Solar Power

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Solar energy
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Solar energy is the heat and light radiated from the Sun that drives
Earth's climate and supports life. Solar technologies make controlled
use of this energy resource. Solar power is a synonym of solar energy
or refers specifically to the conversion of sunlight into electricity by
photovoltaics, concentrating solar thermal devices or various
experimental technologies.
The controlled use of solar energy is an important consideration in

building design. Thermal mass is used to conserve the heat that
sunshine delivers to all buildings. Daylighting techniques optimize the
use of light in buildings. Solar water heaters heat swimming pools and
provide domestic hot water. In agriculture, greenhouses grow specialty
crops and photovoltaic-powered pumps bring water to grazing animals. Heat and light from the Sun
Evaporation ponds find applications in the commercial and industrial fuels life on Earth.
sectors where they are used to harvest salt and clean waste streams of
contaminants.
Solar distillation and disinfection techniques produce potable water for

millions of people worldwide. Family-scale solar cookers and larger
solar kitchens concentrate sunlight for cooking, drying and
pasteurization. More sophisticated concentrating technologies magnify
the rays of the Sun for high temperature material testing, metal
smelting and industrial chemical production. A range of prototype
solar vehicles provide ground, air and sea transportation. Nellis Solar Power Plant, the
largest photovoltaic power
plant in North America
Contents
1 Energy from the Sun
2 Applications of solar energy technology
2.1 Architecture and urban planning
2.2 Agriculture and horticulture
2.3 Solar lighting
2.4 Solar thermal
2.4.1 Water heating
2.4.2 Heating, cooling and ventilation Solar energy reaching the
2.4.3 Desalination and disinfection
earth's surface (left) greatly
exceeds both total wind energy
2.4.4 Cooking
(center) and global energy
2.4.5 Process heat
consumption (right), although
2.5 Solar electricity only a small portion of each is
2.5.1 Photovoltaics
recoverable.[1]
2.5.2 Concentrating solar power
2.5.3 Experimental solar power
2.6 Solar chemical
2.7 Solar vehicles
3 Energy storage methods
4 Development, deployment and economics
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Energy from the Sun

Earth continuously receives 174 PW of incoming solar radiation
(insolation) at the upper atmosphere.[2] Approximately 30% is
reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by the atmosphere,
oceans and land masses. After passing through the atmosphere, the insolation spectrum is mostly split
between the visible and infrared ranges with a small part in the ultraviolet.[3]
mhtml:file://D:\E%20N%20E%20R%20G%20Y\Solar%20energy%20-%20Wikipedia,%20t... 7/8/2008
The absorption of solar energy by atmospheric convection (sensible

heat transport) and evaporation and condensation of water vapor (latent
heat transport) powers the water cycle and drives the winds.[4]
Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at
an average temperature of 14 °C.[5] The conversion of solar energy
into chemical energy via photosynthesis produces food, wood and the
biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.[6]
Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind and About half the incoming solar
wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass account for over 99.9% of energy is absorbed by water
and land; the rest is reradiated
the available flow of renewable energy on Earth.[7][8] The flows and back into space.
stores of solar energy in the environment are vast in comparison to
current human energy needs.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans

and land masses is approximately 3,850 zettajoules (ZJ) per
year.[9]
Global wind energy at 80 m is estimated at 2.25 ZJ per year.[10]
Photosynthesis captures approximately 3 ZJ per year in biomass.
[11]
Worldwide electricity consumption was approximately
Average insolation showing
0.0567 ZJ in 2005.[12] land area (small black dots)
Worldwide primary energy consumption was 0.487 ZJ in 2005. required to replace the total
[13] world energy supply with solar
electricity
Applications of solar energy technology
Solar energy technologies use solar radiation for practical ends.
Technologies that use secondary solar resources such as biomass,
wind, waves and ocean thermal gradients can be included in a broader
description of solar energy but only primary resource applications are
discussed here. Because the performance of solar technologies varies
widely between regions, solar technologies should be deployed in a
way that carefully considers these variations.[14]
Solar radiation spectrum Solar technologies such as photovoltaics and water heaters increase the
supply of energy and may be characterized as supply side technologies.
Technologies such as passive design and shading devices reduce the
need for alternate resources and may be characterized as demand side. Optimizing the performance of
solar technologies is often a matter of controlling the resource rather than simply maximizing its
collection.
Architecture and urban planning
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of

