1)Kp = Arithmetic sum of induced
e.m.f. in coil sides per coil
It is always less than 1. Suppose Es is the induced e.m.f. in each side of the
coil. If the coils are full-pitched, the total e.m.f. is 2Es as shown in Fig.
6.6(a). Now consider a short-pitched coil, which is short-pitched by 30◦, as
The resultant voltage E is given by

E
=
◦
2Es cos 30 ◦
2 = 2Es cos 15
e.m.f. induced in each coil side
Es Es E
2Es Es
(a) Total e.m.f. (b) 30°Es
Figure 6.6 Vector sum of e.m.fs.
K
p
=
Vector sum = 2Es cos 15◦ Airthmetic sum
2
E
= 0.966
s
pitch-factor = 0.966
In general, if the coil-span falls short of full pitch by an angleα; then
Kp(Kc) = cos α (6.2)2
α is called the chording angle.
Distribution-factor or breadth-factor
It is also called winding-factor or spread-factor. The coils in each phase are

not bunched is one slot, but are distributed in a number of slots. They are
displaced from each other by a certain angle. The result is that the e.m.f’s
induced in coil sides constituting a group are not in phase with each other
but differ by an angle equal to the angular displacement of the slots.
Lets take a simple example. Consider a 4 pole alternator which has 36 slots.
Therefore the pole-pitch is 9 slots/pole. Angular displacement between any
two adjacent slots =180◦ = 20◦ (electrical). We have three phases and hence 3 slots/phase/pole.
If the three9
coils (assuming there is one coil in one slot) were bunched together in one
slot, then the arithmetic sum would be 3Es, whereEs is the e.m.f. induced in
one coil side as shown in Fig. 6.7(a).
Es Es Es E Es 20° Es 20° (a) 3Es (b)Es

Figure 6.7 Distribution factor.
Since the coils are distributed, the individual e.m.f’s have a phase difference
of 20◦ with each other as shown in Fig. 6.7(b). The distribution factor,Kd, is
defined as
Kd = e.m.f. with distributed winding (6.3)e.m.f. with concentrated winding
The angular displacement between slots,β,isgivenby

β
=
180◦ 180◦
No. of slots/pole = n(6.4)
The distribution factor,
Kd = sin(mβ/2)(6.5) m
sin
β
2
where m is the no. of slots/phase/pole.
We can calculate Kd for different values of m as shown in Table 6.1.
6.3. Advantages of stationary armature
As mentioned in section 6.1, alternators have a stationary armature and a
rotating field. The advantages are
The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals on the stator
(armature) to•
the load circuit, without having to pass it through brush contacts.
• The slip-rings are on the low-voltage, low-power d.c. field circuit, which
can be easily insulated.
Table 6.1 Distribution factor.
Slots/polemβ◦ Kd
3160◦ 1.0
6230◦ 0.966
9320◦ 0.960
12 4 15◦ 0.958
15 5 12◦ 0.957
18 6 10◦ 0.956
24 8 7.5 0.955
• It is easier to insulate stationary armature windings for high a.c. voltages,

which may have as high a value as 30 kV.
• The windings can be braced to prevent deformation.
Example 6.1 Calculate the pitch factor for a winding with 36 stator slots, 4
poles and a coil-span of 1 to 8.
Solution:
No. of slots/pole = 36/4 = 9
Therefore coil span in full pitch winding is 1 to 10. With a coil span of 1 to
8, it falls short by 2 pitch. i.e. 2 × 180◦ = 40◦.9 9
pitch factor
K
c
=
cos
α cos 40◦
=
2 2 = 0.94.
Example 6.2 Calculate the pitch factor for a winding with 72 slots, 6 poles
and coil span 1 to 10.
Solution:
No. of slots/pole = 72 126 =
The coil span falls short by ( 3 ) × 180◦ = 45◦12
K
c
=
cos 45◦
2 = 0.924
Example 6.3 Calculate the distribution factor for a 36-slots, 4-pole, single
layer three phase winding.
Solution: 36 n = No. of slots/pole =4 = 9 180◦ 180◦ ◦β = n = 9 = 20
m = No. of slots/pole/phase = 9/3 = 3.
sinmβ sin3×20◦
K
d
=
22
sin
β
=3 sin 20◦ = 0.96 m2 2
Example 6.4 In an alternator, a part of the winding consists of six coils in

series, each having an e.m.f. of 12 volts induced in it. The coils are placed in
successive slots and between each slot and the next, there is an electrical
phase displacement of 30◦. Find the e.m.f. of the coils in series.
Solution:
sin
6×30◦ 2
β = 30◦; m = 6; Kd =6× sin 30◦ = 0.644
2
Arithmetic sum of voltages = 6× 12 = 72.
Vector sum = Kd × arithmetic sum = 0.644× 72 = 46.37 V.
Example 6.5 An alternator has 9 slots/pole. FindKd if we have (i) one

winding in all the slots (ii) one winding using the first 2 of the slots/pole (iii)
three windings placed in 60◦ group.3
Solution:
β
=
180◦ ◦ 9 = 20
(i) One winding;
m
=
9;
K
d
=
sin
9×20◦
2 = 0.649 sin 20◦
2
(ii) One winding in 2 of the slots per pole.3
m = 2 × 9 = 6 Kd =
sin
6×20◦
2
6 sin 20◦ = 0.833 2
(iii) m = 9 = 3;3
sin 3×20◦
K
d
=
2
3 sin
20◦ = 0.96.
2
6.4. Induced e.m.f. in an alternator
Let Z = No of conductors (coil sides) in series per phase. One turn is two
coil sides.
∴
T
=
Z
2 P = No. of poles
f = frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz.
φ = flux/pole in webers
K
d
=
distribution factor
=
sin(mβ/2)
m( sinβ/2) αK(or Kp) = pitch factor or coil factor = cos2
c
Kf = form factor = 1.11 (for sinusoidal voltage as form factor is 1.11) N =
rotor speed in r.p.m.
One revolution of the rotor takes 60 seconds. Each stator conductor cutsφp
webers.N
dφ = φP
60dt =
N
∴
Average e.m.f. induced per conductor
=
dφ = NφP dt 60
Now N = 120f .P
Average e.m.f. per conductor
=
φP 120f 60 P = 2fφ volts.
If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then average e.m.f./phase = 2fφZ
volts = 4fφT volts.
R.m.s. value of e.m.f./phase = 1.11 × 4fφT = 4.44fφT (Note that this is same
as the e.m.f. induced in a transformer winding.) This would be the voltage if
all the coils of a phase were full-pitched and concentrated or bunched in one
slot. But this is not so and the actual voltage induced is reduced by a factor
ofKc and Kd.
Voltage induced/phase = 4.44KcKdfφT

= 4KCKdKffφT volts. (6.6)
If the alternator is star connected, the line voltage is√3 times the phase
voltage. Example 6.6 A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has a star-connected
winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors/slot. The flux per pole is 28 mWb
and the speed is 375 r.p.m. Find the frequency and phase and line e.m.f.
assuming full pitched winding.
Solution: f = PN = 16× 375 = 50 Hz120 120

slots/pole = 144 9; β = 180◦ ◦n =16 = n = 20
9 = 3m = slots/pole/phase =
3
sin
3×20◦
2 = 0.96K =
d 3 sin 20◦
2
No. of conductor= 144× 10= 480/phaseZ = Phase 3
480 = 240/phaseT =
2
Eph = 4.44× 1× 0.96× 50× 0.028× 240 = 1432 V
= √3Eph = 2480.6 V.Eline
Example 6.7 Find the line voltage of a star-connected 3-phase, 6-pole
alternator which runs at 1200 r.p.m. having a flux per pole of 0.08 Wb,
sinusoidally distributed. It has 54 slots having a double layer winding. Each
coil has 8 turns and is chorded by 1 slot.
Solution:
n = slots/pole = 54 9; β = 180◦ ◦;6 =9 = 20 m = slots/pole/phase = 9/3 = 3. Since
winding is chorded by one slot, it is short pitched by 1 or 180◦ = 20◦.9 9
K
c
=
cos
α cos 20◦
=
2 2 = 0.98
sin3×20◦
K
d
=
2
3 sin
20◦ = 0.96
2
8 = 144 (Here since its a double layer winding we willZ = 54×
3 have 4 turns per
winding or 8 conductors)
144 = 72T =
2
6× 1200 = 60 Hzf =120
E
ph
= 4.44× 0.98× 0.96× 60× 0.08× 72 = 1443.6 V = √3× 1443.6 = 2500.4 VEL
Example 6.8 The stator of a 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has 144 slots, with 4
conductors/slot connected in two layer and the conductors of each phase are
connected in series. The alternator runs at 450 r.p.m. Flux is 0.075 Wb/pole
and is distributed sinusoidally. Calculate the e.m.f. induced per phase if the
coil span is 150◦ electrical.
Solution: Coil span is 150◦. It falls short by (180◦ − 150◦) = 30◦.
∴
K
c
=
cos 30◦
2 = 0.966
144 9; m = 9 = 3; β = 180◦ ◦n = =
16 3 9 = 20 Kd = 0.96
16× 450= 60 Hzf = 120
No. of slots/phase = 144 = 483
No. of conductors/phase = 48× 4 = 192
No. of turns/phase 192 = 96 =2
Eph = 4.44× 0.966× 0.96× 60× 0.075× 96 = 1778.75 volts
Example 6.9 A 4-pole, 50-Hz, star-connected alternator has 15 slots/pole

and each contains 12 conductors. The conductors of each phase are
connected in series. The winding factor is 0.95. The terminal voltage was
1800 volts. Find the flux/pole. If the same windings were lap-connected in a
d.c. machine. What would be the induced e.m.f.?
Solution:
Kd = 0.95
Kc = 1.0 (assumed) Total number of slots = 15× 4 = 60
slots/phase 60 20 =3 =
Number of conductors/phase = 20× 12 = 240
Number of turns/phase 240 = 120 =2
Phase voltage = 1800 1039.23 volts√3 =
1039.23 = 4× 1.11× 1× 0.95× φ × 50× 120 φ = 0.041 Wb = 41 mWb.
When connected in a d.c. generator
E
g
=
ZNφP
60 A
Z = 60× 12 = 720 N = 120f= 120× 50= 1500 r.p.m.P 4
720× 1500× 0.041× 4= 738 volts.Eg = 60× 4
Example 6.10 How are the pitch factor and distribution factors affected by
harmonics?
Solution: The third harmonic has three times the fundamental frequency, the
fifth harmonic has five times the fundamental frequency and so on.
(i) If the chording angle is α degrees electrical for the fundamental flux wave
then,
Pitch factor α (for fundamental) Kc = cos2
cos 3α (for 3rd harmonic)=2
cos 5α (for 5th harmonic)=2
and so on. (ii)
The distribution factor
K
d
=
sin
nmβ 2
m sin
nβ 2
where n is the order of the harmonic.
Example 6.11 An alternator has 18 slots/pole and the first coil lies in slots 1
and 16. Calculate the pitch factor for (i) fundamental (ii) 5th harmonic.
Solution:
coil span = 16− 1 = 15 slots It falls short by 3 slots for full pitch
α
=
180
◦ × 3 = 30◦ 18
(i) Kc (fundamental) = cos 30◦ 0.9662 =

(ii) Kc (5th harmonic) = cos 5×30◦ = 0.2592
6.5. Alternator on load
As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to
vary. This is due to the following:
• Voltage drop due to armature resistanceRa

• Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactanceXL
• Voltage drop due to armature reaction.
6.5.1. Armature resistance and leakage reactance
The armature resistance Ra, causes a voltage dropIRa which is in phase with
the armature currentI. SinceRa is very small, this drop is note significant.
When current flows through the armature conductors, fluxes are set up
which do not cross the air-gap. They are called leakage fluxes. These cause
an induced e.m.f. called the reactance e.m.f., which leads the armature
current I by 90◦. Hence, the armature winding can be said to possess a
reactance XL, such that the voltage drop isIXL and equals the induced e.m.f.
due to leakage flux. XL is called the leakage reactance or potier reactance.

E = V +I(Ra + jXL)
6.5.2. Armature reaction
The armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux.
The power factor of the load has an effect on the armature reaction. For unity
power factor load, the armature reaction is cross-magnetizing. This means
that it has a distortional effect. For zero p.f.
E
V IXL IRaI
Figure 6.8 Phasor diagram of alternator on load.
E0 E0 − No-load e.m.f. IX
a
generated V− Termincal voltage
E IX
s V IXL IRaI
Figure 6.9 Phasor diagram with armature reaction.
lagging loads, the armature flux has a demagnetising effect. This decreases
or weakens the main flux. Hence, the generated e.m.f. is reduced. To keep
the value of the generated e.m.f. same as that at no load, the field excitation
has to be increased to compensate for the weakening. For zero p.f. leading
loads, the armature flux has a magnetizing effect, which results in a greater
induced e.m.f. For values of power factor in between zero and unity, the
armature flux has both a cross-magnetising as well as a demagnetising effect
(if load is having lagging p.f.).
6.5.3. Synchronous reactance
The drop in the terminal voltage due to armature reaction can be taken into
account by assuming the presence of a fictitions reactance Xa in the armature
winding. IXa is the drop due to the armature reaction. The phasor diagram is
now drawn as in Fig. 6.9, to include the drop due to armature reaction.
The sum of the leakage reactance XL and the armature reactance Xa, is
called the synchronous reactanceXs. On load, the total drop is given
byI(Ra+jXs) = IZs, where Zs is the synchronous impedance. The phasor
difference balance the terminal voltage V and the no-load induced e.m.f. E0
isIZs.
6.5.4. Phasor diagrams of a loaded alternator

The phasor diagrams are drawn for different power factors of the load. In the
diagrams,
E0 = No-load induced e.m.f.

