School of Psychology

PS1016 - Portfolio Cover Sheet

TO BE COMPLETED BY THE STUDENT:
Student ID:
1 5 9 0 0 9 4 8 3

Date submitted: 17/03/2016

PS1016 tutorial group: __TUT08___

Essay title: How can psychological research on emotional memory be applied to eyewitness
testimony? _____________________________________________________________________

Essay word Count: 1285 ___ (Excluding Reference section)

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PS1016 – Notes on marking

The marking descriptors for the Portfolio are available on BlackBoard.

The Psychology Undergraduate Student Handbook gives descriptors which indicate what is
expected from an essay to gain each mark. Note that the higher marks relate to points you are
advised to follow in the Psychology Writing Guide.

Self-reflection on Assignment

 Tried to make sure that my essay was coherent and flowed from one paragraph to
another.
 Also, ensured that the theoretical aspect of the essay was explained well and backed
up with relevant peer reviewed research.
TO BE COMPLETED BY THE STUDENT:
Using the ‘Marking descriptors for essays’ (provided in PUSH and in the Year 1 Psychology
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used them to write this piece of work. You can also add specific comments to your marker
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School of Psychology
PS1016 - Portfolio Feedback Sheet Sections A&B

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(A) Essay Plan and Bibliography Provisional Mark: Fail–Pass -Merit-Distinction

Comments:

How can psychological research on emotional memory be applied to eyewitness testimony?

Introduction

 What is Eye witness testimony- ‘is determined by a complex interaction of perception, memory, and socio-emotional factors’ (Ghetti,
Schaaf, Qin & Goodman, 2004).
 Importance of psychological research on eye witness testimony- How psychology is involved in the justice system- and why it’s
necessary- ‘the number of defendants who have been exonerated by DNA evidence currently exceeds 100’ (Ghetti, Schaaf, Qin &
Goodman, 2004).
 Emotional memory looks into a variety of factors which are applicable to eye witness testimony.
 Two theories this essay will be looking at is- Retrieval failure theory- context and state dependent memory.
 Schema theory and Constructivism in explaining the False Memory phenomena.

Paragraph 1

 What is the Retrieval Failure theory- explain.

 What is context dependent-‘context refers to that which surrounds a target’ (Smith, 1994) and, ‘context-dependent memory implies
that when events are represented, contextual information is stored along with memory targets’ (Smith, 1994).
 What is state dependent- Recall is affected by the manipulation of internal state, (Smith, 1994).

Paragraph 2

 Research on context dependent- (Godden & Baddeley, 1975) explain study.

 Study supports Context dependent memory, better recall when in same context (environment) than in alternative ones.
 Methodological issues- extreme contextual cues when day to day environments not the same.
 Application to EWT- individuals taken to the place of eye witness event, acting as a contextual cue.
Paragraph 3

 Research on state dependent- (Robinson and Rollings 2010)- explain study.

 Study supports state dependent memory and its effectiveness when induced in the same state that individual was in at the time of
the event.
 Ethical issues, can’t induce mood states for retrieval cues results in inaccuracies in EWT due to individuals in a certain mood or on
drugs.

Paragraph 4

 Schema theory, what is it? – template or framework created of past experiences to compare with new experiences, ‘people
remember what they understand’- (Brainerd & Reyna 2005).
 False mem phenomena, what is it and it’s link with schema? ‘Remember false information that preserves the gist of their
experience’ (Brainerd & Reyna 2005).
 False memory founded in 1992- accounts of sexual abuse in adults- scientist research showed suggestibility resulted in False memory
(Brainerd & Reyna 2005).

Paragraph 5

 Research on Schema theory- (Yamada & Itsukushim, 2013).

 ‘the discrimination between targets and distracters was more accurate for schema-inconsistent items than for schema-consistent
items’ and ‘for actions, schema-consistent targets were more frequently recognized than schema-inconsistent targets’ (Yamada &
Itsukushim, 2013).
 Schema advantageous in recalling distorted memory similar to that of on experiences however also results in false memory as EWT
events are no of normal schema representations.

Conclusion

 Summary of The retrieval failure theory and schema theory.

 Factors effecting memory and thus EWT, and highlighting the malleability of EWT accounts.
 Epitomizing the inevitability of EWT distortion and manipulation due to personal experience (schema and false phenomena), thus
EWT cannot ever be retrieved and retained exactly the same.

Bibliography

E-book- Google Scholar/University Library Search

Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2005). Science of False Memory. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com.