Darmstadt University of
Technology won the 2007 architectural history.[16] Fully developed solar architecture and urban
Solar Decathlon with this planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese who
passive house designed oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.
specifically for the humid and
hot subtropical climate in [17]
Washington, D.C.
The elemental features of passive solar architecture are Sun
orientation, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio),
Darmstadt University of
Technology won the 2007 selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass.[16] When these
Solar Decathlon with this features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can
passive house designed produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range.
specifically for the humid and Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design.
hot subtropical climate in [16] The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling
Washington, D.C.[15] to tie together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems in an
integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as
pumps, fans and switchable windows can also complement passive design and improve system
performance.
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than the surrounding
environment. These higher temperatures are the result of urban materials such as asphalt and concrete
that have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than the natural environment. A straightforward
method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. Using these
methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban
temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of US$1 billion, giving
estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare
savings.[18]
Agriculture and horticulture
Agriculture inherently seeks to optimize the capture of solar

energy, and thereby plant productivity. Techniques such as
timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered
heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can
improve crop yields.[19][20] While sunlight is generally
considered a plentiful resource, there are exceptions which Greenhouses like these in the Netherland's
highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. Westland municipality grow a wide variety
During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age, of vegetables, fruits and flowers.
French and English farmers employed fruit walls to
maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening
by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground with a south facing
orientation but over time sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas
Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun.[21]
Solar energy is also used in many areas of agriculture aside from growing crops. Applications include
pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure.[22][23]
Greenhouses control the use of solar heat and light to grow plants in enclosed environments, enabling
year-round production and the growth of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local
climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to grow cucumbers year-round for
the Roman emperor Tiberius.[24] The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century
to conserve exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad.[25] Greenhouses remain an important
part of horticulture today, while plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in
polytunnels and row covers.
Solar lighting
The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The

Romans recognized the Right to Light as early as the 6th century and
English law echoed these judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832.
[26][27] In the 20th century artificial lighting became the main source of
interior illumination.
Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior

illumination. These systems directly offset energy use by replacing
Daylighting features such as artificial lighting, and indirectly offset non-solar energy use by
this oculus at the top of the reducing the need for air-conditioning.[28] Although difficult to
Pantheon in Rome have been quantify, the use of natural lighting also offers physiological and
in use since antiquity.
psychological benefits compared to artificial lighting.[28] Daylighting
design carefully selects window type, size and orientation and may
also consider exterior shading devices. Individual features include sawtooth roofs, clerestory windows,
light shelves, skylights and light tubes. These features may be incorporated into existing structures but
are most effective when integrated in a solar design package that accounts for factors such as glare, heat
flux and time-of-use. When daylighting features are properly implemented they can reduce commercial
lighting-related energy requirements by 25%.[29]
Hybrid solar lighting (HSL) is an active solar method of using sunlight to provide illumination. HSL
systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that track the Sun and use optical fibers to transmit the
light into a building's interior to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story applications, these
systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received.[30]
Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recent research is
limited and reports contradictory results: several studies report savings, but just as many suggest no
effect or even a net loss, particularly when gasoline consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is
greatly affected by geography, climate and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.
[31]
Solar thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat
generation.[32]
Water heating
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. When sited in low
latitudes (below 40 degrees), solar heating system can provide around
60 to 70% of domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C.[33]
The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube
collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used
for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used
mainly to heat swimming pools.[34]
As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is
approximately 154 GW.[35] China is the world leader in the
deployment of solar hot water with 70 GW installed as of 2006 and a
long term goal of 210 GW by 2020.[36] Israel is the per capita leader in Solar water heaters face the
the use of solar hot water with 90% of homes using this technology. equator and are angled
[37] In the United States, Canada and Australia, heating swimming according to latitude to
maximize solar gain.
pools is the dominant application of solar hot water, with an installed
capacity of 18 GW as of 2005.[38]
Heating, cooling and ventilation
In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ) of the energy used in commercial
buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ) of the energy used in residential
buildings.[39][29] Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies
can be used to offset a portion of this energy.
Thermal mass, in the most general sense, is any material that has the
capacity to store heat. In the context of solar energy, thermal mass
materials are used to store heat from the Sun. Common thermal mass
MIT's Solar House#1 built in
1939 used seasonal thermal materials include stone, cement and water. These materials have
storage for year-round heating. historically been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to
keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and
radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night, but they can
also be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth. The size and placement of thermal mass should
consider several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly
incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need
for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.[40]
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft
connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing
an updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and
thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses. These systems have been in use since Roman
times and remain common in the Middle East.
Deciduous trees and plants can be used to provide heating and cooling. When planted on the southern
elevation of the building, the leaves can provide shade during the summer while the bare limbs allow
light and warmth to pass during the winter.[41]
Desalination and disinfection
Solar distillation is the production of potable water from saline or

