On Resolution, Accuracy and Calibration

of Digital Ultrasonic Thickness Gauges

by Peter Hammond Cygnus Instruments Ltd *

ABSTRACT

The difference between resolution and accuracy is highlighted with

respect to ultrasonic thickness gauges. After briefly describing the
principles of operation, sources of errors are discussed, and where
possible quantified. It is shown that calibration to national standards
has no place in this field.

It is concluded that while the thickness gauge is a valuable tool for

routine inspection, the accuracy of its readings should not be accepted
with unquestioning faith.

Table of contents

1. Introduction 
Accuracy and Resolution, The digital time of flight gauge, What is calibration?
2. Principles of Operation 
Obtaining a Time of Flight, Converting to Thickness
3. Sources of error 
Time of Flight errors, Variations in speed of sound, Temperature
4. Conclusions

Introduction

Digital ultrasonic thickness gauges are versatile instruments for

measurement of engineering structures which can only be accessed
from one side. Their most common uses are in quality control (e.g.
during the fabrication of large tanks), and corrosion monitoring (e.g.
ship hull condition surveys). They are easy to use, requiring the
minimum of setup, and operate on a wide range of materials.

Display resolution as good as 0.01mm is commonly offered. However,

in this paper, it will be shown that the situation is not as simple as it
may seem. There are many factors which can reduce both the accuracy
and resolution of the thickness reading obtained. These will be
discussed, after first outlining the principles of operation of thickness
gauges.1.
 1
 Throughout this paper, the term "thickness gauge" will be taken to mean only digital ultrasonic
wall thickness gauge.

Accuracy and Resolution

It may be worthwhile first to clarify

the terms "accuracy" and
"resolution". Refer to figure 1,
which represents schematically the
distribution of a number of readings
taken on a component. Note that the
observations are not evenly
distributed, but a bunched at
discrete reading values. Resolution
is the smallest increment of the
Figure 1: Distribution of readings taken on a
quantity that can be recognised. component, showing the difference between
Here, that means the smallest accuracy and resolution.
possible change in the displayed
reading. In figure 1, it can be seen
that the readings recorded appear at discrete values with none in between.
When applied to a flaw detector, resolution means the closest together that
two echoes can be and still be distinguished. This is an important difference.
For high resolution in a flaw detector, a very short pulse is required, so that
overlap in minimised. This is not the case in a thickness gauge, where the
pulse width affects the minimum reading, but not the resolution.

Accuracy is a measure of the statistical error in the readings that may be

obtained, as a result of the imperfections in the instrument. It is a combination
of a number of terms representing uncertainty in the measurement and
calibration processes.

A third term that is used is repeatability. This is the error in readings

caused by a combinaton of the instrument and its use. Repeatability
cannot be better than accuracy, and can be much worse. For example, a
screw micrometer may have a resolution of 0.01mm, that being its scale
division. The accuracy is limited by the cutting of the thread, hysteresis
in the screw, the setting of the zero point and the reading of the
measurement. The latter two are both equal to the resolution, so even if
the former two are negligible, the accuracy cannot be better than
0.02mm. Such a relation between accuracy and resolution is common.
The use of a micrometer requires a degree of skill to get the tension
right. In the hands of an unskilled user, the repeatability can be 0.05mm
or worse.

The digital time of flight gauge

The term "thickness gauge" is to some extent a misnomer. The gauge in
fact measures the time of flight (TOF) of an ultrasonic pulse. Before the
result is displayed to the user, it is converted into a thickness, which
requires a conversion factor to be applied - in effect, a speed of sound
value (a factor of two is also introduced, as the TOF is a two-way
transit time). The resolution of the reading is therefore dependent on the
speed of sound calibration in use. Resolution quoted by manufacturers
is often that of the display hardware, as it is inconvenient to quote
resolution as a function of material.

The conversion step can greatly reduce both accuracy and resolution.
The speed of sound (c) is calibrated by the user prior to a survey, and is
therefore outside the control of any notional standard approval.