E = Induced e.m.f. on load after allowing for armature reaction drop V =
Terminal voltage
I = Armature current
The phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.10.
E = V + I(Ra + jXL) (6.7) E0 = E + IXa = V + I(Ra + jXs) = V + IZs (6.8)
6.5.5. Voltage regulation
When the alternator is loaded, there is a drop in the terminal voltage, which
depends on the magnitude of the load and also its power factor. The voltage
regulation of an alternator is defined as the rise in voltage when the full load
is removed, with the field excitation and speed remaining the same as a ratio
of the rated terminal voltage
% Regulation = E0 − V × 100 (6.9)V

A couple of points to be noted are
• E0 − V is the arithmetic difference
• The rise in voltage when load is removed/thrown off, is not same as the
voltage drop when alternator is loaded
• When the load has a leading p.f., the terminal voltage will fall when the
load is removed. Hence, the regulation will be negative.
E0 E0 IXa IZs IXa IZs
E
IXL E
V φ V IXL IRaI IRa I
(a) Unity p.f. (b) Lagging p.f.
E0 IXa IXL E IZsI
φ V IRa IRa
(c) Leading p.f. Figure 6.10 Phasor diagrams of alternator on load.
6.5.6. Regulation by direct loading
In small machines the regulation can be determined by direct loading. Here

the desired load (magnitude and p.f.) is applied and the excitation is adjusted
such that the terminal voltage is the rated value. The load is now suddenly
thrown off, keeping the field excitation and speed constant. The voltageE0 is
taken. The regulation is then calculated using (6.8).
For larger machines indirect methods are used to predetermine the

regulation. The methods commonly used are the
(i) Synchronous impedance or E.M.F. method (ii) The Ampere-turn or

M.M.F. method (iii) Zero power factor or portier method.
E2 O.C.C
E1
Ia E0 S.C.C
Ia2
Ia1
B If2
If1If
Figure 6.11 O.C.C. and S.C.C. of alternator.
6.6. Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method To apply the
synchronous impedance method we need to conduct two tests.
(i) The open circuit test (ii) The short circuit test.
6.6.1. Open circuit test
This test is used to obtain the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) similar to
that of a d.c. generator. The alternator is run on no-load and the field
excitation is varied and the induced e.m.f. noted for different values of field
current. A plot of the induced e.m.f. versus the field current gives the open
circuit characteristic.
6.6.2. Short circuit test
Here, the stator windings are short circuited and the field current is adjusted
to let rated current pass through the stator windings. The short circuit
characteristic (S.C.C.) is a plot of the armature current versus field current. It
is a straight line passing through the origin. The O.C.C. and S.C.C. curves
are shown in Fig. 6.11.
6.6.3. Computation of synchronous impedance The synchronous

impedance Zs is defined as
Zs = Open circuit voltage(6.10)Short circuit current If constant
Referring to Fig. 6.11, when the field current is If1, the synchronous
impedance is given by E1; at a field current of If2 it is E2/I a2. This means that
Zs is not a constantIa1
and depends on the point at which it is computed. In predicting the
regulation, the value of Zs is usually taken to be that obtained from full-load
current in the short circuit test.
The synchronous reactance is obtained from the synchronous impedance as,

Xs = Z2 − R2 (6.11)s a
where Ra is the armature winding resistance/phase.
6.6.4. Computation of regulation
Once the value of Ra and Xs are obtained the regulation can be calculated.
Consider the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 6.12, for a lagging load.
For the figure,
E 0 = OC = OB2 + BD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2 = (V cosφ + IRa)2 + (V
sinφ + IXs)2 (6.12)
% Regulation E0 − V × 100 =V
When we have leading p.f.,
E = (V cosφ + IRa)2 + (V sinφ − IXs)2 (6.13)
In the synchronous impedance method of computing the regulation, the
armature reactance Xa (accounting for armature reaction) is clubbed with the
leakage reactance XL,togive
D
E0 IXs
V IZs C IRa
V sin φ φ A
O IB V cos φIRa
Figure 6.12 Phasor diagram for regulation.
the synchronous reactance. This method gives a simple way to calculate the
regulation for any load power factor.
Example 6.12
Example 6.12 φ alternator has an armature resistance of 0.3 per phase. The
full load current flows on short circuit at a field current of 0.75 A. The open
circuit voltage induced at this value of field current is 375 V. Find the
synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance.
Solution: Three phase alternators are normally star connected. WhenZs

andXs have to be calculated, it is done on a single phase basis.
Full load current = 5× 1000 = 6.96 A√3× 415
R a = 0.3
E0 = 3.75 V; Eo/phase = 275 = 158.77 V√3
Zs = 158.77= 22.816.96
Xs = 22.812 − 0.32 = 22.8

Example 6.13Example 6.13φ alternator has an effective resistance of 0.02
and an armature leakage reactance of 0.07 . Compute the voltage induced in
the armature and the percentage regulation when the alternator is delivering
rated current at a load power factor (i) u.p.f. (ii) 0.8 p.f. lagging (iii) 0.8 p.f.
leading.
Solution:
Solution:
Full load current
=
50× 103
220 = 227.27 A
√3)φ alternator we don’t divide by
IRa = 227.27× 0.02 = 4.54 V IXs = 227.27× 0.07 = 15.91 V
(i) At u.p.f. φ = 0
E = (V cosφ + IRa)2 + (V sinφ + IXs)2 = (220+ 4.54)2 + (0+ 15.91)2 225.1
V=
% R = 225.1− 220 × 100 = 2.318%220
(ii) At 0.8 p.f. lag
E = (220× 0.8+ 4.54)2 + (220× 0.6+ 15.91)2 233.4 V=
% R = 233.4− 220 × 100 = 6.09%220
(iii) At 0.8 p.f. lead
E = (220× 0.8+ 4.54)2 + (220× 0.6− 15.91)2 214.64 V=
(Note negative sign in second term).
% R = 214.64− 220 × 100=−2.44%220
Example 6.14 A 50-kVA, 415 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternator has an effective

armature resistance of 0.25 /phase. The synchronous reactance is 3.2 /phase
and leakage reactance is 0.5 /phase. At u.p.f. and rated load, determine the
(i) Internal e.m.f.Ea (ii) no-load e.m.f.E0 (iii) percentage regulation on full-
load (iv) value of synchronous reactance which represents armature reaction.
Solution: The internal e.m.f. Ea is the sum of the terminal voltage,IRa drop
andIXL drop. It does not account for the armature reaction. The no load
voltage E0 is the sum of Ea and drop due to armature reaction.
V = 415 = 239.6 V√3
50
×
10
3
IFL =√3× 415 = 69.56 A
IRa = 69.56× 0.25 = 17.39 V IXa = 69.56× 0.5 = 34.78 V IXs = 69.56× 3.2 =
222.592 V
(i)
Ea = (V + IRa)2 + IX2 (since it is u.p.f. V sinφ = 0)L
239.6+ 17.39)2 + (34.78)2= (
= 259.33 V
(ii)
E0 = (V + IRa)2 + (I Xs)2 = (239.6+ 17.39)2 + (222.592)2 = 340 V (iii)
%R = 340− 239.6 × 100 = 41.9%239.6
(iv)
Xa = Xs − XL = 3.2− 0.5 = 2.7
Example 6.15Example 6.15φ alternator. S.C. test: If = 2.5 A; Ia = 100 A
O.C. test: If = 2.5 A; E = 500 V
Ra = 0.8 . Determine the voltage regulation and draw the phasor diagram for
(i) u.p.f. (ii) 0.8 p.f. lead (iii) 0.8 p.f. lag.
Solution:
Zs = 500 = 5100
Xs = 52 − 0.82 = 4.936
(i) u.p.f.
E0 = (2000+ 100× 0.8)2 + (100× 4.936)2 2137.76 V=
%R = 2137.76− 2000= 6.89%2000
(ii) 0.8 p.f. lead
E0 = (2000× 0.8+ 80)2 + (2000× 0.6− 439.6)2 1822.47 V=
%R = 1822.47− 2000× 100=−8.87%2000
36.86°I
E0 IX E0 493.6 V V IR 493.6 V
s a
I 2000 V 80 V
100 A (a) (b) 80 V
E0 493.6 V
IZs 2000 V
80 V
36.86°
(c) I Figure 6.13 Example 6.15.
(iii) 0.8 p.f. lag
E0 = (2000× 0.8+ 80)2 + (2000× 0.6+ 493.6)2 2385.5 V=
%R = 2385.5− 2000 × 100 = 19.27%2000
Example 6.16
Example 6.16 φ alternator with an effective armature resistance of 0.25 , a

field current of 38 A produces a short circuit current of 200 A and an open
circuit voltage of 1040 V. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8
p.f. lag and 0.8 p.f. lead.
Solution:
1040
√3 = 3Z =
s 200
Xs = 3 − 0.252 = 2.989
2
Full load current = 100×103/√3 = 19.2 A.3000
voltage/phase IRa = 19.2× 0.25 = 4.8 V IXs = 19.2× 2.989 = 57.39 V
3000 1730 V =√3 =

(i) 0.8 p.f. lag
E = (1730× 0.8+ 4.8)2 + (1730× 0.6+ 57.39)2 1768.8 V=
%R = 1768.8− 1730 × 100 = 2.24%1730
(ii) 0.8 p.f. lead
E = (1730× 0.8+ 4.8)2 + (1730× 0.6− 57.39)2 1700.1 V=
%R = 1700.1− 1730× 100=−1.73%1730
Example 6.17 A three phase, 10 kVA, 415 V, 50 Hz alternator supplies rated
load at 0.8 p.f. lag. Ra = 0.5 and Xs = 8 . Find the voltage regulation at full
load. Draw the phasor diagram and find the power angle.
C
E0 IXs
V IR δ
a
36.86°
0 IAB Figure 6.14 Example 6.17.
Solution:
IFL = 10× 103 415 = 239.6 V√3× 415 = 13.91 A; V = √3
IRa = 13.91× 0.5 = 6.955 V
IXs = 13.91× 8 = 111.28 V
239.6× 0.8+ 6.955)2 + (239.6× 0.6+ 111.28)2E0 = (
= 323.27 V
% 323.27− 239.6 × 100 = 34.92%R =239.6
The power angle is the angle between E0 and V. Referring to Fig. 6.17, we
get
tan
(
36.86
◦
◦ + δ) = BC = V sin(36.86 ) + 111.28 OB V cos(36.86◦) + 6.955 = 1.2836
tan−1(1.2836) = 52◦
δ = 52− 36.86 = 15.14◦ Example 6.18Example 6.18φ, 50 Hz star connected

1000-kVA, 2300 V alternator gives a short circuit current of 251 A at a
certain field current. The open circuit voltage for the same excitation is
478.3 V. The armature resistance between a pair of terminals is 0.2 . Find the
full load regulation at (i) u.p.f. (ii) 0.7 p.f. lag (iii) 0.85 p.f. lead.
Solution:
V
=
2300 1327.9 V; IFL = 1000× 103 √3 = √3× 2300 = 251 A √3= 1.1Zs = 478.3/
251
Between two terminals, two phase windings are connected in series. ∴ Ra
=0.2 = 0.1 /phase.2
Xs = 1.12 − 0.12 = 1.095 IRa = 251× 0.1 = 25.1 V IXs = 251× 1.095 =
274.845 V
(i) u.p.f.
E = (1327.9+ 25.1)2 + (274.845)2 1380.63 V=
%R = 1380.63− 1327.9× 100 = 3.97%1327.9
(ii) 0.7 p.f. lag
E = (1327.9× 0.7+ 25.1)2 + (1327.9× 0.714+ 274.845)2 1551.44 V=
%R = 1551.44− 1327.9× 1001327.9
= 16.83%
(iii) 0.85 p.f. lead
E = (1327.9× 0.85+ 25.1)2 + (1327.9× 0.526− 274.845)2 1229.13 V=
%R = 1229.13− 1327.9× 100=−7.43%1327.9
6.7. Synchronization
The process of connecting an alternator in parallel with other alternator or

with the busbars is called synchronization. For proper synchronization the
following conditions must be satisfied:
• The terminal voltages of the two alternators must be same.
• The frequency of the two alternators must be the same. Since, N = 120f, this
implies that the two alternators must be running at same speed.p
• The phase sequence of the two alternators must be the same.
The same conditions are to be met for synchronization with the bus bar too.
Questions
1. Describe the various parts of the alternator.

2. Explain the terms (i) pitch factor (ii) distribution factor.
3. What is a short-pitch winding?
4. Derive the expression for the induced e.m.f. of an alternator.
5. What is the effect of harmonics on Kc and Kd?
6. A 4 pole alternator has a flux per pole of 0.1 Wb. It has 4 slots/pole/phase
and 4 conductors/slot, with a coil spam of 150◦. What is the line voltage?
[Ans: 1366 V]
1366 V] φ, 16-pole alternator has 90 slots, each containing 12 conductors. If

the speed is 600 r.p.m. and flux per pole is 0.1 Wb, calculate the line e.m.f.
when the phases are (i) star-connected (ii) delta connected. Assume the
winding factor is 0.96 and the flux is sinusoidally distributed.
Ans: (i) 6.93 kV (ii) 4 kV
(i) 6.93 kV (ii) 4 kV φ, 16-pole alternator has a star connected winding with
144 slots and 10 conductors/slot. The flux/pole is 0.04 Wb and speed is 375
r.p.m. Find the frequency and line voltage.
Ans [50 Hz; 3525 V]

9. Why is there a drop in the terminal voltage when an alternator is loaded?
10. Draw the phasor diagram of an alternator on-load for u.p.f.; lagging p.f.
and leading p.f.
11. Define voltage regulation.