brackish water using solar energy. The first recorded use was by 16th
century Arab alchemists.[42] The first large-scale solar distillation project was constructed in 1872 in the
Chilean mining town of Las Salinas.[43] This 4,700 m² still could produce up to 22,700 L per day and
operated for 40 years.[43] Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse
type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick and multiple

effect.[42] These stills can operate in passive, active or hybrid modes.
Double slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic
purposes while active multiple effect units are more suitable to large-
scale applications.[42]
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a method of disinfecting water by
exposing water-filled plastic PET bottles to several hours of sunlight.
[44] Exposure times vary according weather and climate from a
A SODIS application in
minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions.[45] Indonesia demonstrates the
SODIS is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable simplicity of this approach to
water disinfection.
method for household water treatment and safe storage.[46] Over two
million people in developing countries use SODIS for their daily
drinking water needs.[45]
Cooking
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization.

Solar cooking offsets fuel costs, reduces demand for fuel or firewood,
and improves air quality by reducing the generation of smoke. The
simplest type of solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de
Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated
container with a transparent lid. These cookers can be used effectively
with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of
The Solar Bowl in Auroville, 50-100 °C.[47][48] Concentrating solar cookers use reflectors to focus
India, concentrates sunlight on light on a cooking container. The most common reflector geometries
a movable receiver to produce
steam for cooking.
are flat plate, disc and parabolic trough type. These designs reach
temperatures up to 315 °C but require direct light to function properly
and must be repositioned to track the Sun.[48]
The solar bowl is a unique concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India.
The solar bowl is a stationary spherical reflector that focuses light along a line perpendicular to the
sphere's interior surface and a computer control system moves the receiver to intersect this line. Steam is
produced in the receiver at temperatures reaching 150 °C and then used for process heat in the kitchen.
[49]
A reflector developed by Wolfgang Scheffler in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens. Scheffler reflectors
are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power tower concentrators. Polar
tracking is used to follow the Sun's daily course and the curvature of the reflector is adjusted for
seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450-
650 °C and have a fixed focal point which improves the ease of cooking.[50] The world's largest
Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road, Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day.
[51] By early 2008, over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been built worldwide.
Process heat
Concentrating solar technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and

Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and
industrial applications. The first commercial system was the Solar
Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia where a field
of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air
conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory.[52]
This cogeneration system generated 400 kW of electricity and
3 MW of thermal energy in the form of steam, and had a thermal
storage system that allowed for peak-load shaving. STEP parabolic dishes used for
steam production and electrical
Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved generation
solids through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain
salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating
brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams.[53]
Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation. These devices use wind
and sunlight instead of electricity or natural gas. Florida legislation specifically protects the 'right to dry'
and similar solar rights legislation has been passed in Utah and Hawaii.[54]
Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air.
UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C and deliver outlet temperatures of 45-60 °C.
[55] The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective
alternative than glazed collection systems.[55] As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector
area of 35,000 m² had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m² collector in Costa Rica used for
drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m² collector in Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds.[23]
Solar electricity
Solar power technologies convert sunlight into electricity using photovoltaics, concentrating solar
thermal devices, or various experimental technologies. PV has mainly been used to generate power for
small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell, the solar
powered watch to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. For large-scale generation,
concentrating solar thermal power plants like SEGS have been the norm but multi-megawatt PV plants
are becoming more common. Completed in 2007, the 14 MW power station in Clark County, Nevada
and the 20 MW site in Beneixama, Spain are characteristic of the trend toward larger photovoltaic power
stations in the US and Europe.[56]
Photovoltaics
A solar cell (or photovoltaic cell) is a device that converts light into
direct current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was
constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s.[57] Although the prototype
selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity,
both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized
the importance of this discovery.[58] Following the fundamental work
of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller
and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954.[59] These early
solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5-6%.[60]
The earliest significant application of solar cells was as a back-up
Solar cells power the
power source to the Vanguard I satellite, which allowed the satellite to International Space Station.
continue transmitting for over a year after its chemical battery was
exhausted.[61] The successful operation of solar cells on this mission
was duplicated in many other Soviet and American satellites, and by the late 1960s PV had become the
established source of power for satellites.[62] Photovoltaics went on to play an essential part in the
success of early commercial satellites such as Telstar and continue to remain vital to the
telecommunications infrastructure today.[63]
The high cost of solar cells limited terrestrial uses throughout the 1960s. This changed in the early 1970s
when prices reached levels that made PV generation competitive in remote areas without grid access.
Early terrestrial uses included powering telecommunication stations, off-shore oil rigs, navigational
buoys and railroad crossings.[64] These and other off-grid applications have proven very successful and
accounted for over half of worldwide installed capacity until 2004.[36]
The 1973 oil crisis stimulated a rapid rise in the production of PV
during the 1970s and early 1980s.[65] Economies of scale which
resulted from increasing production along with improvements in
system performance brought the price of PV down from 100 USD/watt
in 1971 to 7 USD/watt in 1985.[66] Steadily falling oil prices during
the early 1980s led to a reduction in funding for photovoltaic R&D and
a discontinuation of the tax credits associated with the Energy Tax Act
of 1978. These factors moderated growth to approximately 15% per
Building-integrated year from 1984 through 1996.[67]
photovoltaics cover the roofs
of an increasing number of Since the mid-1990s, leadership in the PV sector has shifted from the
homes. US to Japan and Germany. Between 1992 and 1994 Japan increased
R&D funding, established net metering guidelines, and introduced a
subsidy program to encourage the installation of residential PV systems.[68] As a result, PV installations
in the country climbed from 31.2 MW in 1994 to 318 MW in 1999,[69] and worldwide production
growth increased to 30% in the late 1990s.[70]
Germany has become the leading PV market worldwide since revising its Feed-in tariff system as part of
the Renewable Energy Sources Act. Installed PV capacity has risen from 100 MW in 2000 to
approximately 4,150 MW at the end of 2007.[71][72] Spain has become the third largest PV market after
adopting a similar feed-in tariff structure in 2004, while France, Italy, South Korea and the US have also
seen rapid growth recently due to various incentive programs and local market conditions.[73]
Concentrating solar power
Concentrated sunlight has been used to perform useful tasks since the
time of ancient China. A legend claims Archimedes used polished
shields to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel
them from Syracuse. In 1866, Auguste Mouchout used a parabolic
trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine, and
subsequent developments led to the use of concentrating solar-powered
devices for irrigation, refrigeration and locomotion.[74]
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and Dish engine systems eliminate
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. the need to transfer heat to a
The concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a conventional boiler by placing a Stirling
engine at the focal point.
power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exist; the
most developed are the solar trough, parabolic dish and solar power
tower. These methods vary in the way they track the Sun and focus light. In all these systems a working
fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[75]
A solar trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates
light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The
reflector is made to follow the Sun during the daylight hours by
tracking along a single axis. Trough systems are the most developed
CSP technology. The SEGS plants in California and Acciona's Nevada
Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of this
technology.
The PS10 concentrates
sunlight from a field of A parabolic dish system consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector
heliostats on a central tower. that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal
point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. Parabolic dish
systems give the highest efficiency among CSP technologies. The Big Dish in Canberra, Australia is an
example of this technology.
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a central
receiver atop a tower. Power towers are less advanced than trough systems but offer higher efficiency
and better energy storage capability. The Solar Two in Daggett, California and the Planta Solar 10 in
Sanlucar la Mayor, Spain are representatives of this technology.
Experimental solar power
A solar updraft tower (also known as a solar chimney or solar tower)

