Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

BEAM EFFICIENCY
The (total) beam area ΩA (or beam solid angle) consists of the main beam area (or solid angle) ΩM
plus the minor-lobe area (or solid angle) Ωm.
Thus,  A  M  m (10)
M m
Or  1
A A
The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area is called main beam efficiency εM.
M
Beam efficiency   M  (Dimension less) (11)
A
The ratio of the minor-lobe area (Ωm) to the (total) beam area is called the stray factor.

stray factor   m  m (12)
A
It follows that M m 1
DIRECTIVITY D AND GAIN G
The directivity D and the gain G are probably the most important parameters of an antenna.
The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density P(θ, ϕ)max
watts/m2) to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far field of an antenna.
P( ,  ) max
Thus, D (13)
P( ,  ) av
This is used to determine directivity from the pattern.
The directivity is a dimensionless ratio ≥1.
The average power density over a sphere is given by
2 
1
P ( ,  ) av 
4 
 
 P( ,  ) Sin  d d
0 0

1
P ( ,  ) av 
4  P( ,  ) d
4
W/Sr (14)

Therefore, the directivity

P( ,  ) max 1
D  (15)
1  P( ,  ) 
4 
P( ,  )d 1
4 4  
4 
P( ,  ) max
d

4
And D (16)
 P( ,  ) n d
4
Here directivity D can be computed from beam area ΩA
Where Pn(θ, ϕ) dΩ is normalized power pattern
Hence, the directivity is the ratio of the area of a sphere (4π sr) to the beam area ΩA of the antenna.
Thus smaller the beam area, larger the directivity D

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 Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

For an antenna that radiates over only half a sphere, the beam area ΩA= 2π sr and the directivity D
4
is D  2 ( 3.01 dBi ) (17)
2
Where dBi= decibels over isotropic
Note that the idealized isotropic antenna (ΩA= 4π sr) has the lowest possible directivity D = 1. All
actual antennas have directivities greater than 1 (D >1).
The simple short dipole has a beam area ΩA= 2.67π sr and a directivity D = 1.5 (= 1.76 dBi ).
The gain G of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the directivity D due
to ohmic losses in the antenna.
In transmitting, these losses involve power fed to the antenna which is not radiated but heats the
antenna structure. A mismatch in feeding the antenna can also reduce the gain.
The ratio of the gain to the directivity is the antenna efficiency factor.
Thus, G  K D (18)
where k = efficiency factor (0 ≤ k ≤ 1), dimensionless.
In many well-designed antennas, k may be close to unity.
In practice, G is always less than D, with D its maximum idealized value.
Gain can be measured by comparing the maximum power density of the Antenna Under Test
(AUT) with a reference antenna of known gain, such as a short dipole. Thus,
P ( AUT )
Gain  G  max  G ( ref . Ant ) (19)
Pmax (ref . Ant.)
If the half-power beamwidths of an antenna are known, its directivity
41,253 sq deg
D (20)
 HP 
o o
HP

Where
41,253 sqdeg= number of square degrees in sphere = 4π(180/n)2 square degrees
θoHP = half-power beamwidth in one principal plane
φoHP = half-power beamwidth in other principal plane
Since (20) neglects minor lobes, a better approximation is a
40,000 sq deg
D ( Approx Directivity) (21)
 HP 
o o
HP

If the antenna has a main half-power beamwidth (HPBW) = 20◦ in both principal planes, its
directivity is
40,000 sq deg
D  100  20dBi (22)
400 sq deg
This means that the antenna radiates 100 times the power in the direction of the main beam as a
non-directional, isotropic antenna.
The directivity-beamwidth product 40,000 sq deg is a rough approximation. For certain types of
antennas other values may be more accurate.

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 Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

DIRECTIVITY AND RESOLUTION

The beamwidth between first nulls around main lobe of an antenna is called First Null Beamwidth
(FNBW). The resolution of an antenna is taken equal to half of the FNBW).
If FNBW of an antenna pattern is 2◦, the resolution of the antenna is 1◦.
Half the beamwidth between first nulls is approximately equal to the half-power beamwidth
(HPBW) of an antenna i.e.
FNBW (23)
 HPBW
2
The product of the FNBW/2 in the two principal planes of the antenna pattern is a measure of the
antenna beam area. Thus,
 FNBW   FNBW  (24)
A    
 2   2 
It then follows that the number N of radio transmitters or point sources of radiation distributed
uniformly over the sky which an antenna can resolve is given approximately by
4
N (25)
A
Where ΩA= beam area, sr.
4
Since N (26)
A
Thus it is concluded that ideally the number of point sources an antenna can resolve is numerically
equal to the directivity of the antenna or
D N (27)
The resolution of an antenna helps to distinguish between transmitters on two adjacent satellites
in the Clarke geostationary orbit. Thus, when the antenna beam main lobe is aligned with one
satellite, the first nulls coincide with the adjacent satellites.