What is calibration?

Most industrial instruments are subjected to periodical recalibration

procedures. For example, a micrometer will be sent away once a year to
verify that it reads a series of blocks to within the required error limits.
Absolute values traceable to national standards can be used.

This kind of certified standard calibration is meaningless for a thickness

gauge. In our laboratory we have two 99 mm cubic test blocks, both
made to the same drawing specification from EN3B steel. Both have
NAMAS calibration certificates (Coventry Gauge Co. numbers 145731
and 147615), stating that the dimensions between prescribed faces are
99.013 +-0.010 mm and 99.009 +-0.007 mm. When a Cygnus 3 gauge
with resolution 0.05 mm is calibrated to read 99.00 on one of these
blocks, its calibration is traceable to national standards. However, it
then reads 100.0 mm on the other: reductio ad absurdum.

Time of flight measurement could be verified against absolute

standards, but there would be no point to such a test. The time is
measured in some arbitrary units and only becomes meaningful when
processed for display.

In terms of thickness gauges, "calibration" means setting the speed of

sound for the material under test. For single echo gauges, the probe
delay time must also be set. One of two methods can be used to set the
speed of sound. Either an absolute value can be entered, or the gauge
can be set to read a known sample and its thickness entered. Both
methods assume that the material under test is the same as that used for
calibration. It will be shown later that this assumption is not always
valid.
Principles of Operation

Obtaining a Time of Flight

A thickness gauge uses an internal

clock to measure the time of arrival
of one or more echoes, assumed to
be from the backwall of the test
object. The frequency of this clock
determines the resolution of TOF
measurement. The time of flight is
determined either by subtracting the
time of arrival of consecutive Figure 2: Time of flight detection in echo to echo
echoes (echo to echo or multiple mode.
echo modes), or by subtracting a
calibrated offset value from the first time of arrival. Figure 2 represents the
detection in echo-to-echo mode. There are three sources of error in this
process, described below. Therefore, we can say that
T = Rø +   ø  +    (1)
where
T = error in TOF
Rø = resolution (frequency) of clock
 ø  = error in clock frequency and
other timing electronics
  = phase angle error.

Of these three,  Rø is the most significant.

Clock resolution

TOF cannot be known to greater accuracy than

the clock resolution. It can be seen from figure 2
that the error in (t1 - t0) is still 1 clock tick, as the
times are rounded down. Resolution can be
improved by applying digital signal processing
(DSP) techniques to the received signal. The high
level of computing power required to implement
a sophisticated DSP algorithm is unlikely to be
found in a general purpose handheld gauge. Figure 3: Improving resolution by
repeated measurement with
Resolution can be improved by averaging a offset.
number of readings taken with a known small
shift in the start of timing, relative to the drive
pulse. Figure 3 illustrates this. Here the shift is  Rø/ 4. Implementing this
requires the offset to be accurately known, usually by using a higher speed
clock.
Electronic precision

The clock frequency itself and the detection of echoes both have errors
associated with them. With modern crystal oscilators and precision
electronics,   ø is negligible within the manufacturer's specified
working range.

Phase angle error

The echoes are detected by comparing the signal level with a reference
value. If the two peaks are of different amplitude, the peaks will cross
the reference at slightly different phase angles. In theory,     could
approach 1/4 wavelength ( ) if the threshold was near the base of one
peak and the top of the second. In practice, less than  /16 would be
expected.
A related problem occurs when noise is superimposed on the wave. The
small change in overall signal level can cause the detection point to
move, and that can cause jitter in the reading. It can be overcome by
averaging a number of readings for display. Averaging in this way
improves accuracy, but not resolution.

Converting to Thickness

Having established the TOF in internal clock ticks, there are two ways
to convert it to a reading - fixed clock or fixed conversion. Each has its
own limitations. In addition, both are limited by the accuracy with
which c is known for the material under test. The error introduced by
differences between the calibration sample and the actual test material
is denoted  c. Sources of this error are discussed in the next section.