consists of a large greenhouse that funnels into a central tower. As
sunlight shines on the greenhouse, the air inside is heated and expands.
The expanding air flows toward the central tower where a turbine
converts the air flow into electricity. A 50 kW prototype was
constructed in Ciudad Real, Spain and operated for eight years before
decommissioning in 1989.[76]
An artist's depiction of a solar
A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 1-2 m deep) that collects satellite, which could send
and stores solar energy. Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. energy wirelessly to a space
Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came across reports of a lake in vessel or planetary surface.
Hungary in which the temperature increased with depth. This effect
was due to salts in the lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that prevented convection
currents. A prototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the Dead Sea near Jerusalem.[77] The
pond consisted of layers of water that successively increased from a weak salt solution at the top to a
high salt solution at the bottom. This solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 °C in its
bottom layer and had an estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent.
Thermoelectric devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric
current. First proposed as a method to store solar energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s,[78]
thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist
Abram Ioffe a concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.[79]
Thermogenerators were later used in the US space program as an energy conversion technology for
powering deep space missions such as Cassini, Galileo and Viking. Research in this area is focused on
raising the efficiency of these devices from 7–8% to 15–20%.[80]
Space solar power systems use a large solar array in geosynchronous orbit to collect sunlight and beam
this energy in the form of microwave radiation to receivers (rectennas) on Earth for distribution. This
concept was first proposed by Dr. Peter Glaser in 1968 and since then a wide variety of systems have
been studied with both photovoltaic and concentrating solar thermal technologies being proposed.
Although still in the concept stage, these systems offer the possibility of delivering power approximately
96% of the time.[81]
Solar chemical
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical changes. These processes offset energy that
would otherwise be required from an alternate source and can convert solar energy into a storable and
transportable fuel. Solar chemical reactions are diverse but can generically be described as either
thermochemical or photochemical.
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the
1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical
processes have also been explored. The seemingly most direct of these routes uses concentrators to split
water at high temperatures (2300-2600 °C), but this process has been limited by complexity and low
solar-to-hydrogen efficiency (1-2%).[82] A more conventional approach uses process heat from solar
concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen
yield. Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present
another avenue of hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann
Institute is one such method. This process uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at
temperatures above 1200 °C. This initial reaction produces pure zinc which can subsequently be reacted
with water to produce hydrogen.[83]
Sandia's Sunshine to Petrol (S2P) technology uses the high temperatures generated by concentrating
sunlight along with a zirconia/ferrite catalyst to break down atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen and
carbon monoxide (CO). The CO may then be used to synthesize fuels such as methanol, gasoline and jet
fuel.[84]
Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs consist of a semiconductor, typically titanium dioxide or related
titanates, immersed in an electrolyte. When the semiconductor is illuminated an electrical potential
develops. There are two types of photoelectrochemical cells: photoelectric cells that convert light into
electricity and photochemical cells that use light to drive chemical reactions such as electrolysis.[85]
A photogalvanic device is a type of battery in which the cell solution (or equivalent) forms energy-rich
chemical intermediates when illuminated. These chemical intermediates then react at the electrodes to
produce an electric potential. The ferric-thionine chemical cell is an example of this technology.[86]
Solar vehicles
Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal

since the 1980s. The center of this development is the World Solar
Challenge, a biannual solar-powered car race in which teams from
universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi)
across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was
founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour
(42 mph).[87] The 2007 race included a new challenge class using cars
which could be a practical proposition for sustainable transport with
little modification. The winning car averaged 90.87 kilometres per
hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and the
Australia hosts the World
Solar Challenge where solar
planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions
cars like the Nuna3 race that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development
through a 3,021 km (1,877 mi) of solar powered vehicles.
course from Darwin to
Adelaide. In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England.[88]
By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and

are now used extensively.[89] In
1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the
Pacific Ocean, and the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in
the winter of 2006–2007.[90] Plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2009 are indicative of the progress
solar boats have made.
In 1974, the unmanned Sunrise II inaugurated the era of solar flight. In

1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered
solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the Solar
Challenger which demonstrated a more airworthy design with its
crossing of the English Channel in July 1981. Developments then
turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles with the Pathfinder (1997)
and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the
altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres Helios UAV in solar powered
(96,860 ft) in 2001.[91] The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the flight
latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour
flight in 2007, and month-long flights are envisioned by 2010.[92]
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the
air inside is heated and expands, causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially-heated hot
air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is limited to the toy
market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high.
Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane mirrors to exploit
radiation pressure from the sun. Unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small
compared to rockets, it continues as long as the Sun shines onto the deployed sail and in the frictionless
vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be achieved.[93]
Energy storage methods

Storage is an important issue in the development of solar energy
because modern energy systems usually assume continuous
availability of energy. Solar energy is not available at night, and the
performance of solar power systems is affected by unpredictable
weather patterns; therefore, storage media or back-up power systems
must be used.
Solar Two's thermal storage
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at system allowed it to generate
electricity during cloudy
domestically useful temperatures for daily or seasonal durations. weather and at night.
Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with
high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-
designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating
and cooling requirements.
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage media. These
materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful temperatures
(approximately 64 °C). The "Dover House" (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's
salt heating system, in 1948.[94]
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage
medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at
temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this method of energy
storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m³ storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about
99%.[95]
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-
tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net metering programs give these
systems a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. This credit offsets electricity provided from
the grid when the system cannot meet demand, effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available
from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high
by releasing the water to run through a hydroelectric power generator.
Development, deployment and economics

Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial
Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood
and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar
technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that
coal would soon become scarce, but solar development stagnated in the
early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy,
and utility of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum.[96]
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization 11 MW Serpa solar power
of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to plant in Portugal
developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on
incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization
Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts
included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now
NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar
Energy Systems ISE).[97]
Between 1970 and 1983, photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but
dropping oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV
Solar troughs are the most
from 1984 to 1996. Since 1997, PV development has accelerated due widely deployed and cost-
to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns (see effective CSP technology.
Kyoto Protocol), and the improving economic position of PV relative
to other energy technologies. Photovoltaic production growth has
averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10.6 GW at the end of 2007.[36] Since
2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power
purchase agreement. 50% of commercial systems were installed in this manner in 2007 and it is
expected that 90% will by 2009.[98] Nellis Air Force Base is receiving photoelectric power for about
2.2 ¢/kWh and grid power for 9 ¢/kWh.[99][100]
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.[101] These systems
saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating
fuels.[102] As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil
crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the
solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20%
per year since 1999.[35] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating is by far the most
widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.[35]
Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP plants such
as SEGS project in the United States have a LEC of 12-14 ¢/kWh.[103] The 11 MW PS10 power tower
in Spain, completed in late 2005, is Europe's first commercial CSP system and a total capacity of
300 MW is expected to be installed in the same area by 2013.[104]
See also
Carbon finance
Crookes radiometer Sustainable development Portal
Desertec
Drake Landing Solar Community Energy Portal
Energy storage
Global dimming
Greasestock
Green electricity
List of conservation topics
List of renewable energy organizations
List of solar energy topics
List of solar thermal power stations
Low cost solar power
Photovoltaic power stations
Renewable heat
Solar lamp
Solar power satellite