12. Explain the O.C.C. and S.C.C. of an alternator?
13. What is synchronous impedance of an alternator? Is it a constant?
14. How is the synchronous impedance of an alternator determined?
15. Explain the synchronous impedance method of determining the

regulation of an alternator.
16. If a certain field current in an alternator gives a current of 150 A on

short-circuit and a terminal voltage of 900 V on open-circuit, find the
internal voltage drop with a load current of 60 A.
[ Ans: 360 V]
17. What is synchronization?
17. What is synchronization?
φ, 50 Hz, 2000 kVA, 2300 V, star-connected alternator gives a short-circuit

current of 600 A for a certain field excitation. For the same excitation the
open circuit voltage is 900 V. The resistance between a pair terminals is 0.12
. Find the full-load regulation at (a) u.p.f. (b) 0.8 p.f. lag (c) 0.8 p.f. lead.
Ans: (a) 7.3% (b) 23.8% (c) −13.2%
19. The full load current of a 2000-V single-phase alternator is 100 A. On

short circuit a field current of 2.5 A produces 100 A. An e.m.f. of 500 V is
produced on open circuit by a field excitation of 2.5 A. The armature
resistance is 0.8 . Determine the voltage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lead.
Ans: −8.9%
20. In a single-phase alternator a field current at 3 A produces an armature
current of 250 A on short circuit and an induced e.m.f. of 1500 V on open
circuit. What is the terminal voltage when a load of 250 A at 6.6 kV, 0.8 p.f.
lag, is switched off. Also calculate the regulation.
Ans: 7,898 V, 197%.
CHAPTER - 7
Single Phase Induction Motors
Learning objectives
Double field revolving theory Split phase induction motor Capacitor-start
motors
Capacitor-run motors
Shaded-pole motor
AC servomotors
Synchros, working and
application
Stepper motor
Characteristics and working of stepper motors
607
7.1. Introduction
In Chapter 5 we have studied the three-phase induction motors. Single phase

motors are very commonly used to drive various electric appliances such as
washing machines, mixers, drills, fans, vacuum cleaners, air conditioners
etc. They are generally fractional H.P. motors. The basic principle of single
phase motors are same as that of three phase machines. The induction
principle is extensively employed because of the simplicity of the rotor and
because it avoids commutation.
The performance requirements of various applications vary so widely, that

there are different types of single phase motors designed to meet specific
applications. The single phase motors broadly fall into the following types:
(i) Induction motors

(ii) Repulsion motors
(iii) AC series motors
(iv) Synchronous motors.
7.2. Single Phase Induction Motor

This motor is similar in construction to the three phase induction motor. The
salient features of the construction are
(i) The stator is provided with a single phase winding called the main
winding. (ii) Since, the motor is not self starting, a starting mechanism has to
be provided. (iii) If an auxiliary winding is used, a centrifugal switch is
needed to cut it out after starting.
(iv) The rotor is cage type.
The single phase induction motor is shown in Fig. 7.1
When fed from a single-phase supply, the starter winding produces an

alternating flux, unlike the revolving (rotating) flux produced by a three
phase winding. The alternating flux does not produce any torque as
explained by the double field revolving theory. Hence, single-phase
induction motors are not self-starting and need a mechanism to start the
motor.
Figure 7.1 Cut
out view of single phase induction motor.
7.2.1. Double field revolving theory
Any sinusoidally varying alternating quantity can be represented by two

vectors, each having half the magnitude of the original and rotating in
opposite directions, with a synchronous speed
Ns = 120f . (7.1)P
In (7.1) f is the frequency and P is the number of poles. This can be
explained by considering a step by step revolution of the vectors.
Step 1. Consider an alternating flux with a maximum value φm. It can be

split into two components φA and φB with amplitude φm/2 revolving in
anticlockwise and clockwise directions. Start at the position shown in Fig.
7.2(a). Here, angleθ = 0◦ and flux = φm.
Step 2. Consider after the rotation ofφA andφB through an angleθ, in

opposite directions, as shown in Fig. 7.2b. The resultant flux is
2 φm cos 2θ cosθ.×2 2 = φm
Step 3. After a rotation of 90◦ (quarter cycle)φA andφB will occupy the
positions shown in Fig. 7.2c. Here, φ = 0:
φA =φm φA2
φ = φm θ φm cos θ
φB = φm φB
(a)2 (b)
φA φB
φA φ
=
0
φ
mφ φ=0
B
(c) (d) (e)φA Figure 7.2 Double-field revolving theory.
φB
Step 4. After a rotation of 180◦ (half cycle) φA and φB occupy the positions
shown in Fig. 7.2d. Here resultant flux φ = φA + φB=−φm.
Step 5. After three quarter cycle rotation,φA andφB reach the positions
shown in Fig. 7.2e. Here, φ = 0.
If we plot the values of resultant flux againstθ betweenθ = 0◦ andθ = 360◦,
then we obtain the curve shown in Fig. 7.3.
It can be seen that we get a cosine curve. Hence, the alternating flux can be
looked upon as being made up of two revolving fluxes, each with half the
amplitude, revolving synchronously in opposite directions.
Each of the two components, cuts the rotor, inducing an emf and producing
its own torque. These two torques, obviously, are oppositely directed and
equal in magnitude. The net torque is the difference between the two
torques.
φ
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
θ Figure 7.3 Resultant flux.
The slip of the flux component rotating in the same direction as rotor, called
forward flux, has a slip s. Then the flux component rotating in the opposite
direction, called backward flux, will have a slip 2–s. The torque components
are given by
Forward torque,
T
f
=
KI
2
2R2 (7.2)
s
Backward torque
T
b
=−
KI
2
2R2 (7.3) 2− s)
(
where I2 is the current in the rotor and R2 is the rotor resistance. The total
torque T = Tf + Tb. All the three are shown in Fig. 7.4.
At standstill s = 1 and(2− s) = 1. Hence the forward and backward torques

are equal and net torque is zero. Therefore, there is no starting torque. It is
for this reason that single phase induction motors are not self-starting. If the
rotor is somehow given an initial start in one direction, the net torque will
accelerate the rotor to full speed, in the same direction.
Example 7.1 Prove that the slip of the backward flux is 2− s, where s is the
slip of the forward flux.
Solution: Let the speed of the rotor be N rpm. Then the slip, s, of the
forward flux is given by
s = Ns − N = 1− N orN = 1− sNs Ns Ns
where Ns is the synchronous speed.
TorqueTf
T
s = 2s = 1 s = 0
Tb
Anticlockwise Clockwise Figure 7.4 Torque components.
The backward flux rotates with same speed in opposite direction. Hence, we
can take the speed to be −N r.p.m. The slip is,
s = Ns − (−N) = 1+ N = 1+ (1− s) = 2− s.Ns Ns
7.3. Split-phase induction motor
Since the single phase induction motor is not self starting, it must be
provided with a starting mechanism, so as to create a revolving flux, which
will produce the necessary starting torque. The idea used in most methods
are focused on temporarily converting it to a two-phase motor during the
starting period.
To achieve this, the starter is provided with an extra winding, called the
starting or auxiliary winding, in addition to the main winding. The phase
difference of the currents in the two stator windings is very large, close to
90◦. These currents produce a revolving flux, and hence make the motor self
starting.
In split phase machines, the main winding has a low resistance and high
reactance. The starting winding has a high resistance and low reactance. The
resistance can be increased by simply connecting a resistor in series as
shown in Fig. 7.5(a).
Is Im
Starting
winding
φm
φs V winding
Mainφ Isα
1φ
supply R
S Rotor
(a) Split-phase windings

Im
(b) Phasor diagram
Figure 7.5 Split phase induction motor.
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.5b. It can be explained as follows:
• V is the reference vector.
• The current in the starting winding, Is, is almost in phase with V, since it is
highly resistive.
• The current in the main winding,Im, lagsV by almost 90◦, since it is highly
inductive.
• The net current is given by the phasor sum ofIs and Im.
The phase angle between V and Is is made as large as possible, since the
starting torque is proportional to sinα.
A centrifugal switch ‘S’ is connected in series with the starting winding and
is located inside the motor. When the motor reaches 70%–80% of its full-
load speed, the switch opens, disconnecting the starting winding. The
starting torque is 1.5 times to 2 times the full load torque and the starting
current is 6–8 times the full-load current. They are extensively used in fans,
blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machines, domestic appliances etc.
Such motors are also called resistance–start split-phase motors. They have
ratings in the range1 to 1 H.P.20 3
Example 7.2 A resistance split-phase motor is rated 1 H.P., 1725 rpm, 115 V,
60 Hz.4
When rotor is locked, the test results were as follows:
Main winding: V = 23 V; Im =4A; Pm = 60 W
(starting winding) Auxiliary winding: V = 23 V; Is = 1.5 A; Ps = 30 W. Draw
the phasor diagram and find the current drawn from the line at 115 V under
locked rotor.
49.6
°
29.6° V
Is
Im

Solution: The locked rotor test is similar to the locked rotor test in three
phase induction motors. The rotor is locked and prevented from rotating. We
calculate the phase angleφmbetween Im and V.
cosφm = Pm =60 = 0.65VIm 23× 4
φm = 49.6◦
Im lags V by 49.6◦.
The angle φs, between Is and V is given by
cos
φ
s
=
Ps = 30
23× 1.5 = 0.87VIs
φs = 29.6◦
Is lags V by 29.6◦. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.6.
Total current = Im∠φm + Is∠φs = 4∠49.6◦ + 1.5∠29.6◦ = 5.43∠44.23◦
The locked rotor current at 23V = 5.43A
The locked rotor current at 115115 = 27.15A.V = 5.43×23
7.4. Capacitor-start motors
The capacitor motor is identical to a split-phase motor, except that a
capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding as shown in Fig.
7.7.
I Im
Is Main
Starting winding
winding Is
1φ Vsupply
C
I
S Rotor Im(a)(b)
Figure 7.7 Capacitor-start induction motor.
The capacitor is so chosen such that the angle α, between Is and Im is around
80◦. Since torque is proportional to sinα, torque is increased. As a result, the
current in the auxiliary winding is only about half that in a split-phase
motors. Therefore, it gets heated less quickly.
The capacitor is electrolytic type and is designed for extremely short-duty

service. When the motor reaches 75%–80% of full load speed, the
centrifugal switch S opens. Owing to high starting torque and relatively low
value of Is, the capacitor-start motor is suited to applications involving
frequent or prolonged starting periods. Their wide spread use is due to
availability of small, reliable, low-cost electrolytic capacitors. However, they
can be used only for short periods. They are guaranteed for not more than 20
periods of operation, each period not to exceed 3 seconds. They are built in
sizes ranging from 1 H.P. to 10 H.P. Typical loads are compressors, large
fans, pumps etc.6
7.5. Capacitor run motors

These motors are similar to capacitor start motors, except that the winding
with the series capacitor is connected all the time as shown in Fig. 7.8.
Leaving the capacitor improves efficiency, power factor, over-load capacity

and leads to quieter running. Hence they are used in places like offices,
hospitals etc. where silence is important. The starting torque is low and
hence they are rated below 500 W.
The capacitor used is oil or paper type capacitor, since it needs to be of

continuous-duty rating. Since same capacitor is used for starting and running
condition, neither can be
Is Auxillary Main1φ
supply
C Rotor
Figure 7.8 Capacitor run motor.
optimum. Values used are in the range 2 to 20 µF. The starting torque is low
because of low value of capacitor used. In a modification of the design, two
capacitors are used, one for starting and a separate one for running. While
starting, the two capacitors are connected in parallel, so that their combined
capacitance is sum of the two. A centrifugal switch cuts off the starting
capacitor after the motor reaches around 75% of its rated speed. This way
both optimum starting and running torques can be achieved.
The direct ion of rotation can be reversed by interchanging the leads of

either the auxiliary winding or the main winding. Capacitor-start motors
cannot be reversed, under running conditions. Capacitor-run motors can be
made to change direction of rotation while the motor is running.
7.6. Shaded pole motor
Shaded-pole motors are very popular for low ratings of the order of 40–50W.
These motors have salient poles on the stator and a squirrel cage rotor. A two
pole and a four pole shaded-pole motor are shown in Fig. 7.9.
A single pole is shown in Fig. 7.9c. It has a slot cut at one third distance
from one edge. Around the small part of the pole a short circuited copper
ring, called the shading coil, is placed. This part of the pole is called the
shaded part and the other part is called the unshaded part. The production of
torque can be explained as follows.
• The stator winding is connected to an a.c. voltage, which makes an

alternating exciting current flow through it.
• When the current is increasing, an e.m.f. is produced in the shading coil, by
transformer action in such a direction as to oppose the increase of exciting
current. Hence, the flux
(a)
(b) (c)
ShadingFieldcoil windingb a
Figure 7.9 Shaded-pole motor.
mostly shifts to the unshaded part as shown in Fig. 7.10a. The magnetic axis
is along the center of unshaded part.
• When exciting current is close to maximum value, rate of change is less

and hence very low voltage is induced in the shading coil. The flux is more
or less uniformly distributed over the pole face as shown in Fig. 7.10b. The
magnetic axis is at the center of the pole.
• When the exciting current decreases, the voltage in the shading coil is
produced so as to oppose the decrease in current. Consequently, the
magnetic axis shifts to the middle of the shaded part as shown in Fig. 7.10c.
We can see that the magnetic axis moves from the unshaded to shaded part
of the pole. This is equivalent to a revolving magnetic field. The rotor starts
rotating in the direction from unshaded side to shaded part of the pole.
Magnetic axis
Magnetic axis
Crowding of flux in (a) unshaded part(b)
Magnetic axis Uniform flux over
pole
(c) Flux crowded over shaded part
Figure 7.10 Magnetic axis in shaded pole rotor.