Ghetti, S., Schaaf, M. J., Qin, J., & Goodman, S. G. (2004). Issues in Eyewitness Testimony. In W. T. O'Donohue., & E. R. Levensky
(Eds.), Handbook of Forensic Psychology (pp. 513-554). doi:10.1016/B978-012524196-0/50000-0

Godden, R. D., & Baddeley, D. A. (1975) Context Dependent Memory in Two Natural Environments: on Land and Underwater.
British Journal of Psychology, 66, 325–331. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x

Smith, M. S. (1994) Theoretical Principles of Context-Dependent Memory. Retrieved from

http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/stevesmith/Smith1994.pdf

Journal Articles- Google Scholar/University Library Search

Robinson, J. S., & Rollings, L. J. L. (2010). The effect of mood-context on visual recognition and recall memory. The Journal of
General Psychology, 138, (1), 66-79.

Yamada, R,. & Itsukushima, Y. (2013). The effects of schema on recognition memories and subjective experiences for actions and
objects. Japanese Psychology Research, 55, (4), 366-377.

Lewis, A. P., & Critchley, D. H. (2003). Mood-dependent memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, (10), 431-433.

Website-Google search

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Forgetting. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Levels of Processing. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/levelsofprocessing.html

(B) PS1016 - Portfolio Feedback Sheet Section B (Essay)

Provisional Mark:
(before any deductions for lateness)
The tick boxes below are merely a guide to indicate which aspects can be improved and to what extent (the grades
given do not, individually, relate to the overall mark and not all aspects are equally weighted).

Fail 3rd 2.2 2.1 1st

Understanding and evaluation
i.e. does the student demonstrate
understanding of relevant theoretical
material and provide an appropriate critical
evaluation of relevant research?
Coherence of structure
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logical sequence?

Quality of arguments
i.e. are the arguments coherent, insightful
and original?
Appropriateness of evidence
i.e. does the essay draw on a breadth and
depth of relevant evidence, and does the
supporting evidence justify the conclusions
reached?
Focus
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the essay title?

Comments (with reference to what the student did well and how other aspects might be improved)

Re-insert Candidate Number if feedback sheet goes onto more than one page:

How can psychological research on emotional memory be applied to eyewitness testimony?

Eye witness testimonies are critical in aiding the justice system through correctly identifying guilty individuals
towards possible prosecution, however accuracy of eye witness testimony’s ‘is determined by a complex interaction of
perception, memory, and socio-emotional factors’ (Ghetti, Schaaf, Qin & Goodman, 2004). Thus, there is an
increased chance of inaccurate eye witness testimonies not only due to witnesses lying but due to a possible distortion
of their perception, memory and socio-emotional factors affecting recall of the event. Psychological literature on eye
witness identification problems is therefore highly important; due to inaccurate eye witness testimonies so far, ‘the
number of defendants who have been exonerated by DNA evidence currently exceeds 100’ (Ghetti, Schaaf, Qin &
Goodman, 2004). In light of this, the essay will be exploring psychological research on two theories- the Retrieval
Failure theory- which will highlight the role of context and state dependent memory and the Schema theory- to
explain the False Memory phenomenon; this is therefore, in order to support the role of emotional memory and it’s
applicability on eye witness testimony.

The Retrieval Failure theory proposes that there is a problem with retrieval of an event from the long term memory,
thus, Context or State-dependent elements which were present at the time of the event can act as cues in triggering the
recall of that event from long term memory. When memory’s affected by contextual cues it is called Context-
dependent; ‘context refers to that which surrounds a target’ (Smith, 1994). Thus, ‘context-dependent memory implies
that when events are represented, contextual information is stored along with memory targets’ (Smith, 1994), later
acting as a cue to recall the specific memory target. In addition, Smith (1994) also highlights that memory recall is
affected by internal factors, such as mood, so recall of a specific memory target is acquired through the manipulation
of internal states, this is referred to as State-dependent memory. Thus, the Retrieval Failure theory suggests that, for
recall of an event in terms of eye witness testimony, implementing Contextual or State based cues may help to produce
more accurate retrieval of the event in question.

Godden and Baddeley (1975) conducted a study on Context-dependent memory using two natural environments-
underwater and dry land as a means of contextual cues. Sixteen Participants from the diving club were used and asked
to recall a list of words underwater or on dry land. Participants who learnt and recalled words in the same environment
(context) recalled 30% more words than participants that learnt and recalled words in different environments.
Therefore, the study highlights that there is an increase in recall through contextual cues, suggesting applicable
methods for accuracy in eye witness testimony, such as taking participants to the scene of the crime as means of
triggering memory recall. However, there are methodological issues with Godden and Baddeley (1975) study, as
extreme contextual cues such as using the underwater environment, does not reflect how memory may work in normal
conditions thus, contextual cues may not be as explicit as depicted in terms of eye witness accounts.

