4.

Maintenance techniques for steel bridges

Steel bridges constitute a large number of the existing bridges worldwide. Corrosion
due to lack of proper maintenance and fatigue sensitive details are major problems in steel
bridges. Main reasons for repair of steel bridges might be also aging, accident damage,
aggressive environmental factors, etc. Damage to steel members typically results from
corrosion, fatigue, and impact. If the damage from any of these causes is extensive, either a
portion or the entire member may have to be replaced. Moreover, many steel bridges are in need
of upgrading to carry larger loads and increasing traffic volumes. Some of the reasons which
might necessitate strengthening of bridges are increases in service loads and intensity, changes
in codes/standards or extra safety requirements.
Two strategies which might be taken when it comes to structurally deficient bridges
include: replacement of a bridge with a new structure and upgrading of the structure to a
required level. The first option is usually very expensive and involves a great deal of traffic
disturbance. The second option, which includes strengthening and repair/retrofit of structurally
damaged or weak elements, is on the other hand a more local approach which targets the points
causing the total deficiency of the structure. The latter approach is of course, more economic
and causes less disturbance in traffic. However, the decision of using which strategy is
dependent on the results of life cycle cost analyses.
Current methods of repairing/retrofitting steel bridges typically utilize steel plates that
are bolted or welded to the structure. However in many cases, welding is not a desired solution
due to old unweldable steel and fatigue problems associated with weld defects. On the other
hand, mechanical details such as bolted connections, which have better fatigue life, are time
consuming and costly. Moreover the lack of chemical compatibility of steel materials used for
repair can cause corrosion problems. Replacing the deteriorated bridge members, particularly
decks, to today’s design standards and durability requirements are more economical alternatives
to replacing the bridges themselves. Reasons such as this provide significant impetus for the
development of bridge decks made of new advanced materials that are durable, light and easy
to install. Lightweight deck replacement is also a recognized strengthening technique for
bridges that have structural limitations on the load carrying capacity, but have nonetheless
sound steel stringers, cross-beams and main girders. Modern repair, replacement, strengthening
and rehabilitation techniques as well as bridge redecking methods are presented in this chapter
with supplementary three case studies.
In one of these case studies the life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) has been used for
selection of rehabilitation method. In the face of growing public scrutiny, officials at
transportation agencies are under increasing obligation to demonstrate their stewardship of

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taxpayer investments in the construction and maintenance of highway infrastructure, including
bridges. Many agencies are investigating economic tools such as life-cycle cost analysis that
will help them choose the most cost-effective alternatives and communicate the value of those
choices to the public. Any transportation agency can use LCCA to determine the design
alternative that will accomplish a project's objectives at the lowest overall cost. By factoring in
all costs over a project's total multiyear life cycle, not just the initial construction investment,
LCCA helps to ensure that an agency can avoid selecting an alternative based solely on the
lowest initial cost. Agencies typically use LCCA to choose among design alternatives that
would deliver the same level of performance during normal operations over the project's life
cycle.
Many state and local highway agencies worldwide have successfully applied LCCA to
analyze options for investments in highway infrastructure, particularly for decisions concerning
the reconstruction, rehabilitation, preservation, and maintenance of bridges. LCCA concepts
are even built into some bridge management systems, and some highway administrations
recently developed a software tool called to support the application of LCCA in bridge design.
Such software system incorporates probabilistic evaluation of multiple variable inputs
including costs, service lives, and economic factors to estimate the likelihood of net present
value (NPV). The exemplary methodology of LCCA presented in this chapter (p.4.6) is based
on the simple and flexible life-cycle cost model consistent with the US standard method for
performing life-cycle costing (Ehlen, 1997). Obviously it can be applied to determine the bridge
maintenance alternative not only for steel bridges as presented in p.4.6.

