Power Electronics and Control in

Grid-Connected PV Systems

ECEN 2060
 Grid-Connected PV System
One possible grid-connected PV system architecture
IPV iac
DC input AC output
+ +
VPV , I PV Power AC v ac (t ) = 2VRMS sin (ωt )
PV electronics utility
VPV vac
array converter grid iac (t ) = 2 I RMS sin (ωt )
PPV = VPV I PV − − Pac = VRMS I RMS
pac (t ) = vac iac = VRMS I RMS (1 − cos(2ωt ))

Functions of the power electronics converter

• Operate PV array at the maximum power point (MPP) under all conditions
• Generate AC output current in phase with the AC utility grid voltage
• Achieve power conversion efficiency close to 100%
P V I
η converter = ac = RMS RMS
PPV VPV I PV
• Provide energy storage to balance the difference between PPV and pac(t)
Desirable features
• Minimum weight, size, cost
• High reliability
ECEN2060 2
 Power Electronics for Grid-Connected PV System
One possible realization:
Energy-storage
IPV capacitor iac
+ + +
Boost Single-phase AC
PV DC-DC DC-AC utility
array VPV C VDC vac
converter inverter grid
− − −

DC-DC control DC-AC control

Boost DC-DC converter

• Set the PV operating point (VPV, IPV) to MPP
• Efficiently step up VPV to a higher DC voltage VDC
DC-AC inverter
• Efficiently generate AC output current iac in phase with the AC grid voltage vac
• Balance the average power delivery from the PV array to the grid, Pac = Ppv * ηDC-DC * ηDC-AC
Energy storage capacitor C
• Balance the difference between the instantaneous power pac(t) and the average power
The system must be disconnected from the grid if the utility loses power
ECEN2060 3
 DC-AC Inverter Control
One possible realization:
Energy-storage
IPV capacitor iac
+ + +
Boost Single-phase AC
PV DC-DC DC-AC utility
array VPV C VDC vac
converter inverter grid
− − −

DC-DC control DC-AC control = IRMSref

• The control variable for the DC-AC inverter is the RMS current reference IRMSref
• The inverter output current iac(t) is controlled so that it is in phase with the grid voltage vac(t)
and so that it’s RMS value equals the reference:

IRMS = IRMSref
One possible current control approach, based on a comparator with hysteresis, has been
discussed in class, see Intro to Power Electronics notes

ECEN2060 4
 Simulation model: pv_boost_dcac_averaged.mdl
ECEN2060
6-module PV Array
DC-AC
PV module (I) 199.8 scope
Ipv Vpv

Vout (boost) = VDC v ac

1000 Insolation Ppv v ac
Vpv Boost
Insolation PV1 Vout Vdc DC-AC iac
Vg Vout iac
DC-DC
(averaged, C) inverter iin
iin
PV module (I) current control D Duty
Ipv Vpv (averaged) D
Set Boost Iref to Iout Duty
Insolation Ppv operate PV array ef f iciency
ef f iciency Boost scope Iref pin
at MPP pin
PV2
492.6 pout pin, pout
4.95 Iref Pout pout
Ipv = Iref
DC-AC Inverter
PV module (I) PV current Pout boost
Ipv Vpv Boost DC-DC
Set DC-AC Iref
0.9643 3.94 to balance
Insolation Ppv
Vpv
Boost efficiency Iref
the power, i,e IRMSref
PV3 Ppv to keep VDC
Vpv
Product constant

PV module (I)
Ipv Vpv

Insolation Ppv Average output AC power

1 472.8
PV4 60
s
PV output power Integrator(pout) fac_out Pout
PV module (I)
Ipv Vpv 510.8 0.9586
DC-AC average power
and efficiency
Insolation Ppv Ppv Compute DC-AC Efficiency
efficiency
PV5 103.2 1 493.2
60
s
PV module (I) Vpv
Integrator(pin) fac_in Pin
Ipv Vpv
Average input AC power
Insolation Ppv

PV6 ECEN2060
Add
PV + Boost DC-DC + DC-AC inverter averaged model

Ipv = Iref

ECEN2060 5
 How to achieve average power balance?
Simulation example:
• 6-module (85 W each) PV array with full sun (1,000 W/m2 insolation)
• PV array operates at MPP: Ppv = 6*85 W = 510 W
• AC grid RMS voltage: 120 V
• Run simulations for 3 different values of IRMSref and observe boost output voltage Vout(t) = VDC(t)