Fixed clock

The more common method is to use a fixed clock frequency, and to use
digital arithmetic to multiply TOF by c to get the reading. In this type
of gauge, the speed of sound can be set or displayed in normal
engineering units. However, there is a limit to the resolution of the
setting (for example, 5 ms-1 steps). The limitations will be more
noticeable at lower c, for example in plastics. Also rounding errors can
be introduced in the calculation, although this should not be a
significant effect with well designed software. Thus
L = T +  Rc +  p +  c (2)
where
L = error in thickness reading
Rc = error due to resolution of velocity setting 
p = precision of calculation
 At low velocity settings, each clock tick will represent a small
thickness, so measurement resolution will be smaller than display
resolution. At the high end of the velocity range, the measurement
resolution will become comparable to, or exceed, the resolution of the
digital display. Consider a hypothetical gauge with a fixed clock
frequency of 50 MHz, calibrated to 5900 ms-1. Each tick thus represents
0.059 mm. The gauge has a four digit display. As the probe is moved
along a continuous wedge from 10 to 11 mm, readings 10.03, 10.09,
10.15, 10.21 etc. are observed. Although the last digit of the display can
take any value 0-9, only certain readings can be displayed. For a true
measurement resolution of 0.01 mm at a maximum velocity setting of
10000 ms-1, the clock would need to run at 500 MHz. This is an
extremely high speed for a simple hand held instrument.

Fixed conversion

Another method is to vary the clock frequency so that one count always
represents one increment of the displayed digits. Before the widespread
use of microprocessors, this was the only way. The setting of c is
analogue, and is thus not subject to any limitation of resolution. It is set
by measuring a known sample and adjusting a trimmer to get the
correct displayed thickness.

It may seem that this would be liable to the same errors as normal
measurement, and so the total system error would be doubled.
However, it is possible to get much more accurate setting by adjusting
the gauge one digit too far in each direction, and then setting the
trimmer to the midway position. The actual value of c is unknown to
the user. The total error is then

L = T +  c in the best case (3)

or
(4)
L = 2 T +  c in the worst case

Measurement resolution is, by definition, equivalent to display

resolution in this type of instrument.

Sources of error

Time of Flight errors

In addition to the fixed calibration errors outlined above, there are

several sources of random error in the use of the gauge, which affect
the repeatability of readings.
The thickness of the couplant layer can have a marked effect on the
reading from a single echo gauge, especially when reading on a rough
corroded surface. The velocity of sound in the couplant is around 1/4
that in steel, so 0.5mm of couplant in a pit will increase the indicated
reading by 2mm. A similar effect can be observed when reading pitted
substrates. A relatively deep and flat bottomed pit, when filled with
couplant, can give a reading. For example a 1mm pit on an 8mm steel
wall could give a reading of 4mm. The user might erroneously believe
this to be some acoustic effect or probe fault leading to halved readings.
Usually a multipe echo gauge will ignore both of these effects, as with
other coatings, but occasionally a pit can be measured. As a wave is
propagated through the material, it is attenuated and diffracted. Both
processes reduce the proportion of high frequency components in the
wavelet, thus changing its shape, which can alter the measured time of
flight. In laboratory measurements of velocity, these phase shift effects
are accounted for mathematically. [1]. As the gauge does not make the
same corrections, entering literature values for velocity will introduce a
small error. Fowler et al [3] list a number of additional factors which
can reduce accuracy, including curvature of the test piece and surface
roughness. These are only significant when working at the highest
accuracy.

Variations in speed of sound

The nature of the work implies that calibrating thickness gauges on the
actual material under test is not normally practicable. Gauges are
normally calibrated using some kind of reference sample - either a
standard velocity for the material, or a test block of a similar material.
This assumes that the two materials have the same speed of sound; an
assumption which can be very poor. We will discuss some of the many
factors which can affect speed of sound in materials.