4.1. Repairs & replacement

Crack repairs
If a crack has been detected (most often in welded connections) and the causes have
been examined thoroughly, retrofit measures must be undertaken to repair the cracked structural
member. If certain details have been evaluated to be weak parts of the structure in terms of
fatigue, the fatigue performance may be increased by applying adequate strengthening
measures. In general the repair and strengthening methods have to consider the cause of the
damage or failure, and reliability-based decisions have to be undertaken to control the repair
and strengthening process for critical details.
The following listing contains the most important repair and strengthening methods for
welded structures:
· stop holes
· removal of crack by grinding
· re-welding
· surface treatments such as TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) dressing, hammer peening or grinding
· adding steel plates or CFRP strips
· bolted splices using high strength preloaded bolts

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· shape improving
· modification of the connection detail.
Table 4.1 proposes in a similar way as to (Kühn et al., 2008) the repair methods to be
applied for repair of fatigue cracks in relation to the crack failure main causes.

Table 4.1. Applicability of repair methods for fatigue cracks in welded structures

Repair and strengthening methods

modification connection
surface treatments

shape improving
bolted splices
adding plates
re-welding

stop holes
grinding

weld defects G G N G E G N G
Causes of fatigue cracking

lack of fusion F G G G E E G E
cold cracks F G G F E G G E
restraint F F G G E G G E
vibration F F G G F G F E
web gaps G F G F N N F E
geometrical changes F F F G E N F G
web breathing N F F F F N G E

E: Excellent G: Good F: Fair N: Not good

The following listing contains the most common repair and strengthening methods for
riveted and bolted structures:
· stop holes
· strengthening by means of pre-stressed bolts or injection bolts
· adding additional structural members, e.g. filler plates, cover plates or angles
· repair-welding (verification of weldability needed)
· adding CFRP strips
· changing the static system
· restore of the bearing conditions.
In each single case a verification of the efficiency of the chosen method is
recommended. Table 4.2 proposes in a similar way as to (Kühn et al., 2008) the repair methods
to be applied in riveted structures in relation to the crack failure main causes.

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 Table 4.2. Applicability of repair methods for fatigue cracks in riveted structures

Repair and strengthening methods

changing static system

fibre reinforcement
pre-stressed bolts

repair-welding

repair bearing
adding plates

stop holes
riveting process G G F/N G G - -
cracks at holes E E N F F N -
Causes of fatigue cracking

cracks in gross cross section N E N G F N -

thin connection plates
out-of-plane bending
secondary stresses
local stress concentration
frozen joints
poor detailing
E N
N N
N N
- -
- -
F G
N F F N -
N G F E -
N G - G E
- - - F -
N - - - E
- G G/F - -

E: Excellent G: Good F: Fair N: Not good -: not applicable

Figure 4.1. Weld repair in bottom flange (top) and in web (bottom)
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 The most common technique that can be used to repair through - thickness cracks is
splice plates (additional cover plates). Splice plates add material to either increase a cross-
section or provide continuity at a cracked cross-section. The philosophy of splice plates for
fatigue crack repair is to add cross-sectional area, which in turn reduces stress ranges. For
instance, if a fatigue crack grows across the full depth of the bridge girder, there are two ways
in which it can be repaired. A vee-and-weld can be specified, but the base metal that is weld-
repaired will most likely have a shorter fatigue life than the original detail (Fig.4.1). To ensure
the weld repair will have adequate fatigue resistance, splice plates can be added after the repair
is made to decrease the stress range that contributed to the original cracking thus protecting the
repair (Chajes et al., 2004). The example of crack repairing with splice plates is shown in Figure
4.2.

Figure 4.2. Steel girder crack repairing with splice plates: damaged girder (left) and splice
plate repair (right)

Repair of deformed members

Structural members in bridges can be damaged by accident by vehicles or manufacturing
in the factory. Depending on the limitation and codes, the deformed structural member can be
repaired with mechanical and thermal repair methods. The mechanical repair is the most
common repair method and the process is carried out by application of external loads to the
deformed member. The deformed member is loaded in opposite direction to the deformation.
The use of this method results in a loss of the yield strength in the member. There are additional
requirements to national and international codes and recommendations for the mechanical
method, namely:
· mechanical straightening is not permitted below the temperature of -20°C
· maximum external forces should be continuous about 15 minutes in the last step of the
operation
· no cracks and defects caused by mechanical repair are acceptable
· first bending deformations, then torsional deformations should be removed.
The location and size of the deformation and the depth of the plate are decisive in
determining tools and equipment to be used in the repair operation. For example, in case of

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