Soil solarization
Timeline of solar energy
Thin-film cell
Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
Trombe wall
Wafer (electronics)
World energy resources and consumption
Notes
1. ^ The volume of each cube represents the amount of energy available and consumed. The amount of solar
energy available to the earth in one hour exceeds global energy demand for a year.Energy and Inspiration:
Inventing the Future in Time
2. ^ Smil (1991), p. 240
3. ^ Natural Forcing of the Climate System. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-
09-29.
4. ^ Radiation Budget. NASA Langley Research Center (2006-10-17). Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
5. ^ Somerville, Richard. Historical Overview of Climate Change Science. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
6. ^ Vermass, Wim. An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications. Arizona State University.
Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
7. ^ Scheer (2002), p. 8
8. ^ Plambeck, James. Energy on a Planetary Basis. University of Alberta. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
9. ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
10. ^ Archer, Cristina. Evaluation of Global Wind Power. Stanford. Retrieved on 2008-06-03.
11. ^ Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
12. ^ World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved on
2008-05-25.
13. ^ World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004. Energy
Information Administration. Retrieved on 2008-05-17.
14. ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 15
15. ^ Darmstadt University of Technology solar decathlon home design. Darmstadt University of Technology.
16. ^ a b c Schittich (2003), p. 14
17. ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 4, 159
18. ^ Rosenfeld, Arthur; Lloyd, Alan. Painting the Town White -- and Green. Heat Island Group. Retrieved on
2007-09-29.
19. ^ Jeffrey C. Silvertooth. Row Spacing, Plant Population, and Yield Relationships. University of Arizona.
20. ^ Kaul (2005), p. 169–174
21. ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 42–46
22. ^ Bénard (1981), p. 347
23. ^ a b Leon (2006), p. 62
26. ^ Prescription Act (1872 Chapter 71 2 and 3 Will 4). Office of the Public Sector Information. Retrieved on
2008-05-18.
27. ^ Noyes, WM. "The Law of Light", The New York Times, 1860-03-31. Retrieved on 2008-05-18.
28. ^ a b Tzempelikos (2007), p. 369
29. ^ a b Apte, J. et al.. Future Advanced Windows for Zero-Energy Homes. American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Retrieved on 2008-04-09.
30. ^ Muhs, Jeff. Design and Analysis of Hybrid Solar Lighting and Full-Spectrum Solar Energy Systems. Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
31. ^ Myriam B.C. Aries; Guy R. Newsham (2008). "Effect of daylight saving time on lighting energy use: a
literature review". Energy Policy 36 (6): 1858–1866. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2007.05.021.
32. ^ Solar Energy Technologies and Applications. Canadian Renewable Energy Network. Retrieved on 2007-
10-22.
33. ^ Renewables for Heating and Cooling. International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
34. ^ Weiss, Werner. Solar Heat Worldwide (Markets and Contributions to the Energy Supply 2005).
International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
35. ^ a b c Weiss, Werner. Solar Heat Worldwide - Markets and Contribution to the Energy Supply 2006.
36. ^ a b c Renewables 2007 Global Status Report. Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved on 2008-04-30.
37. ^ Del Chiaro, Bernadette. Solar Water Heating (How California Can Reduce Its Dependence on Natural
Gas). Environment California Research and Policy Center. Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
38. ^ Philibert, Cédric. The Present and Future use of Solar Thermal Energy as a Primary Source of Energy.
39. ^ Energy Consumption Characteristics of Commercial Building HVAC Systems Volume III: Energy Savings
Potential 2-2. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-06-24.
40. ^ Mazria(1979), p. 29–35
41. ^ Mazria(1979), p. 255