Though simple, these motors have low starting torque, very little overload
capacity and low efficiency. They are used in small fans, toys, hair dryers,
clocks etc.
7.7. AC Servomotors
Servomotors , sometimes called control motors, are electric motors that are
specially designed and built, primarily for use in feedback control systems as
output actuators. Their power rating can vary from a fraction of a watt to a
few hundred watts. Since, they are used in control systems, they need to
have a high speed of response, which requires a low rotor inertia. These
motors are therefore smaller in diameter and longer in length. They operate
at low or zero speed and thus have a larger size for their torque or power
rating
V
a
±90
°
High resistance cage rotor
Reference Vm 0° phase
Figure 7.11 AC servo motor.
T NW-m
Low rotor High rotor resistance resistance
ωsyn ωM
Figure 7.12 Torque-speed characteristic of ac servo motor.

than conventional motors of similar rating. They are used in a variety of
applications such as robots, radars, computers, tracking systems, machine
tools and process controllers.
Most high power servo motors are d.c. servomotors. A.C. servo motors are
used for low power applications. They are robust and have lower inertia than
d.c. servomotors. However, they are non-linear and have lower-torque
compared to d.c. servomotors of the same size.
Most a.c. servomotors used in control systems are of the two-phase squirrel-
cage induction type. The frequency range is 60–400 Hz. A schematic
diagram of a two phase a.c. servomotor is shown in Fig. 7.11 and the torque-
speed characteristic in Fig. 7.12.
The stator has two distributed windings displaced 90◦ electrical, apart. One
winding, called the reference or fixed phase is connected to a constant-
voltage source,Vm∠0◦. The other winding, called the control phase, is
supplied with a variable voltage of the same
Drag cup rotor

Stator
Shaft Stationary rotor core
Stator
Figure 7.13 Drag-cup rotor construction.
frequency as the reference phase, but phase-displaced by 90◦ electrical. The

direction of rotation of the motor depends on the phase relation (leading or
lagging) of the control phase voltage with respect to the reference phase
voltage.
For balanced two phase voltages, |Va|=|Vm|, the torque-speed characteristic

of the motor is similar to that of three phase induction motor. The non-linear
characteristic, when rotor resistance is low, is not acceptable in control
applications. But, if the rotor resistance is high the torque-speed
characteristic is linear over a wide speed range. Generally, the reference
phase voltage is fixed and the control phase voltage is varied.
In low power control applications, a drag-cup rotor is used, to reduce the

inertia. A thin cup of non-magnetic conducting material is used as rotor, as
shown in Fig. 7.13. Because of the thin conductor, the rotor resistance is
high, resulting in high starting torque. The stationary iron core in the center
of the cup completes the magnetic circuit. A typical application of an a.c.
servomotor is in the radar position control as shown in Fig. 7.14.
Two potentiometers are used. The reference potentiometer generates a
voltage Eref depending on the desired positionθref. The second potentiometer
is connected to the shaft of the servomotor and produces a voltageE
proportional to shaft positionθ. The difference (Eref− E) is the error voltage
and is proportional to the position error,θref− θ. This error voltage is fed to a
servo amplifier, which generates the necessary control voltage Va,to produce
a torque which would rotate the rotor to reduce the position error to zero.
θref θ
Radar
Eref E
−
∑ Servo Va ±90°amplifier
+
θ
Vm 0° Figure 7.14 Radar position control system.
7.8. AC tachometer
A tachometer is a transducer which converts a mechanical position to an

electric voltage. A drag-cup servomotor serves as a tachometer. The
tachometer connections are shown in Fig. 7.15(a).
The drag-cup rotor is driven by a prime mover. The reference winding

produces the reference fluxφref. The quadrature output winding is connected
to ana.c. voltmeter, which is calibrated directly in r.p.m.
The principle of operation can be explained referring to Fig. 7.15(b). Since

the reference winding is highly inductive, its current lags the applied voltage
by 90◦, producing the flux φref. When the drag-cup is rotated clockwise
(CW) by the prime mover, eddy currents are induced in the rotor producing a
CW rotor flux. The phasor sum of φref and rotor flux produces a resultant
flux φout(CW) which generates an induced a.c. voltage in the quadrature
output winding. Similarly a rotation in counter clock wise (CCW) direction
produces a rotor flux in CCW direction.
The magnitude of the rotor flux is a function of the rotor speed. The speed-
output voltage characteristic is shown in Fig. 7.15c. At very high speeds
saturation effect is produced. Thus the voltmeter, which reads the output
voltage induced, can be directly calibrated in r.p.m., as the output voltage is
linearly related to the speed. To ensure accuracy the upper limit of the
calibrated voltmeter is kept below the speed at which saturation takes place.
Reference winding Drag cup φrotor (CW) φrotor (CCW) rotor

Input ac
φout (CW)φref φout (CCW)
Output (b) Iref winding

Prime
mover V0(ac)
V0
(a)
Speed (CCW) Speed (CW)
(c) V0(ac) Figure 7.15 Tachometer.
7.9. Synchros
Synchros are a.c. electromagnetic devices that convert a mechanical

displacement into an electric signal. Synchros are widely used in control
systems for transmitting shaft position information or for maintaining
synchronism between two or more shafts. They are used primarily to
synchronize the angular positions of two shafts at different locations, where
it is not possible to make a mechanical inter connection of the shafts.
The synchro control transmitter (CX) has a balanced three-phase stator

winding similar to the stator winding of a three-phase synchronous machine.
The rotor is of the salient pole type using dumb bell construction with a
single winding as shown in Fig. 7.16a.
S2 α
e2n
Balanced threeerphase stator
winding
Rotor
windinge3n e1n
S3
(a) Construction (b) SchematicS1 Figure 7.16 Synchro control transmitter.
If a single-phase a.c. voltage is applied to the rotor through a pair of slip

rings, an alternating flux field is produced along the axis of the rotor. This
induces voltages in the stator winding by transformer action. If the rotor is
aligned with the axis of stator winding 2, flux linkage of this stator winding
is maximum and this position is defined as the electrical zero position of the
rotor. In Fig. 7.16(b), the rotor is shown displaced from the electrical zero by
an angle α.
A single phase a.c. voltage is applied to the rotor winding and the rotor is
displaced by an angle α from its electrical zero position, and held fast. The
rotor voltage is given by
er = √2Er sinωt
Single phase voltages having same frequency as the rotor voltages are
induced in each stator phase by transformer action. The value of the induced
voltage depends on the coupling between the stator phase and the rotor
winding.
If
K
=
effective stator turns effective rotor turns then the induced stator voltages are
given by
e1
e2
e3
The r.m.s. voltages are

= √2KEr sinωt cos(α + 120◦)n = √2KEr sinωt cosαn = √2KEr sinωt cos(α − 120◦)n
E 1n = KEr cos(α + 120◦) E2n = KEr cosα

E3n = KEr cos(α − 120◦)
Each rotor position corresponds to a unique set of stator voltages. This is
exploited in identifying the rotor shaft position.
The synchros control receiver (CR) has the same basic structure as the
control transmitter. However, it is provided with a mechanical viscous
damper to permit the receiver rotor to respond without causing rotor to
overshoot its mask.
The synchro control transformer, is shown in Fig. 7.17(a). It has a uniform

air gap because of the cylindrical shape of the rotor. This is important, to
maintain a constant impedance irrespective of the rotor position, when the
rotor terminals are connected to an amplifier. The stator has a balanced three
phase winding.
The electrical zero is defined as the position of the rotor that makes coupling
with stator winding equal to zero. This is as shown in Fig. 7.17(b). The
impedance per phase of stator winding is greater in the transformer than in
the transmitter, allowing several control transformers to be fed from a single
control transmitter.
7.9.1. Applications of synchros

Synchros are used to transmit torques over a long distance without a rigid
mechanical connection. One such arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.18.
The rotor windings of the synchro transmitter and synchro receiver are
connected to the same single-phase a.c. supply and the stator windings are
connected as shown. Let the rotor of transmitter be displaced by an angle α,
and its winding connected to the single phase a.c. by closing switchSW1.
Voltages are induced in stator windings of CX, which
S2
3φ winding
Startor Rotor
1
φ
winding
S
3
S1
(a) Construction (b) Schematic Figure 7.17 Synchro control transformer.
makes currents flow in CR because of the electrical connections. These
currents produce a flux field.
If the rotor of CR is now connected to a.c. voltage by closingSW2, a field

flux is created along the CR rotor axis, which interacts with the flux field
produced by the stator windings to produce a torque. This torque, rotates the
CR rotor to the same displacementα, as CX. In this position the stator
voltages of CR have magnitude and phase as CX and hence no current flows
and no torque is produced.
If now the transmitter rotor is displaced to a new position, the receiver rotor
will take a similar corresponding position. The displacement of rotor of CR
would also cause a similar displacement of rotor of CX.
7.10. Stepper motors
A stepper motor is also called a stepping motor. It rotates by a specific

number of degrees, 2◦, 2.5◦,5◦,15◦,45◦, etc., in response to an electrical pulse.
It can be called an incremental actuator which converts digital pulse inputs
to analog output shaft motion. It is therefore
αα
S2 S2
CX CR
S1 S1 S3 S3
Transmitter Receiver SW1 SW2
a.c. supply
Figure 7.18 Synchro transmitter and synchro receiver arrangement for shaft
alignment.
used in digital control systems. Typical applications are printers, tape drives,
disk drives, machine tools, X–Y recorders and robotics. Stepper motors are
available with a few steps per revolution to high values of around 400 steps
per revolution.
Two types of stepper motors are widely used:
• Variable-reluctance type
• Permanent magnet type.
7.10.1. Variable reluctance stepper motor
A four-phase two pole, single stack, variable reluctance stepper motor is
shown in Fig. 7.19. When the stator phases are excited with d.c. current in
proper sequence, the resultant air gap field steps around and the rotor
follows the axis of the air gap field due to the
Figure 7.19 Stepper motor.
Table 7.1
ABCD
1 000 1 −→ Energized
1 100 0−→ Not energized
0 100
0 110
0 010
0 011
0 001
1 001
1 000 …
reluctance torque produced. The reluctance torque is produced because of

the tendency of the ferromagnetic rotor to align itself along the direction of
the resultant field.
Consider Fig. 7.20(a). Here only winding A is excited and the rotor aligns
along axis of phase A. Next, both windings A and B are excited, which
makes the resultant mmf axis move 45◦ in the clockwise direction. The rotor
aligns along this axis as shown in Fig. 7.20(b). Next only coil B is energized,
when the rotor aligns along its axis as shown in Fig. 7.20(c). At each
transition of the excitation, the rotor moves through 45◦. The sequence of
switching can be shown in the form of a table as shown in Table 7.1.
ia A Φ A
DB
C
ia Φ A
A
ib Φ 45° Φ D B
R B
C
A
ib
ΦB D B
C
Figure 7.20 Excitation of stepper motor.
The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the sequence of
switching the windings, i.e. A A+D, D, D+C, etc. Each switching, causes the
rotor to move 45◦. To obtain smaller steps, multipole rotor construction is
used. A four-phase six pole stepper motor is shown in Fig. 7.21.
A 15° 45°
P1 30°
P6 P2
DB
P5 P3
P4
Figure 7.21 Multipolar rotor construction.

The working is explained as follows:
• When phase A winding is excited, P1 aligns with axis of phase A.
• Next phase A and B are excited. The resultant mmf moves 45◦.P2, nearest
to the new mmf axis, pulls to align with it.
• Motor steps in anticlockwise direction by 15◦.
• A is de-excited. The mmf axis, along axis of B, pulls P3 in line. So the
winding sequence is A, A+B, B, B+C, C.... The rotor rotates anticlockwise
in steps of 15◦.
7.10.2. Permanent magnet stepper motor (PMSM)
It has a construction similar to the variable-reluctance type, but the rotor is
made of a permanent magnetic material. It is shown in Fig. 7.22.
The motor is a two-pole permanent magnet stepper motor. The rotor poles
align with two stator teeth (or poles) depending on the excitation. Figure
7.22, shows alignment when phase A is excited, with a positive current. If
excitation is switched to phase B, the rotor steps by 90◦. The current polarity
decides the direction in which the motor moves. A switch over to positive
current will take the rotor forward clockwise by 90◦, a negative current will
take the rotor 90◦ in anticlockwise direction.
PMSM have higher inertia and are hence slower than variable-reluctance
stepper motors. The maximum pulse rate is around 300 pulses per second,
whereas it can be around 1200 for a reluctance motor. However, PMSM
produce more torque per ampere of stator current.
B
NS
iA
AA'
B' Figure 7.22 Permanent magnet stepper motor.
7.10.3. Parameters affecting stepper motors
Torque versus current
The torque developed by a stepper motor depends upon the current. Figure
7.23 shows the characteristic.
The torque the motor can exert while moving from one position to the next,
is called the pull-over torque. When the motor is at rest, a holding current
must continue to flow in the last winding that was excited, so that the rotor
remains locked in place.
Start–stop stepping rate
There is an upper limit to permissible stepping rate if the rotor stops at each
step and starts again at next application of pulse. If the pulse rate is too fast,
the rotor will be unable to accurately follow the pulses and steps will be lost.
To maintain synchronism, the rotor must settle down before advancing to
next position. So in such operations the speed is limited to 1000 = 167 steps
per second, since the rotor needs at least 6 ms to be stable in6
a step. Higher the load torque, lesser the number of steps.
N − M 4 Torque
3
2
Rated pulse current
1
2 4 6 8 10 12
Current (A) Figure 7.23 Stepper motor characteristic.
Slow speed
A stepper motor can be made to run at a uniform speed, without stopping in

between steps. This is called slewing. The inertia effect is absent and the
motor can carry a greater load torque when it is slewing.
A stepper motor carrying a load, cannot suddenly go from zero to a stepping

rate of 2000 sps. Similarly, a motor that is slewing cannot abruptly be halted.
The motor must be gradually accelerated or deccelerated. This process is
called ramping. The ramping phase is completed in a fraction of a second.
Questions
1 What is double field revolving theory? Explain briefly and use the theory
to explain why the single phase induction motor is not self starting.
2 Explain the working of a split-phase induction motor.