It has been postulated [2] that for corrosion monitoring, knowing the
absolute thickness is less important than knowing the rate of loss year
on year. Therefore, accurate calibration is not necessary, only
repeatable calibration. This pragmatic approach may be appropriate in
many cases, providing the survey results are used with this assumption
in mind.

Material grade

The most significant factor is the grade of material. Simply knowing a

type of material, such as "steel" or even "stainless steel", is not enough,
as table 1 shows. (It should be noted that there are no procedures or
estimates of error given with these values.)
 Table 1: Literature values for speed of sound in steels.
Description velocity /ms-1 Ref
Mild steel 5960 3
Steel 1020 5890 4
Stainless steel 5980 3
Stainless steel 302 5660 4
Stainless steel 347 5740 4
Stainless steel 410 7390 4

Process history

The speed of sound in any given sample will be influenced by

processes applied to it. Heat treatment of metals (hardening and
tempering) will have a small effect, as will cold working.[5]. These
differences are estimated to be up to 5%, which can significantly
compromise the quoted accuracy of a thickness gauge.

When a material is subjected to any forming process, the microstructure

will become aligned. This leads to differences in properties, including
speed of sound, in different directions - an effect termed anisotropy. It
can be demonstrated using one of the 99 mm mild steel calibration
blocks described earlier. A Cygnus thickness gauge with 0.05mm
resolution was calibrated to read 99.00 on one pair of faces. It then
repeatably read 98.80 and 99.30 on the other two. However the block
measured 99.00mm +-0.02 in each direction using a certified digital
caliper.

Process history has even more marked effect on plastics materials.

Anisotropy is very significant, owing to the highly directional nature of
plastics forming processes such as injection moulding and extrusion.
Cooling rate, and therefore wall thickness, also has an effect. Reliable
calibration can only be acheived using a sample of the exact structure
under test. Fortunately, thickness gauges are mostly used for process
control on plastics, where such procedures can be incorporated easily.

Temperature

Temperature affects the indicated reading through four mechanisms:

o Speed of sound 
o True thickness of material 
 o Electronics drift 
o Probe characteristics

The speed of sound in a material depends on the elastic modulus E and

the density (, both of which are affected by temperature. Speed of
sound will fall as the temperature rises, which makes the material
appear thicker. The effect can be estimated quantitatively as follows.
[6]. Compressional speed of sound cl is given by

Figure 4:
Variation of speed of sound in
steel with temperature.

and subscript 0 represents a reference condition.

Using literature values, the variation of speed of sound with temperature can
be estimated for mild steel, and is presented in figure 4. It can be seen that the
effect can be quite strong.
The material will expand as the temperature rises. This is usually a small
effect, but must be considered when comparing a reading at high temperature
with a drawing which refers to the room-temperature dimension.

A large departure in ambient temperature can cause the gauge's internal

clock to drift from its specified frequency, which will increase the
term   ø in eq. 1. Similarly, the zero offset and responsivenes of the
probe can be altered by changing temperature. The manufacturer's
recommendations for service conditions should therefore be observed.

Conclusions

The total accuracy in a digital thickness gauge reading can be stated as

the sum of a number of sources of error. The largest are the variation in
speed of sound between components, and the resolution of the timing
circuit. The user must be aware that the manufacturer's stated resolution
is only the reading resolution. This is not the same as accuracy, which
may be significantly reduced by uncertainty in the speed of sound for
the material under test.

As with any measurement, spurious accuracy should be avoided when

reporting. The fact that a gauge's display can show 0.01 mm does not
imply that it can resolve between test blocks of 10.01 and 10.02 mm.
The limitations of extrapolating from a calibration block to a real
structure must be considered when reporting absolute thickness values.

Factory calibration of thickness gauges against traceable standards is

meaningless. Careful field calibration is necessary and sufficient.
Comparative measurements on the same component need not be
compromised by uncertainty in speed of sound, provided the same
calibration is used for repeat surveys.