IRMSref is too low

Pac < Ppv
IRMSref = 3.4 A VDC increases

IRMSref is too high

Pac > Ppv
IRMSref = 4.4 A VDC decreases

IRMSref is just right

Pac ≈ Ppv
VDC starts at 200 V
IRMSref = 3.94 A
and returns to 200 V
ECEN2060 Tac = AC line period (1/60 seconds) 6
 Average Power Balance by Automatic Feedback Control
IPV iac
+ + +
Boost Single-phase AC
PV DC-DC DC-AC utility
array VPV VDC vac
converter inverter grid
− − −

+ IRMSref
DC-DC control −
VDCref
compensator

• Voltage VDC is sensed and compared to a reference value VDCref (e.g. VDCref = 200 V)
• The difference VDC – VDCref is the error signal for the feedback controller
• If the error is positive, i.e. if VDC is greater than VDCref, the compensator increses IRMSref
• If the error is negative, i.e. if VDC is less than VDCref, the compensator decreases IRMSref
• In steady-state, IRMSref adjusted by the automatic feedback controller is just right so that
VDC = VDCref, error signal is zero, and the average power Pac delivered to the AC grid
matches the power generated by the PV array
• Stability, dynamic responses and realizations of feedback controllers are topics beyond the
scope of this class. These topics are addressed in Circuits, and more advanced Control
and Power Electronics courses
ECEN2060 7
 Energy storage
Energy-storage
IPV capacitor iac
+ + +
Boost Pac pac(t) Single-phase AC
PV DC-DC DC-AC utility
array VPV C VDC vac
converter inverter grid
− − −

DC-DC control DC-AC control

Pac − p ac (t ) = Pac − Pac (1 − cos 2ωt ) = Pac cos 2ωt
Pac > pac(t), capacitor C is charged up

∆vDC

Pac < pac(t), capacitor C is discarged

• Capacitor C provides energy storage necessary to balance instantaneous power delivered to the grid
• Magnitude of the resulting voltage ripple ∆VDC at twice the line frequency (2 x 60 = 120 Hz) depends
on the average power Pac and capacitance C

ECEN2060 8
 Energy storage capacitor C
Pac − pac (t ) = Pac − Pac (1 − cos 2ωt ) = Pac cos 2ωt
Pac > pac(t), capacitor C is charged up

∆vDC

Pac < pac(t), capacitor C is discarged

• Energy supplied to the capacitor during the time when Pac > pac(t), i.e. when the capacitor
is charged from VDCmin to VDCmax
Tac / 8 π /2
P Pac
∆EC = ∫ Pac cos 2ωt dt = ac ∫ cosθ dθ =
−T / 8
2ω −π / 2
ω
ac

• This energy must match the change in energy stored on the capacitor:
1 1 VDC max + VDC min
∆E C = 2
CV DC max − CV 2
DC min = C (V DC max − V DC min ) ≈ CVDC ∆VDC
2 2 2
• Solve for the ripple voltage:
Pac Pac
CV DC ∆VDC = ∆VDC =
ω CV DC ω
ECEN2060 9
 Energy storage analysis example
• DC-AC inverter input voltage: VDC = 200 V
• Average power delivered to the grid: Pac = 600 W
• Find C so that ∆VDC = 40 V (i.e. +/-10% of the DC voltage at the input of the DC-AC inverter)
• Solution:
Pac
CV DC ∆VDC =
ω
Pac 600 W
C= = = 200 µF
∆VDCVDC ω 40 V * 200 V * 2π 60 Hz

• Note that the energy supplied (or absorbed) by the capacitor is relatively small:
Pac 600
∆EC = = = 1.6 J
ω 2π 60
• The total energy stored on the capacitor is also small
1 2
EC = CVDC = 4J
2
• This example illustrates the need for only relatively small energy storage in a grid-
connected system, easily accomplished by a capacitor, in sharp contrast to stand-alone
PV systems that require very significant energy storage (e.g. batteries)
ECEN2060 10
 Maximum Power Point (MPP) Tracking
Energy-storage
IPV capacitor iac
+ + +
Boost Single-phase AC
PV DC-DC DC-AC utility
array VPV C VDC vac
converter inverter grid
− − −

DC-DC control DC-AC control

Choices for the Boost DC-DC control variable:

• Duty cycle D
• Input current reference Iref
• Input voltage reference Vref

• The objective of the MPP tracking algorithm is to adjust the DC-DC control
variable so that the PV array operates at the maximum power point
• In the example discussed here:
• It is assumed that the Boost output voltage Vout = VDC is constant
• Iref is used as the control variable for the Boost DC-DC converter
• PV array current ideally tracks the Boost input current reference: IPV = Iref
ECEN2060 11
 Reminder: PV array characteristic
• Example: six 85 W modules in series, full sun

Ipv [A] 6

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Vpv [V]