3 Briefly describe the working of a capacitor start motor. What are its
characteristics?
4 What are capacitor-run single phase induction motors? What advantages

do they possess over capacitor-start motors?
5 What is a shaded-pole motor? How does the shading coil help in producing
a starting torque?
6 What are servomotors?
7 Explain with a diagram, the working and the torque speed characteristics
of an a.c. servomotor.
8 Show how a drag-cup motor can be used as a tachogenerator.

9 What are synchros? Explain with a neat diagram any application of
synchros. 10 What are stepper motors? What are the various types of stepper
motors?
11 Give in a tabular form the sequence of pulses to be applied for a 4-pole

stepper motor to get a step site of (i) 45◦ (ii) 90◦.
12 What is slewing and ramping?
CHAPTER - 8
Lab Manual Electrical Machines Lab
633
In this chapter we discuss the conduction of some simple experiments on

electrical machines. Before we discuss the experiments, there are certain
common points to be noted for any machine. In any experiment, it is most
important to choose the correct ratings of the meters and the rheostats.
Otherwise the equipment may be damaged.
8.1. D.C. Shunt Motor

The rating of a typical d.c. shunt motor of Kirloskar make is as follows:
Rated capacity : 3.5 kW Rated I/P and O/P voltage : 220 V d.c. Armature
current : 18.5 A Armature resistance : 0.35 Rated shunt field voltage : 220 V
d.c. Rated shunt field current : 0.95 A Shunt field resistance : 174.1 Brake
drum radius : 107 mm RPM : 1500
• SinceEb = 0 at starting, a starting resistor has to be added in series with the
armature. This can be done by connecting a three point starter or an external
rheostat in series with the armature. The rating of the rheostat is important,
since it has to limit the starting current to a maximum value equal to the
rated current. In this case Ia = 18.5 A. The
starting current is equal to

I
s
=
V
Rs+Ra. SinceRa is small we can neglect it. Hence, the minimum starting
resistance
R
s
needed is given by
V
Ia(rated). Here,
Rs = 220 = 11.89 .18.5
We therefore need a minimum resistance of 11.98 , with a current carrying

capacity of 18.5 A. Rheostats of high current rating are expensive. Instead
we can use a rheostat of higher resistance value. We can use a standard 29
rheostat. The starting current would be 220 = 7.58 A. Hence we use a 29 , 10
A rheostat in series with the armature.29
The rheostat in series with the armature is always kept in “cut-in” (full
resistance) position at the time of starting.
• The field current has to be decreased to decrease the flux and increase the
motor speed upto rated value. We normally connect around 100 –230
rheostat in series with the field winding.
The rheostat in series with the field winding is completely “cut-out” (zero
resistance) at the time of starting the motor.
• When the motor is loaded, the line current ammeter should be chosen to
read the full load (rated) current. For the rating given we chose 0–20 A.
• The range of the voltmeter connected across the supply should be to read
the rated voltage. We choose 0–250 V.
• The no-load current is around 10% of the rated current. Therefore, the no-
load test we choose ammeters of a lower range, 0–2 A.
• The armature terminals brought out on the panel are normally marked A–
AA or A+–A−. The field winding terminals are marked Z–ZZ or F+–F−.
8.2. D.C. Shunt Generator
The rating of the generator is similar to that of the d.c. shunt motor. Note the
following in choosing the meters for the generator.
• The ammeter reading the load current should have a range capable of
reading the rated current. We can use 0–20 A for ratings as in (8.1).
• The voltmeter reading the terminal voltage should have a range capable of
reading the rated voltage. We use a 0–250 V meter.
• The field current ammeters have smaller range around 0–2 A. Using an
ammeter of higher range will give inaccurate readings.
• A rheostat is connected in series with the generator field winding. We
normally use rheostats around 230 –300 , for machines rated around 3–5 kW.
The field rheostat of the generator is initially “cut-in”. It is then gradually
cut-out to build the rated voltage.
8.3. Three Phase Induction Motor
The typical rating of a three phase squirrel cage induction motor commonly
used in the lab is as follows (Kirloskar make):
Rated voltage : 415 AC

Rated current : 7.9 A
Frequency : 50 Hz
RPM : 1430
Phase : 3
Output : 3.7 kW
Connected :
Insulation class : F
Make : Kirloskar
Brake drum radius : 107 mm
107 mm φ induction motor:
• The voltmeters measuring line-to-line voltage should have a higher range.

We choose 0–500 or 0–600 V. If we read line-to-neutral voltage (in star
connected systems) we can use a voltmeter of lesser range
V
LN
=
VLL
√3
• The autotransformer whose output is fed to the induction motor, must have
a current rating about twice the rated current of the induction motor, to
withstand high starting currents.
• The no-load current is about 40% of the rated full load current. Suitable
range of ammeter has to be selected.
• In blocked rotor test, we apply a low voltage suitable range of voltmeter
should be used.
• When rheostats are connected in series withe the slip-ring rotor, the current
rating of the rheostat should be properly chosen.
• When wattmeters are used to measure no-load power, L.P.F. meters are
used since the power factor is low. In blocked-rotor test and load test we use
u.p.f. wattemeters.
8.4. Alternator
8.4. Alternator
φ alternator is as follows:
Rated O/P voltage : 415 V Current : 6.9 A RPM : 1500 Frequency : 50 Hz

Phase : 3
Excitation : 1.9 A Rated KVA : 5.0 KVA Connection : Y
p.f. : 0.8 Make : Kirloskar
• The alternator field is d.c. Hence d.c. ammeters are used to measure the
field current.
• The voltmeter should be of sufficient range to measure the line-to-line
voltage of 415 V. Use 0–500 V (a.c.).
8.5. Transformer
The typical rating of a transformer is as follows:
Power : 1 kVA
Votage : 230 V/110 V
Either of the coils can be used as primary. The following points are to be
noted.
• The polarities of the coils must be identified correctly (refer experiment 1)
•
Full load primary current
=
kVA
V1
•
Full load secondary current
=
kVA
V2
• No-load current is around 10%–12% of rated full-load current.
• L.P.F. wattmeters are used for no-load test and u.p.f. wattmeters for short-
circuit test.
8.6. Loading Rheostats
These are used to load transformer, generator or alternator. The loading

rheostats have resistors connected in parallel. Every time a load switch is
closed, one resistor is added and the load current is increased. Another
common loading arrangement is the lamp-load. When loads are used it is
important to see that the rating is sufficient to load the machine to its rated
value.
8.7. General Precautions

• Ensure that supply is off, before you make a connection.
• All connections should be made tightly.
• Choose proper ranges of meters and rheostats.
• Ensure rheostats are in correct positions before starting the experiment.
• Arrange the layout of meters and rheostats properly. Ensure that two
rheostats are not so close that they touch each other.
• Ensure that the motors are running in the correct direction.

• Do not wear metallic objects like metal watches, rings, chains, bracelets
etc.
• Wear shoes for safety.
• Do not wear loose garments near the machines.
EXPERIMENT 1
POLARITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER
Aim: To determine the polarity of a single phase transformer by conducting
polarity test. Apparatus required:
Sl.No Apparatus Type Range Quantity

01 Voltmeter AC 0–300 V 01
Rating of transformer: 110V/230 V, 1 KVA Circuit Diagram:

+−
230 V, 50 Hz A.C.
Supply
V1 0−300 V
P1 S1 −+ V2
0−600 V P1 S2
Subtractive polarity Additive polarity
P2 S2 P2 S1
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Close supply switch (with auto transformer in zero position)
3. Apply some low voltage (say 100V)
4. If V2>V1 then the transformer has additive polarity
5. If V1>V2 then the transformer has subtractive polarity.
Result : The polarities are marked and the transformer has to be used with
the correct polarities in any experiment.
EXPERIMENT 2
OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON A
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Aim: To predetermine the efficiency & regulation of a single phase
transformer by conducting open circuit and short circuit tests.
Apparatus required:
Sl.no Apparatus Type Range Quantity

3 Ammeter AC 0–2 A 1
5 Wattmeter 150 V, 2.5 A, LPF 1
6 Wattmeter 75 V, 10 A, UPF 1
7. Auto transformer 0-230/270 V, 10 A 1
Ratings of transformer :230V/110 V; 1 KVA

Ratings of meters:
OC TEST : This test is conducted with the HV side open and meters are
connected on LV side. The rating of the voltmeter is equal to the voltage
rating of the LV side. The no-load current is about 10% of the rated full load
current. Full load current on the LV side is kVA/Voltage, i.e. 1000/110 =
9.09 A. The wattmeter reads the iron loss. An LPF wattmeter is used, since
power factor is low. Hence we can choose the meter ratings as follows:
Voltmeter : 0–150 V
Ammeter : 0–2.5 A
Wattmeter : 150 V, 2.5 A, LPF
SC TEST : This test is conducted with the LV side shorted and meters are
connected on HV side. The applied voltage is low, about 10–15% of rated
voltage. The full load current is passed through the HV winding. Full load
current on the HV side is KVA/Voltage, i.e. 1000/230 = 4.348 A. The
wattmeter reads the full load copper loss. An UPF wattmeter is used, since
power factor is close to unity. Hence we can choose the meter ratings as
follows:
Voltmeter : 0–30 V
Ammeter : 0–10 A
Wattmeter : 75 V, 10 A, UPF
Circuit Diagram:
230 V, 50 Hz A.C.
Supply
300 V, 2.5 A, LPF
A M L P1 S1
0−2 A
CV
V 0−300 V
Open circuited secondary winding
Open circuit test
230 V, 50 Hz A.C.
Supply
P2 S2
150 V, 10 A, UPF
A M L P1 S1
0−10 A
CV
V 0−30 V
Short circuited secondary winding
Short circuit test P2 S2

Procedure:
For open circuit test
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Ensure that the auto transformer is in zero position and close the supply
switch.
3. Adjust the output of the auto transformer such that rated voltage is applied
to the transformer under test.
4. Note down the various meter readings.
5. Bring back the auto transformer to zero position and open the supply
switch.
For short circuit test
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

switch.
3. Slowly vary the output of the auto transformer such that rated current
flows through the transformer under test.
5. Bring back the auto-transformer to zero position and open the supply
switch.
Readings:
Open circuit test
Sl.no V0 volts I0 amps W0 watts
1
Short circuit test
Sl.no VSC volts ISC amps WSC watts
1
Calculations
1. Watt meter constant K = V
selected × Iselected × cos
full scale reading
2. cos0 =W0 , IW = I0 cos0, Iµ = I0 sin0,V0I0
3. R
0
=
V0,Xo =Vo
Iw Iµ
4. Z VSC,Req = WSC ,Xeq = (Zeq)2 − (Req)2 .eq =ISC I2
SC
5. % Regulation = Isc Req cosφ ± Xeq sinφ × 100V0
+ve for lagging P.F ; -ve for leading P.F.
x(
fullloadkVA
)
·
Cosφ
× 10
3
6. %Efficiency = x(fullloadkVA)· Cosφ × 103 + W0 + x2W
SC where x is the
fraction of full load output.
7. Power Factor at which regulation becomes zero:
The regulation can become zero only at leading power factor. × 100
IscReq cos − IscXeq sin = 0, IscReq cos = IscXeq sin tan = Req/Xeq, =
tan−1(Req/Xeq),
Tables :
Load P.F
% Regulation at full load Lagging P.F Leading P.F
01 0.2
02 0.4
03 0.6
04 0.8
05 1
Fraction of Efficiency
Sl. No. Full load x P.F=1 P.F = 0.8 01 0.25
02 0.5
03 0.75
04 1
Expected graph:
UPF
0.8 LAG
Lead Lag Load
Precautions:
1. Before closing switch ensure that the auto transformer is in minimum
position.
2. Make all circuit connections tightly.
3. Ensure that the meter readings do not exceed their maximum values.
EXPERIMENT 2B
Aim : To determine the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
Procedure: The OC and SC tests are performed as mentioned above. The

values of Ro, Xo, Req and Xeq are calculated as described above. The
values of Ro and Xo are referred to the LV side, whereas the values of Req
and Xeq are referred to the HV side. It is necessary to transfer them to the
LV side. This is done as follows:
K = V(HV)/V(LV)
Req1 (referred to LV side) = Req/K2
Xeq1 (referred to LV side) = Xeq/K2
The equivalent circuit is shown below.