Robinson and Rollings (2010) conducted a study on State-dependent memory by inducing a specific mood through a
stress arousing clip and a neutral clip to examine the effects on visual memory performance. Sixty participants were
asked to learn visual aspects of the stress arousing or neutral movie clips and then asked to recall the visual
performance in either a similar mood state that they were in after watching the clip or an alternative mood state.
‘Participants who experienced the same internal mood state (either neutral or high stress/arousal) at learning and
retrieval fared significantly better on both the recognition and recall tasks than those who experienced mismatch
context’ (Robinson & Rollings 2010). Thus, supporting the effects of State-Dependent memory on recall and
suggesting the effectiveness of implementing an induced mood state in regards to eye witness recall. However,
inducing the arousal of stress to obtain more accurate eye witness recall would arise ethical concerns as it could
potentially cause psychological harm to the eye witness as a result, making it difficult apply in terms of real world
application.

The Schema theory highlights that past experiences are used as a script or framework for learning and recalling new
events; ‘people remember what they understand’ especially if it represents an experience they have had in the past
(Brainerd & Reyna 2005). This therefore, makes individuals susceptible to the False Memory phenomena; where they
‘remember false information that preserves the gist of their experience’ because the schema acts as a template for the
retrieval of similar information (Brainerd & Reyna 2005). The False Memory phenomena was founded in 1992 after a
series of reports on repressed childhood sexual abuse accounts in adults, however, the scientists at the time found that
much of the allegations may have stimulated False Memory though suggestive interviewing procedures (Brainerd &
Reyna 2005). This therefore, highlights the potential of eye witness accounts being manipulated through suggestive
cues (leading questions) and reconstructed to fit the schema being suggesting- in this case sexual abuse.

Yamada and Itsukushima (2013) conducted a study on how schema affects recognition memory and subjective
experiences for actions and objects. The participants were shown slides of a man in a kitchen performing schema-
consistent and schema-inconsistent actions, there was also schema-consistent and schema-inconsistent objects placed
around the kitchen. After watching the clips participants were asked to fill out a recognition test alongside a
questionnaire testing perception, thought, context and emotion. Results showed that on recall for objects ‘the
discrimination between targets and distracters was more accurate for schema-inconsistent items than for schema-
consistent items’ and ‘for actions, schema-consistent targets were more frequently recognized than schema-
inconsistent targets’ (Yamada & Itsukushima 2013), highlighting that there was less false recognition for schema
consistent actions than for schema-consistent objects as recall of the actions was retrieved through bases of own
personal experience. This therefore, depicts how schema’s act as an advantageous cue for recall of actions in eye
witness testimonies. In addition, there are methodological issues when applying these results to real life eye witness
accounts as they are not based on normal day to day routine and therefore can’t produce a typical schema consistent
recall. However, it also suggests that if the real life events resemble any aspect of an individual’s personal experience
then they are likely to produce a false memory phenomena if there is any distortion in the retrieval of that memory,
making the eye witness testimony highly unreliable and inaccurate as a result.

The Retrieval Failure theory highlights that memory retrieval can be induced through Context and State-dependent
cues, this can thus initiate a more detailed or informative account of the event from the eye witness. However,
although contextual cues such as taking the witness to the scene of the crime are much easier to perform, State cues
on the other hand, face ethical difficulty and thus indicate the potential inaccuracy’s of eye witness accounts from
individuals that were in a particular mood state or on any pharmaceutical drug at the time of the event. In addition,
the Schema theory depicts the malleability of eye witness accounts due to personal experiences, although studies have
found schema-consistent action to produce much accurate recall, schema-inconsistent actions have potentially led to
the false memory phenomena and as a result may produce eye witness accounts which are distorted by subjective
experiences and are therefore, unreliable. In light of this, research on emotional memory epitomizes the
suggestibility, malleability and reconstructive nature of eye witness memory accounts and thus indicates that an
account cannot ever be fully retained and retrieved accurately, although many factors such as initiating cues can
merely guide in slight recall.

References

Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2005). Science of False Memory. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com.

Ghetti, S., Schaaf, M. J., Qin, J., & Goodman, S. G. (2004). Issues in Eyewitness Testimony. In W. T. O'Donohue., & E.
R. Levensky (Eds.), Handbook of Forensic Psychology (pp. 513-554). doi:10.1016/B978-012524196-0/50000-
0

Godden, R. D., & Baddeley, D. A. (1975) Context Dependent Memory in Two Natural Environments: on Land and
Underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66, 325–331. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x

Robinson, J. S., &  Rollings, L. J. L. (2010). The effect of mood-context on visual recognition and recall memory. The
Journal of General Psychology, 138, (1), 66-79.
Smith, M. S. (1994) Theoretical Principles of Context-Dependent Memory. Retrieved from
http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/stevesmith/Smith1994.pdf

Yamada, R,. & Itsukushima, Y. (2013). The effects of schema on recognition memories and subjective experiences for
actions and objects. Japanese Psychology Research, 55, (4), 366-377.