ECEN2060 12
 Ppv as a function of Vpv
• Example: six 85 W modules in series, full sun

Ppv [W] 500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Vpv [V]

ECEN2060 13
 Ppv as a function of Ipv = Iref
• Example: six 85 W modules in series, full sun
MPP
Ppv [W] 500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ipv = Iref [A]

Objective: adjust Ipv = Iref to operate at MPP

ECEN2060 14
 Simple “perturb and observe” MPP tracking algorithm
MPP
500 Initialize Iref, ∆Iref, Pold
450 Ppv
400

350
Measure Ppv
300

250

200

150
YES NO
Ppv > Pold ?
100
Change
50 Continue direction
in the
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 same
direction ∆Iref = −∆Iref
Ipv = Iref

Always step Iref in the

direction of increasing Ppv Iref = Iref +∆Iref
Pold = Ppv

ECEN2060 15
MATLAB code: MPP tracking algorithm initialization

Initialize Iref, ∆Iref, Pold

Measure Ppv

YES NO
Ppv > Pold ?
Change
Continue direction
in the
same
direction ∆Iref = −∆Iref

Iref = Iref +∆Iref

Pold = Ppv

ECEN2060 16
 MATLAB code: MPP tracking algorithm

Initialize Iref, ∆Iref, Pold

Measure Ppv

YES NO
Ppv > Pold ?
Change
Continue direction
in the
same
direction ∆Iref = −∆Iref

Iref = Iref +∆Iref

Pold = Ppv

ECEN2060 17
 Simulation model: pv_boost_mpp_Iref.mdl
ECEN2060
Insolation 1-5 ECEN 2060 PV array with
6-module PV Array
85 x 6 = 510 W DC system MPP tracking
PV voltage
Boost DC-DC converter
PV module (I) 103.4
Ipv Vpv 1 time unit = 1 minute
S1
(time varying) Insolation Ppv Vpv
0.9644
PV1 4.94 Boost Iout
1000 Select 200 Vout
DC-DC Boost efficiency
insolation (averaged)
S1-5 for modules Ipv Vout Pout
PV module (I) Vpv Iref control Pout
(constant) 1-5 Ipv Vpv Vg
Vpv ef f iciency
ef f iciency
Insolation Ppv
Iref
PV2 D
Duty
Boost DC-DC Vpv
PV module (I)
Ipv Vpv MPP tracking
controller Iref
Insolation Ppv MPPtrackIref.m

PV3 Vpv P MPPT Iref

Ppv Iref 1
Compute PV MPP
PV module (I) Iref scope
Ipv Vpv Ppv

Insolation Ppv 4

PV4 Select
Iref
(constant) controller

PV module (I)
Ipv Vpv
PV power
Insolation Ppv 510.8

Insolation 6 PV5
Ppv
PV energy [kWh]
PV module (I)
Ipv Vpv 1 4.081
S6 -K-
s
(time varying) Insolation Ppv Integrate kWh (pv) Epv
PV6 Ppv
1000 Select Add
insolation Ipv
1
S6 (constant) for Iref Ppv
module 6 Pout, Ppv , Pideal
Ipv = Iref Ppv
ideal

Integrate
5 Ideal PV energy [kWh] kWh (out)
Pout Output energy [kWh]
1 4.087 1
5 modules -K- -K- -K- 3.936
Ppv s s
ideal
85/1000 Integrate Convert to Eideal Eout
1
Pideal kWh
1 module

ECEN2060 18
 MPP tracking operation

Boost DC-DC converter duty cycle D

PV array voltage Vpv

Boost DC-DC converter input current reference, Iref = Ipv

PV array output power Ppv compared to ideal Ppv @ MPP

ECEN2060 19
 The Future of
Grid-Connected PV Systems
Ipv, Vpv Ipv, Vpv

PV Converter PV Converter

Ipv, Vpv Ipv, Vpv

Controller Controller

Ipv, Vpv Ipv, Vpv

PV Converter PV Converter
Inverter 60 Hz AC
Utility
Ipv, Vpv Ipv, Vpv
Controller Controller

Ipv, Vpv Ipv, Vpv

Innovations in system
Converter Converter
PV PV architecture, control,
and power electronics
Ipv, Vpv
Controller
Ipv, Vpv
Controller circuit design

• Scalable modular power electronics: distributed DC-DC conversion

• Much improved performance in the presence of module mismatches or partial shading
• Ongoing projects in the Colorado Power Electronics Lab (CoPEC) at CU ECE Dept led
by Prof. Erickson
ECEN2060 20
 Module-Integrated DC-DC Converter (MIC)
for the Smart PV Roofs

ECEN2060 21