Req1 Xeq1
Load referred V1 R0 X0 to primary
EXPERIMENT 3
LOAD TEST ON A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Aim: To determine the efficiency and regulation of a single phase
transformer by direct load test.
Apparatus required:

04 Loading Rheostat 01
Rating of the transformer : 1 KVA, 110 V/230 V
Rating of meters : Rated voltage is applied. The current is applied in steps,

from no-load to full load. Hence the ammeters should read the rated current.
The ratings are chosen accordingly.
Circuit Diagram:
150 V, 10 A, UPF 300 V, 10 A, UPF 230 V, 50 HzA M LP1 S1 A M L A.C.
0−10 A 0−10 ASupply C V C V
V 0−30 V V 0−30 V
P2 S2
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.

switch.
to the transformer under test. Note down the meter readings.
4. Vary the load in steps (till rated load) and in each step note down the
meter readings. 5. Remove the load, bring back the autotransformer to zero
position and switch off the supply.
Readings :
Sl.no V1 I1 W1 V2 I2 W2 %η
Calculations:
% Efficiency
=
Output power
Input power
% W2 × 100% η =W1
% Regulation V2(no load) − V2(load) × 100% =V2(no load)
Expected Gaph: p.f. = 1
Load
RESULT: Compare the results obtained with direct load test with those
obtained by predetermination using OC and SC tests.
EXPERIMENT 4
SUMPNER’S TEST
Aim: To predetermine the efficiency and regulation of two identical
transformers by conducting back to back test.
Apparatus required:

06 Wattmeter LPF 300 V, 5 A, 01
07 Wattmeter UPF 150 V, 10 A, 01
Circuit Diagram:
300 V, 5 A, LPF 300 V, 10 A, UPF A M L P1 S1 L M A
Switch 1
0−2 A 0−10 A
C V V C V 0−300 V
Switch 2 230 V, 50 Hz
A.C.P2 S2 V0−30 V
Supply P1 S2
230 V, 50 Hz A.C.
Supply
SPST P2 S1 V
0−600 V
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Ensure that the auto transformer is in zero position and SPST switch in
open position and close the supply switch S1.
3. If the voltage across the SPST switch is zero close the SPST switch. If
not, open the supply switch S1 and interchange the secondary terminals of
any one transformer and close the supply switch S1.
4. Close the supply switch S2. Note down the readings on the primary side.
flows through the transformer.
6. Note down the different meter readings.V0,I0,W0T are primary side
reading,Vsc,Isc, WscT are secondary side readings.
7. Bring back the auto transformer to minimum position and open the switch
S1,S2 and SPST.
Tabular column:
Sl.no V0 volts I0 amps W0T watts Vsc Isc WscT
01
Calculations:
1. Watt meter constant
K
=
Vselected × Iselected × cos
full scale reading
W 0T sc = WscT, Vsc = VscT2. W0 = 2,W 2 2
3. cos 0 =W0 , IW = I0 cos 0, Iµ = I0 sin 0,V0I0

V0 ,X = V04. R =
0 0 Iw Iµ
5. Z Vsc ,Req = Wsc ,Xeq = (Zeq)2 − (Req)2 .eq =Isc I2
sc
6. % Regulation = Isc[Req cosφ ± Xeq sinφ] × 100V0
+ve for lagging P.F
−ve for leading P.F
x(
full load kVA
)
·
cos
φ
× 10
3
7. % Efficiency = X(full load kVA) · cosφ × 103 + W0 + x2WSC × 100 x =
fraction of full load.
TABULAR COLUMN FOR REGULATION:
% Regulation at full load Sl. No Load P.F Lagging P.F Leading P.F 01 0.2
02 0.4
03 0.6
04 0.8
05 1
TABULAR COLUMN FOR EFFICIENCY:

Fraction of Efficiency
Sl. No. Full load x P.F=1 P.F = 0.8 01 0.25
02 0.5
03 0.75
04 1
Expected graph:
%R UPF
η 0.8 LAG
01 0p.f.Lead Lag
Output
EXPERIMENT 5
PARRALLEL OPERATION OF TWO DISSIMILAR SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
Aim: To determine the load shared by two dissimilar single phase
transformers connected in parallel.
Apparatus required:

Rating of the transformers: 230 V/230 V, 1 KVA;

230 V/230 V, 2 KVA.
Circuit Diagram:
P1 S1A A
0−10 A 0−20 ASwitch 1
230 V, 50 HzP2 S2A.C. 0−10 ASupply P1 S1 A
Resistive load SPST
P2 S2V
0−600 V
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure.
2. Keeping the SPST switch in open position close the supply switch. If the
voltmeter across the switch reads double the secondary voltage of one
transformer, open the switch and interchange the secondary terminals of any
one transformer and then close the supply. If the voltmeter across the SPST
reads the difference of the two secondary voltages, close the SPST switch.
3. Vary the load in steps and at each step note down the various meter
readings.
4. Reduce the load and open the switch.
5. Conduct short circuit test to find the impedance of each transformer.
Readings:
Practical values Theoretical values Sl. no I1 I2 I I1 I2 I
I
1
=
I
Z1 +
Z2, Z1 Z2I2 = IZ1 + Z2 Z1 and Z2 are found from the short circuit test
conducted on the individual transformers.
150 V, 10 A, UPF
230 V, 50 HzA M L P1 S1
A.C. 0−10 VSupply C V Short circuited V 0−30 V secondary winding
P2 S2
S.C. Test (Transformer 1)

switch.
flows through the transformer under test.
5. Bring back the auto-transformer to zero position and open the supply
switch.
Sl.no Vsc1 volts Isc1 amps Wsc1 watts Z1 1
01
Z
1
=
Vsc1, φ1 = cos−1 Wsc1 Isc1 Vsc1Isc1
S.C. Test (Transformer 2)
Sl. no Vsc2 volts Isc2 amps Wsc2 watts Z2 2 01
Z
2
=
Vsc2, φ2 = cos−1 Wsc2 Isc2 Vsc2Isc2
RESULT: Verify if the practical values match with the theoretical values.
EXPERIMENT 6
LOAD TEST ON THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Aim: To plot the performance characteristics of three phase induction motor
Apparatus required:
Sl. no Apparatus Type Range Quantity

Rating of the induction motor:

415 V, 5 HP, 1440 rpm.
Meter ratings: The meter ratings are chosen based on the rating of the
induction motor. The voltmeter reads the line voltage. The rated full load
current is calculated from the power rating and the voltage rating of the
motor as follows
Rated current = Full load power/√3× Line voltage = (5× 746)/√3× 415 The
wattmeters are chosen to read the full load power. Upf meters are used.
Circuit Diagram:
600 V, 10 A, UPF MLA

415 V, 50 Hz0−10 A R A.C. CVSupply
RYB
Y 0−600 V
V CVB
3-Phase MLautotransformer
600 V, 10 A, UPF
Procedure:

2. Keeping the autotransformer in zero position, close the supply switch.
3. Vary autotransformer slowly and apply rated voltage to motor
4. Note down the no load meter readings and no load speed.
5. Vary the load in steps up to its rated load and at each step note down the
meter readings, speed and S1 and S2
6. Release the load on the motor, bring back the autotransformer to zero
position and open the supply switch.
Readings:
V W1 W2 S1 S2 N I/P o/p Torque volts I Amps watts watts Kg Kg rpm watts
watts %η pf % slip N-m
Radius of brake drum =Rm
Calculations: For each set of readings the calculations are done as below.
1. Input power = W1+ W2

2. T = 9.81× (S1 ∼ S2) ×RN-m
3. Output power = (2πNT)/60 Watts
4. % Efficiency Output power 100 =Input power × 5. Synchronous speed Ns = 1500

rpm. % Slip = (Ns-N)/Ns× 100.
Expected graph:
% Slip p.f. T % EFFITorque Torque
% Efficiency
p.f.
% slip
Slip
Output
EXPERIMENT 7
SPEED CONTROL OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Aim: To control the speed of three phase slip ring induction motor by
1. Stator voltage control and 2. Rotor resistance control
Apparatus required:
Sl. No
01
02
Apparatus Type Range Quantity Voltmeter AC 0–600 V 01

Ammeter AC 0–10 A 02
Circuit Diagram For: Stator voltage control and Rotor resistance control:
A A 415 V, 50 Hz 0−10 A 0−10 A A.C. V 0−600 V Supply
RYYY
B 3-Phase Rotor autotransformer Resistor Stator
Procedure For Stator Voltage Control:

switch.
for a particular value of rotor resistance R1.
4. Note down the voltmeter reading and record the speed.

5. Slowly decrease the voltage in steps and at each step note down the
voltage and speed keeping the rotor resistance constant at R1 .
6. Repeat the steps 3, 4, 5 for a different value of rotor resistance R2.
7. Decrease the voltage to zero and open the supply switch.
8. Plot the graph of speed Vs voltage.
Tabular column:
Sl. No Voltage V (volts) Speed N (rpm) Procedure For Rotor Resistance
Control:
switch.
V1.
4. Note down the speed and rotor current.
5. Vary the loading rheostats connected to rotor in steps and at each step note
down ammeter readings and speed keeping the voltage constant at V1.
6. Repeat the steps 3, 4, 5 for a different value of voltage V2.

7. Decrease the voltage to zero and open the supply switch.
8. Plot the graph of speed Vs current
Tabular column:
Sl. No Current I (Amps) Speed N (rpm)
Expected graph:
SpeedR1 R2 SpeedV2 V1 V1 > V2
R1 > R2
Voltage Resistance
EXPERIMENT 8
LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Aim: To determine the performance characteristics of single phase induction
motor by conducting load test. Apparatus required:
Sl. no
01
02
03
Apparatus Type Range Quantity Ammeter AC 0–20 A 01

Voltmeter AC 0–75 V 01
wattmeter UPF 20 A, 75 V 01
Circuit Diagram:
300 V, 20 A, UPF 230 V, 50 Hz A
M A.C.
Supply0−10 A C
V 0−300 V L V CF S1 S2
AuxiliaryMainwinding windingSC
Single phase CF : Centrifugal Switch auto transformer SC : Starting
Capacitor
Procedure: For load test

switch.
3. Slowly vary the output of the auto transformer till rated voltage is applied
to the motor (as shown in the name plate; i.e. 230V)
4. Note down the various meter readings (no load readings)
5. Load the motor in steps till the rated current is reached and in each step
note down all the readings
6. Remove the load and bring back the auto-transformer to zero position and
open the supply switch.
Tabular column:
W N S1 S2 T
Sl. no V I (Input) rpm Kg Kg (N-m) O/P %η cos Slip
Calculations:
1. Watt meter constant
K
=
Vselected × Iselected × cos
full scale reading

2. T = 9.81 (S1 ∼ S2) r where r is the radius of the drum in mts
3. O/P = 2πNT/60
4. %efficiency = (Output/Input) × 100
5. cos = W/VI
6. Slip = Ns− N/Ns
Expected graph:
% Slip p.f. T % EFFI Torque
% EfficiencyTorque p.f.
% slip
Slip Output
EXPERIMENT 9
SWINBURNE’S TEST
Aim: To conduct Swinburne’s test and pre-determine the efficiency of the
d.c. shunt machine as a generator and motor.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. no
1
2
Apparatus Type Range Quality Voltmeter DC 0–250 V 1 Ammeter DC 0–2
A2
Machine ratings:
5 HP, 1500 rpm, 220 V
Meter ratings: Since it is a no-load test, the currents correspond to no-load

values. The voltmeter reads the supply voltage. Therefore the ratings are
Voltmeter — 0–250 V Ammeters — 0–2 A
Circuit Diagram:
IL If
A
1
−
+−
2
230 V, 50 Hz
A
+D.C. 0−2 A 0−2 A
Supply 29 Ω 230 Ω
++
V 0−250 V A Z −−
AA ZZ
Circuit diagram with series armature rheostat
IL A If
A
1
−
LZ
+−
2
230 V, 50 Hz
A
+D.C.
Supply230 Ω
+
AZ−
AA ZZ
Circuit diagram with 3-point starter
Measurement of Armature Resistance
Ia
230 V, 50 Hz +A −
D.C. Loading0−20 A
Supply rheostat A+ ++
A V a V 0−30 V
− −A−
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the armature rheostat in cut-in position and the field rheostat in cut-
out position.
3. Close the supply switch.
4. Gradually cut-out the armature rheostat completely and cut-in the field
rheostat till the motor runs at rated speed.
5. Note down the readings.
6. Bring back the rheostats to original position and switch off the supply.
Measurement of Armature Resistance
1. Connect the circuit as shown.

3. Apply the load in steps and take down the readings.
4. Reduce load and open the supply.
Tabular Column:
VL If IL speed volts Amps Amps r.p.m.
To find armature resistance
Sl. No. Va (V) Ia (A) Ra ( )

1
2
3
Average value of Ra = sl;dkfj .
The resistance obtained above is multiplied with a factor to account for

increased resistance due to a.c. current flowing through the armature
windings. The factor is normally taken to be 1.4.
Calculations:
Computation of constant loss
1. No load current = IL0

2. No load voltage = VL0
3. No load input = VL0IL0 = no-load losses (since o/p is zero)
4. Armature currentIa0 = IL0 − If
5. Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra0
6. Constant loss Wc = Input− Armature copper loss = VL0IL0 − Ia2Ra0
Computation of efficiency as a motor

For motor we calculate %η as Input−Losses × 100. We take values of IL from
no-loadInput
value to rated value. For a given value ofIL, the efficiency is calculated as
follows:
1. Input current = IL A
2. Input voltage = VL V
3. Input power = VLIL W
4. Ia = IL − If A
(Note that If is same as no-load value)
5. Armature copper loss = I2Ra Wa
6. Total losses, WT = Wc + I2Ra Wa
7. Output = Input − WT W
8. %η = Output × 100Input
Computation of Efficiency as a Generator

For a generator efficiency is calculated as
% Output × 100η = Output + Losses
We again assume currents from no-load value to full load value.
1. Output current (load current ) = IL A

2. Terminal voltage VL V
3. Output power VLIL W
4. Ia = IL + If A
5. Armature copper loss = I2Ra Wa
6. Total losses, WT = WC + I2Ra Wa
7. Input = Output + WT W 8. %η = Output × 100.Input
Expected graph:
Generator
%η
Motor
Output (W)
In subsequent experiments we show a rheostat in series with the armature. It
can be replaced by a three point starter similar to what has been shown for
this experiment.
EXPERIMENT 10
SPEED CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR
Aim: To study the speed control of a d.c. shunt motor by (a) armature
control (b) field control.
Apparatus required:
Sl. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1. Ammeter MC 0–2 A 1
2. Voltmeter MC 0–250 V 1
Circuit Diagram:
0−2 A
A
+−230 V, 50 Hz
D.C.
Supply100 Ω A 230 Ω
+
V 0−250 V Z −
100 Ω AA ZZ
Procedure:
(a) Armature control method

1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Completely cutout the field rheostat and keep the potential divider at the
position indicated, so that voltage across armature is zero.