ANTENNA APERTURES:
The concept of Antenna Aperture is related to receiving antennas.
Consider a receiving antenna which is a rectangular horn immersed in the field E of a uniform
plane wave as shown in Fig. 6.
Let S is the pointing vector of the plane wave and physical aperture i.e. area of its mouth, be Ap
square meters.
Assuming that the response of the horn antenna is uniform over its physical aperture then the total
power P absorbed by the antenna from the wave is
E2
P AP  S AP (28)
Z
Thus, the horn antenna may be regarded as having an aperture Ap.
However the field response of the horn is not uniform across the aperture Ap. Hence we define a
term called the effective aperture Ae of the horn which is less than the physical aperture Ap as
given by

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 Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

Ae
a p  (29)
Ap
Where εap is known as aperture efficiency and it is a dimensionless quantity.
For horn and parabolic reflector antenna, aperture efficiencies are commonly in the range of 0.5 to
0.8.

Fig. 6: Plane wave incident on electromagnetic horn of physical aperture Ap.

Fig. 7: Radiation over beam area ΩA from aperture Ae.

Large dipole or patch arrays with uniform field to the edges of the physical aperture may attain
higher aperture efficiencies approaching 100%.
However, to reduce side lobes, fields are commonly tapered toward the edges, resulting in reduced
aperture efficiency.
Consider now an antenna with an effective aperture Ae, which radiates all of its power in a conical
pattern of beam area ΩA, as shown in Fig. 7. Assuming a uniform field Ea over the aperture, the
power radiated is
Ea2
Prad  Ae (30)
Z0
Where Z0 = intrinsic impedance of medium (377Ω for air or vacuum).

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 Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

Assuming a uniform field Er in the far field at a distance r, the power radiated is also given by
Er2 2
Prad  r A (W ) (31)
Z0
Ea Ae
Where Er  (32)
r
Hence we get 2  Ae  A (m 2 ) (33)
The equation (33) is known as Aperture Beam-area relation.
Thus, if Ae is known, one can determine ΩA (or vice versa) at a given wavelength.
From (33) and (16) it follows that the directivity
A
D  4 2e (34)

All antennas have an effective aperture which can be calculated or measured.
D2
Ae  (35)
4
The aperture of an isotropic antenna (D=1) is
D2 2
Ae    0.0796 2
4  4
All lossless antennas must have an effective aperture equal to or greater than this. By reciprocity
the effective aperture of an antenna is the same for receiving and transmitting.
Three expressions have now been given for the directivity D. They are
P ( ,  ) max
Directivity from Pattern D
P ( ,  ) av
4
Directivity from Pattern D
A
Ae
Directivity from aperture D  4
2
Lossless Antenna: When the antenna is receiving with a load resistance RL matched to the antenna
radiation resistance Rrad (RL = Rrad ), then as much power is reradiated from the antenna as is
delivered to the load. This is the condition of maximum power transfer and antenna is assumed
lossless.
Thus, for the case of the dipole antenna in Fig. 8 the load power PL is
PL  S Ae (W ) (36)
Where S = power density at receiving antenna, W/m2
Ae = effective aperture of antenna, m2
And a reradiated power
Power reradiated
Prerad   S Ae (37)
4  ( sr )

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 Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

Where Ar = reradiating aperture = Ae, m2 and

Prerad = Pload

Figure 8: (a) The receiving antenna matched to a load (Rr = RL ) reradiates a

power that is equal to the power delivered to the load.. (b) Equivalent circuit.

The above discussion is applicable to a single dipole (λ/2 or shorter). However, it does not apply
to all antennas. In addition to the reradiated power, an antenna may scatter power that does not
enter the antenna-load circuit. Thus, in practical situation the reradiated plus scattered power may
exceed the power delivered to the load.
EFFECTIVE HEIGHT (he)
The effective height he (meters) of an antenna is another parameter related to the aperture.
The induced voltage Vind in the antenna by the incident field E (volts per meter) of the same
polarization is given by
Vind  he E (38)
Where he is the effective height of the antenna. Thus the effective height may be defined as
V
he  ind (39)
E
Consider a vertical dipole of length l = λ/2 immersed in an incident field E, as shown in Fig. 9(a).
If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, its effective height would be l.
However the actual current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with an average value 2/π = 0.64 so
it’s effective height he = 0.64 l. It is assumed that the antenna is oriented for maximum response.
If the same dipole is used at a longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1λ long, the current tapers
almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular distribution, as in Fig.
9(b). The average current is 1/2 of the maximum so that the effective height is 0.5l.
Thus, another way of defining effective height is to consider the transmitting case and equate the
effective height to the physical height (or length l) multiplied by the (normalized) average current
or
hp
1 I av
he 
I0  I dz  I
0
z
0
hp (m) (40)

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 Antenna Theory & Fundamentals

Where he = effective height, m

hp = physical height, m
Iav = average current, A
It is apparent that effective height is a useful parameter for transmitting tower-type antennas. It
also has an application for small antennas.

Fig. 9: (a) Dipole of length l = λ/2 with sinusoidal current distribution.

(b) Dipole of length l = 0.1λ with triangular current distribution.

Relation between effective aperture and effective height.

For an antenna of radiation resistance Rrad matched to its load, the power delivered to the load is
equal to
2
1 Vind h2 E 2
P  (41)
4 Rrad 4 Rrad
In terms of the effective aperture the same power is given by
E 2 Ae
P  S Ae  (42)
Z0
Where Z0 =intrinsic impedance of space (Zo = 377 Ω)
Equating (41) and (42), we obtain effective height he
Rrad Ae
he  2 (43)
Z0
he2 Z 0
And Ae  (44)
4 Rrad
Thus, effective height and effective aperture are related via radiation resistance and the intrinsic
impedance of space.

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