4. Adjust the field current to a constant value.
5. Increase the armature voltage using the potential divider. At each step,
note down the voltage across the armature and the corresponding speed.
6. Repeat the experiment for different values of field current.
(b) Field control method

1. Make connections as shown in the figure.
2. Keep a fixed voltage across the armature.
3. Vary the field current using the field rheostat. At each step note down the
field current and the corresponding speed.
4. Repeat the experiment for different values of armature voltage.
Tabular Column:
Armature voltage method
Armature Sl. No. Voltage V
If1 = _____A I f2 = _____A Armature

N (r.p.m.) Voltage V N (r.p.m.)
Field current method Armature voltage = _____V Armature voltage =
_____V Field Field
Sl. No. Voltage A N (r.p.m.) Voltage A N (r.p.m.)
Expected graphs:
If1
If2 V1If < If
1 2
N N V1 < V2(r.p.m.) (r.p.m.)
V2
Va (V) If (A)
EXPERIMENT 11
O.C.C. OF D.C. SHUNT GENERATOR
Aim: To plot the open circuit characteristic of d.c. shunt generator.
Apparatus Required:

1. Ammeter MC 0–2 A 1
2. Voltmeter MC 0–300 V 1
Circuit Diagram:
230 V, 50 Hz
D.C.
Supply230Ω 230Ω29Ω
+ 0−250 V
+A+ A+ F+ V −− F+ M G F−
F− A− A − A + −
Procedure:
1. Initially keep armature resistance of motor cut-in, field rheostat of motor

cut-out and field rheostat of generator cut-in and close supply switch.
2. Cut-out armature rheostat of motor and cut-in field rheostat to bring motor
to rated speed.
3. Cut-out the field rheostat of generator in steps. At each step note down the
field current and the voltage developed.
4. Continue till the voltage developed is 10% above the rated voltage.
5. Bring back rheostats to original positions and open the supply switch.
6. Measure armature resistance.
Tabular column:
Sl. No. If (A) Voltage (V)
Calculation:
Armature current Ia = If (since IL = 0). Armature voltage drop = IaRa

Generated e.m.f. Eg = V + IaRa
Graph:
Critical resistance line
Eg (V)
Residual voltage If (A)
1. The voltage at If = 0, is the residual voltage.
2. Draw a line tangential to the linear part of the O.C.C. The slope of this
line gives the critical resistance.
EXPERIMENT 12
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF D.C. SHUNT GENERATOR
Aim: To conduct load test on the given d.c. shunt generator and to plot
internal characteristic (Eg vs. IL) and external characteristics (VL vs. IL).
Apparatus Required:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Ammeter MC 0–2 A 1 Ammeter MC 0–20 A 1 Voltmeter MC 0–250 V 1
Loading rheostat 0–20 A 1
Circuit Diagram:
230 V, 50 Hz D.C.
Supply
0−20 A
+−
A
29Ω 29Ω 230Ω +
−A
+
A
+
F
+
0−250 V V F+ F−
F− A− A− A + 0−2 A −
Procedure:
1. Keep rheostats in position described in experiment 11 and close supply

switch.
2. Bring motor to rated speed.
3. Keep load switch open.
4. Adjust the field rheostat of the generator till rated voltage is built-up.
5. Note down the no-load readings.
6. Close the load switch. Apply the load in steps. At each step, note down
the load current, field current and the terminal voltage.
7. Continue till rated load current flows.
8. Reduce the load gradually, bring back rheostats to original position and
open the supply switch.
9. Measure the resistance of the armature. The speed has to be maintained
constant at all times.
Tabular column:
Sl. No. If (A) VL (Volts) N r.p.m IL (A) Ia = IL + If Eg = V + IaRa (V)
Expected Graph:
Eg
Eg (V) Volts V
IL (A)
EXPERIMENT 13
LOAD TEST (BRAKE TEST) ON D.C. SHUNT GENERATOR
Aim: To conduct load test on d.c. shunt motor and draw its performance
characteristics. Apparatus Required:
Sl. No.
1.
2.
Apparatus Type Range Quantity Ammeter MC 0–20 A 1
Voltmeter MC 0–250 V 1
Circuit Diagram:
230 V, 50 Hz + D.C.
Supply− 0−20 A W 1W2+−
A
A+ 230ΩM
A− F+
29ΩF−
Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep armature rheostat cut-in and field rheostat cut-out.
4. Cut out armature rheostat and gradually cut-in field rheostat till motor
reaches rated speed.
5. Note down no-load readings.
6. Load the motor by tightening the brake. At each step note down the
readings of the two spring balances, W1 and W2.
7. Continue loading till rated current is drawn by motor.
8. Release load. Bring back rheostats to original position and open the
switch.
Tabular column:
IL VL N W1 W2 W1 ∼ W2 T Sl. No. (A) (V) (r.p.m) (kg) (kg) (kg) N-M
%η
Radius of brake drum, r = _______. Calculations:
1. T = 9.81(W1 ∼ W2) × r N-M

2. output = 2πNT W60
3. Input = VLIL W
4. % Output 100η =Input ×
Expected Graph:
η
T
N
Output
EXPERIMENT 14
REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR BY E.M.F. METHOD
Aim:Aim:φ alternator and predetermine the percentage regulation at
different power factors by synchronous impedance (E.M.F.) method.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No.
1.
2.
3.
4. Apparatus Range Quantity A.C. ammeter 0–10 A 1 D.C. ammeter 0–2 A 1
A.C. voltmeter 0–500 V 1 D.C. voltmeter 0–300 V 1
Ratings of Machine:
DC Motor:
Rated capacity : 3.5 kW Rated I/P and O/P voltage : 220 V d.c. Armature
current : 18.5 A Armature resistance : 0.35 Rated shunt field voltage : 220 V
d.c. Rated shunt field current : 0.95 A Shunt field resistance : 174.1 Brake
drum radius : 107 mm RPM : 1500
Alternator: Rated voltage : 415 AC Rated current : 7.9 A Frequency : 50

Hz RPM : 1430 Phase : 3
Output : 3.7 kW Connected :
Insulation class : F
Make : Kirloskar Brake drum radius : 107 mm
Circuit Diagram:
0−2A TPST Switch+ −
A
230 V, 50 HzR A.C.
Supply29Ω 800Ω230Ω
+
0−10 A 0−600 V A AF+
− F+ MY
F− F− Y
B
OC and SC Tests
230 V, 50 Hz +A −Load RA.C.
Supply 0−5 A
+
+
0−30 V A
−− Y
YB Measurement of armature resistance
Procedure:
1. Initially the field rheostat of d.c. motor is cut-out, armature rheostat cut-in
and field rheostat of alternator cut-in. TPST switch is kept open.
2. The d.c. motor is brought to rated speed.

3. The field current of the alternator is increased in steps by varying the field
rheostat. At every step the reading of the field rheostat. At every step the
reading of the field current and the corresponding voltage generated is taken.
4. The steps are repeated till the alternator builds 10% above its rated
voltage.
S.C. Test:
1. Bring back the field rheostat of alternator to original position.

2. Close the TPST switch.
3. Vary the field rheostat till the armature short circuit current equals the
rated value.
4. Note down the short circuit current and the corresponding field current.
5. Bring back rheostats to original positions and open the supply switch.
Armature Resistance Measurement:

1. Make connections as shown in the circuit.
2. Close supply switch.
3. Apply load in different steps. At each step note down readings of the
ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Remove load gradually and open the supply switch.
Tabular column:
OC Test
Sl. No. If (A) Terminal voltage (V) Terminal voltage/phase
=
Terminal voltage
√3
Plot terminal voltage/phase vs If. SC Test
Ifsc (A) Isc (A) Plot a straight line passing through origin and (Ifsc, Isc).
Armature Resistance
Sl. No.
I (A)
V (volts)
R
dc
=
VI
Average Rdc = _____ . R
dc
/
phase
=
Rdc
2 Rdc .R = R /phase = 1.6× Expected Graph:
a ac 2
η
Voc
T
Isc
If
Calculations:
1. Draw OC and SC characteristics.
2. From OC curve, find the open circuit voltageVoc at a field currentIfsc
which produces the rated short circuit current.
3. Zs = Voc (synchronous impedance)Isc

Xs = Z2 − R2 (synchronous reactance)s a
4. Generated e.m.f. E0 = (V cosφ + IRa)2 + (V sinφ ± IXs)2

+ for lagging p.f. − for leading p.f.
V = Rated terminal voltage/phase. I = Rated current.
5. %R = E0 − V × 100%.V
6. Calculate %R for various values of cosφ. 7. The regulation graph is as
shown belows
%R Lag
Lead 01 0 cos φ
CHAPTER - 9
Index
679
A
a.c. generators, 574
Absolute instruments, 313
AC servomotors, 618
Drag-cup rotor construction, 620

Torque-speed characteristic, 619
AC tachometer, 621
Active element, 88
Admittance, 183
Air friction damping, 318
All-day efficiency, 513
Alternating current, 5
Alternator, 574, 637
Armature reaction, 589
Armature windings, 577
Coil span, 577
Computation of regulation, 594
Computation of synchronous impedance, 594
Construction, 574
Full pitch, 577
On load, 589
Open circuit test, 593
Phasor diagram with armature reaction, 590
Phasor diagrams, 591, 592
Pole pitch, 577
Regulation by direct loading, 592
Short circuit test, 593
Stator core, 575
Stator frame, 574
Synchronization, 603
Synchronous reactance, 590
Voltage regulation, 591
Ammeters, 320
Amplitude, 153
Angular frequency, 153
Apparent power, 190
Application of DC generators, 398
Arcing time, 288
Argument, 153
Armature copper loss, 379
Armature core, 358
Armature diverters, 453
Armature reaction, 386, 589
Armature resistance, 589
Armature windings, 359, 577
Coil span, 577
Full pitch, 577
Leakage reactance, 589
Pole pitch, 577
Resistance, 589
Attraction type instruments, 328
Deflecting torque, 329
Auto transformer, 515
Auto transformer starter, 557 Average value, 170
B
B–H curve, 56
Batten wiring, 271
Bearings, 362
Bilateral element, 88
Biot-Savart’s law, 47
Blocked rotor test, 568
Brake test, 671
Breadth-factor, 579
Break down torque, 533
Breaking capacity, 289
British Standard wire guage, 273 Brush contact loss, 379
Brushes, 362
Generator characteristics, 386
Internal characteristic, 386
Magnetisation characteristics, 386
No-load saturation characteristic, 386
C
Cable Specification, 273
Capacitor run motors, 615
Capacitor-start motors, 614
Cartridge fuse, 290
Cfl Bulbs, 283
Characteristics of motors, 413
Characteristics, 413
d.c. compound motors, 419
dc series motor, 416
Performance curves, 419
shunt motor, 414
Charge, 4
chording-factor, 577
Cleat wiring, 270
Coefficient of coupling, 69
Coil span, 577
commercial efficiency, 513
Commutator, 362
Composite parallel circuits, 58
Composite series circuits, 57
Compound generator, 369
Long shunt compound generator, 369 Short shunt compound generator, 370
Compound motors, 413
Conduit wiring, 272
conservation of charge, 4
control motors, 618
Copper losses, 350, 379
External characteristic, 386
Field copper loss, 379
Crest factor or peak factor or amplitude factor, 171 Critical resistance, 391
current, 4
current source, 90
current-controlled current source, 91
current-controlled voltage source, 90
Cut-off current, 288
D
d.c. compound generator, 391
Load characteristics, 391
d.c. generator, 356

Armature core, 358
Armature reaction, 386
Armature winding, 359
Bearings, 363
Brush contact loss, 379
Brushes, 362
Characteristics, 386
Commutator, 362
Compound generator, 369
Construction, 356
Copper losses, 379
E.m.f. equation of d.c. generator, 363 Eddy current loss, 379
Efficiency, 380
Field coils, 362
Iron loss, 378
Losses, 378
Magnetisation characteristics, 386 Mechanical losses, 379
No-load saturation characteristic, 386 Pole core, 361
Pole shoe, 361
Power stages, 380
Self-excited generator, 366
Separately excited generator, 366 Series generator, 368
Shunt generator, 367
Voltage regulation, 389
Yoke, 358
D.C. Machines, 348, 354

Armature core, 358
Bearings, 363
Brushes, 362
Commutator, 362
Field coils, 362
Generator, 356
Pole core, 361
Pole shoe, 361
Principle of working, 355
Yoke, 358
D.C. Motor starters, 440

d.c. Motors, 431
Brake test, 432
Swinburne’s test, 435
D.C. Shunt Generator, 635
D.C. Shunt Motor, 444, 634
Armature control, 445
Flux control, 445
Speed control, 444
Damper windings, 576
DC motor, 402
Applications, 421
Condition for maximum power, 404
Efficiency, 421
Fleming’s left hand rule, 402
Generator action, 403
Losses, 421
Performance curves, 420
Shunt motor, 403
Speed control, 444
Speed control of series motors, 453
Starters, 440
Testing, 431
Torque, 405
Delta-connected system, 242
Dependent current sources, 91
Dependent voltage source, 90
Direct current, 5
Direct-on-Line [DOL] starting, 555 Dissipates, 88
Distribution-factor, 579
Division of current, 10
Dot convention, 73
Double field revolving theory, 609 Dynamically induced emf, 67
Electric Energy, 346
Electric machines, 346, 402, 460, 520, 574, 608
Alternator, 574
Fleming’s left hand rule, 402
Induction machines, 349
Single phase induction motor, 608
Transformer, 460
Electric machines, 347
Basic principles, 347
Constructional features, 347
d.c. machines, 348
Mechanical losses, 350
Synchronous machines, 348
Types, 347
Electric Shock, 306
Electrical instruments, 312
Electromagnetic induction, 64
Electronic instruments, 312
Energy stored in magnetic field, 72
Exponential form, 160
Expulsion fuse, 292
External characteristic, 386, 388
E
E.m.f. equation of d.c. generator, 363 Earthing, 294
Earthing systems, 296
Eddy current dumping, 319
Eddy current loss, 350, 379
Electric circuit, 4
F
Faraday’s law, 64
Field coil, 362
Field diverters, 453
Fleming’s left hand rule, 49, 402 Fleming’s right hand rule, 65, 357
Fluorescent lamp, 282
Form factor, 171
Fringing, 58
Full load torque, 533
Full pitch, 577
Fuses, 285
Fusing current, 288
Fusing factor, 288
G
Generator characteristics, 386 Ground node, 96
H
Half-power frequencies, 205 Henry, 67
High rupturing capacity, 290 Homogeneity, 111
Hysteresis loss, 350, 378 Electronic, 312
Errors, 332, 333
Indicating, 313
Integrating, 313
Mechanical, 312
Moving iron instruments, 328
Operating forces, 314
Operating torque, 314
Permanent magnet moving coil instruments, 321 Principles of operation,
313
Recording, 313
Restoring torque, 314
Voltmeters, 320
I
Ideal voltage source, 89
Impedance, 183
Incandescent lamp, 281
Indicating instruments, 313
Operating forces, 314

Induced e.m.f., 583
Inductance in series, 75
Induction machines, 349
Losses, 350
Slip-ring (or wound-rotor) rotor, 349
Squirrel cage rotor, 349
Transformer, 349
Induction Motor, 608

capacitor motor, 614
Capacitor-start induction motor, 615
Double field revolving theory, 609
Servomotors, 618
Shaded-pole motors, 616
Single Phase, 608
Split-phase induction motor, 612
Stepper motors, 625
Synchros, 622
Tachometer, 621
Induction motor, 520

Break down torque, 533
Condition for maximum starting torque, 531 Equivalent circuit, 565
Frequency of rotor current, 526
Power stages, 543
Principle of operation, 525
Production of rotating magnetic field, 522 Relationship between various
power stages, 545 Starting of induction motors, 554
Starting torque, 529
Synchronous watt, 549
Three phase induction motor, 520
Torque developed, 529
Torque under running conditions, 531
Torque-slip characteristics, 542
Wound rotor, 521
Instruments
Absolute, 313
Ammeters, 320
Attraction type instrument, 328
Classification of, 312
Controlling torque, 314
Damping Torque, 317
Electrical, 312
Instruments, 312
Integrating instruments, 313
Interior wiring, 270
Internal Characteristic, 386, 389
Iron losses, 350
K
Kirchhoff’s current law, 14 Mesh current, 105
Miniature circuit breaker, 292 Monopoles, 46
Moving iron instruments, 328
Attraction type instrument, 328 Repulsion type, 330

Mutual flux, 69
Mutually induced emf, 67
N
No-load saturation characteristic, 386 No-load test, 490, 567
Non planar circuit, 105
Non salient pole rotor, 576
Norton’s theorem, 123
O
Ohm’s law, 7
One wattmeter, 251 Open circuit, 8, 490
L
Lap winding, 359
Leakage flux, 58
Lenz’s law, 65
Light emitting diode, 284
Line-current, 238
Line-voltage, 238
Linear, 88
Liquid fuse, 292
Long shunt compound generator, 369 Loop, 105
Losses in d.c. generator, 378
Eddy current loss, 379

Iron loss, 378
Luminous efficacy, 284
Luminous intensity, 284
M
Magnetic field strength, 52
Magnetic flux, 50
Magnetic flux density, 46
Magnetic flux lines, 46
Magnetisation characteristics, 386 Magnetomotive force, 52
Maximum power transfer theorem, 126 Mechanical instruments, 312
Mechanical losses, 379
Mesh, 105
P
Passive element, 88
Passive sign convention, 6
Path, 105
Permanent magnet moving coil instruments, 321
Advantages, 323
Disadvantages, 323
Permanent magnet stepper motor, 629

Permeability, 52
Permeance, 55
Phase sequence, 237
Phase voltages, 237
Phasor diagrams of a loaded alternator, 591 Phasors, 156
Pipe earthing, 300
Pitch-factor, 578
Planar circuits, 105
Plate earthing, 299
Polar form, 160
Pole Core, 361
Pole pitch, 577
Potential difference, 5
Power, 6
Practical transformer, 469
Pre-Arcing time, 288
Primary resistor starter, 556
Production of rotating magnetic field, 522 Prospective current, 288
Q
Quality factor, 205
R
Reactive power, 190
Real power or active power, 190 Reciprocity theorem, 135
Recording instruments, 313
Rectangular form, 159
Reference node, 96
Relative permeability, 53
Reluctance, 55
Repulsion type MI instrument, 330 Resistances connected in series, 9
Resistivity, 7
Resonant frequency, 204
RMS value, 165
Rotor rheostat starter, 561
S
Salient pole rotor, 575
Secondary distribution system, 269
Secondary instruments, 313
Principles of operation, 313

Self induced emf, 67
Self inductance, 67
Self-excited generator, 366
Semi-enclosed or rewirable or kit-kat fuse, 289 Separately excited
generator, 366
Series generator, 368, 389
Series motor, 413
Series motor starter, 443
Service Connection, 269
Shaded pole motor, 616
Short circuit, 8
Short circuit test, 492
Short shunt compound generator, 370 Shunt generator, 367, 387
Critical resistance, 391

Load characteristics, 387
Voltage build-up, 397
Shunt motor, 413

Single phase a.c. motors, 349
Single Phase Induction Motor, 608, 658
Capacitor motor, 614
Capacitor-start induction motor, 615 Double field revolving theory, 609
Servomotors, 618
Shaded-pole motors, 616
Split-phase induction motor, 612 Stepper motors, 625

Synchros, 622
Tachometer, 621
Single phase transformer, 463

Slip ring induction motor, 522
Slip-ring rotor, 521
Smooth cylindrical rotor, 575
Sockets and plugs, 303
Source transformation, 92
Speed control of series motors, 453
Flux control, 453

Rheostatic control, 454
Split-phase induction motor, 612
Spread-factor, 579
Squirrel-Cage rotor, 520
Stalling torque, 543
Star-connected system, 236
Star-delta Conversion, 137
Star-delta starter, 559
Starting of induction motors, 554
Auto transformer starter, 557
Direct-On-Line [DOL] starting, 555
Primary resistor starter, 556
Rotor rheostat starter, 561
Star-delta starter, 560
Stator rheostat starter, 556
Statically induced emf, 67
Stationary armature, 580
Advantages of, 580
Stator frame, 574
Stator rheostat starter, 556
Stepper motors, 625
Multipolar rotor construction, 629
Parameters affecting stepper motors, 630
Pull-over torque, 630
Ramping, 631
Slewing, 631
Variable reluctance stepper motor, 626 Stepping motor, 625
Stores, 88
Sumpner’s test, 647
Superposition, 111
Superposition theorem, 112
Supply Voltages, 268
Swinburne’s test, 660
Synchronization, 603
Synchronous generators, 574
Synchronous machines, 348
Synchronous reactance, 590
Synchros, 622
T
Tests on induction motor, 567
Blocked rotor test, 568
No-load test, 567
Thevenin’s resistance, 117
Thevenin’s theorem, 116
Three Phase Induction Motor, 520, 636
Break down Torque, 533
Condition for maximum starting torque, 531 Equivalent circuit, 565
Frequency of rotor current, 526
Power stages, 543
Principle of operation, 525
Production of rotating magnetic field, 522 Relationship between various
power stages, 545 Starting of induction motors, 554
Starting torque, 529
Torque developed, 529
Torque under running conditions, 531
Wound rotor, 521
Three phase power, 251
Three phase voltages, 236
Three point starter, 441
Series motor starter, 443
Three point starter, 441
Three wattmeter method, 256
Three-phase power, 240
Tightly coupled, 71
Torque developed in a motor, 405
Torque-speed Characteristics, 542
Transformer, 637
OC test, 640
Polarity test, 638
SC test, 640
Transformer, 460
All-day efficiency, 513
Approximate equivalent circuit, 486
Auto transformer, 515
Commercial efficiency, 513
Condition for maximum efficiency, 495 Construction, 461
Core-type, 461
E.M.F. equation, 464
Efficiency of, 487
Equivalent circuit, 485
Equivalent reactance, 476, 478 Ideal transformer on no-load, 464 On load,
473
On no-load, 470
Performance of, 486
Phasor diagram, 470
Phasor diagram on-load, 474
Practical transformer, 469
Ratings, 460
Regulation, 488
Resistance and magnetic leakage, 469 Shell-type, 462
Single phase transformer, 463 Total Impedance, 478
Voltage transformation ratio, 467 Working principle, 460
Transformer tests, 490
No-load test, 490
Open-circuit, 490
Predetermination of efficiency, 493
Transformers, 349
Trignometric form, 160
two Wattmeter method, 252
U
Unidirectional current, 5 Unilateral, 88
V
Variable reluctance stepper motor, 626 Voltage, 5
Voltage division, 11
Voltage regulation, 389, 591
Voltage source, 89
Voltage transformation ratio, 467 Voltage-controlled current source, 90, 91
Voltmeters, 320
W
Wave winding, 360
Winding-factor, 579 Wiring Schemes, 275 Wood casing wiring, 271
Y
Yoke, 358

Rao, Uma K - Jayalaxmi, A - Basic Electrical Engineering-Sanguine Technical Publishers (2015)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rao, Uma K - Jayalaxmi, A - Basic Electrical Engineering-Sanguine Technical Publishers (2015)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Electrical Engineering

Basic Electrical Engineering

Dr. K Uma Rao

Sanguine Technical Publishers

T his book contains information obtained from authentic and highly

The consent of SANGUINE TECHNICAL PUBLISHERS does not extend to

Published by Lal Prasad for Sanguine. Production Editor:

To umesh, arathi & amrutha

Part B is devoted to the treatment of Electrical Machines. Chapter1 presents

vii viii Preface

deals with the operation, types and characteristics of dc motors. It also

Dr. K. Uma Rao

3 Methods of Circuit Analysis 87 3.1 Introduction 88

3.2 Circuit Elements 88

4 Single Phase ac Circuits 151

4.5 Average value 170

5 Three phase circuits 233

6 Electrical Wiring and Estimation 265

7 Electrical Instruments 311

7.4.2 Controlling or restoring torque 314

Part II Electric Machines 343

1 Introduction to Electric Machines 345

2.5 Types of d.c. generator 366

3.5 Motor characteristics 413

4.8.3 Predetermination of efficiency and regulation from OC and SC test

4.8.4 Condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer 495

5 Three phase induction motors 519

8 Lab Manual—Electrical Machines Lab 633

Lets begin with the definition of an electric circuit.

1.2. Basic definitions

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter is

Ι Dc currents (voltages) are generally represented by uppercase letters (I/V)

i(t) Ac currents (voltages) are generally represented by lower case letters

Figure 1.3 Sinusoidal current

The power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage

Example 1.1 Determine the power in each of the following elements

P = 6× (−5) =−30W (element supplies power) power absorbed=− power

(iii) P = 2×−1=−2W (iv) P = 3× 2 = 6W

• Devices where current decreases with increase in voltage. The device is

Figure 1.5 Resistances in parallel.

1.3.3. Division of current in parallel branches

V = V1 + V2 =⇒ V2 = V − V1 V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2 V1 = R1

R 1.4. Nodes, branches and loops A network is an interconnection of

A branch is a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

Lets consider a clockwise loop. Then KVL can be written as

Example 1.4 Find the currents and voltages in Fig. 1.13.

We solve (i) and (ii) for I1 and I2.

(c) 8Ω Figure 1.17

Req 3Ω6Ω 12Ω 4Ω 5Ω

Solution: 8S and 12S are in parallel. The net conductance is 8S + 12S =

Example 1.11 A resistance of 10 is connected in series with two resistances

10A Ι1 R1, 600W Ι2 R2

(or we can calculate it as 60 ×8 = 40V)12

Drop across 18 18 = 18V= 20×20

V8 = 40V; V18 = 18V; V5 = 20V; V3 = V6 = 2V. Example 1.14 Two resistors

100Ω 200Ω (a) +4V − Figure 1.25

Example 1.16 A current of 20A flows through two ammeters A and B

Solving (i) and (ii) we get I = 0.03962A = 39.62mA I 1 = 0.03809A =

The current through the milliammeter is 38.09mA.

Example 1.21 A 20V battery with an internal resistance of 5 is connected

Ι1 Ι2 Ι r + r + 0.92Ω+ 98.4V 60Ω 98.9V 90Ω R 90V − E − 99.9V −E

IOA = I1 = 0.5714A; IAC = I1 − I2 = 0.4762A I OB = 1− I1 = 0.4286A; IBC =