42. ^ a b c Tiwari (2003), p. 368–371
43. ^ a b Daniels (1964), p. 6
44. ^ SODIS solar water disinfection. EAWAG (The Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and
Technology). Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
45. ^ a b Household Water Treatment Options in Developing Countries: Solar Disinfection (SODIS). Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on 2008-05-13.
46. ^ Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage. World Health Organization. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
48. ^ a b Design of Solar Cookers. Arizona Solar Center. Retrieved on 2007-09-30.
49. ^ The Solar Bowl. Auroville Universal Township. Retrieved on 2008-04-25.
50. ^ Scheffler-Reflector. Solare Bruecke. Retrieved on 2008-04-25.
51. ^ Solar Steam Cooking System. Gadhia Solar. Retrieved on 2008-04-25.
52. ^ Poche, A.. Solar total energy project at Shenandoah, Georgia system design. SAO/NASA ADS Physics
Abstract Service. Retrieved on 2008-05-20.
53. ^ Bartlett (1998), p.393-394
54. ^ Thomson-Philbrook, Julia. Right to Dry Legislation in New England and Other States. Connecticut
General Assembly. Retrieved on 2008-05-27.
55. ^ a b Solar Buildings (Transpired Air Collectors - Ventilation Preheating). National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
56. ^ Large-scale photovoltaic power plants. pvresources. Retrieved on 2008-06-27.
57. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 147
58. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 18–20
59. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 29
60. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 29–30, 38
61. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 45–46
62. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 49–50
63. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 49–50, 190
64. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 57–85
65. ^ Photovoltaic Milestones. Energy Information Agency - Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-05-20.
66. ^ Perlin (1999), p. 50, 118
67. ^ World Photovoltaic Annual Production, 1971-2003. Earth Policy Institute. Retrieved on 2008-05-29.
68. ^ Policies to Promote Non-hydro Renewable Energy in the United States and Selected Countries. Energy
Information Agency - Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-05-29.
69. ^ Foster, Robert. Japan Pholtovoltaics Market Overview. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-06-05.
70. ^ Handleman, Clayton. An Experience Curve Based Model for the Projection of PV Module Costs and Its
Policy Implications. Heliotronic. Retrieved on 2008-05-29.
71. ^ Renewable energy sources in figures - national and international development. Federal Ministry for the
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (Germany). Retrieved on 2008-05-29.
72. ^ Marketbuzz 2008: Annual World Solar Pholtovoltaic Industry Report. solarbuzz. Retrieved on 2008-06-05.
73. ^ Trends in Photovoltaic Applications - Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2006.
75. ^ Martin and Goswami (2005), p. 45
76. ^ Mills (2004), p. 19–31
77. ^ Halacy (1973), p. 181
78. ^ Perlin and Butti (1981), p. 73
79. ^ Halacy (1973), p. 76
80. ^ Tritt (2008), p. 366–368
81. ^ Space Solar Power Satellite Technology Development at the Glenn Research Center — An Overview.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved on 2008-06-27.
82. ^ Agrafiotis (2005), p. 409
83. ^ Solar Energy Project at the Weizmann Institute Promises to Advance the use of Hydrogen Fuel. Weizmann
Institute of Science. Retrieved on 2008-06-25.
84. ^ Sandia’s Sunshine to Petrol project seeks fuel from thin air. Sandia Corporation. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
85. ^ Bolton (1977), p. 11
86. ^ Bolton (1977), p. 16, 119
87. ^ World Solar Challenge History. Electrick Publications and NJK. Retrieved on 2008-06-24.
88. ^ Electrical Review Vol 201 No 7 12 August 1977
89. ^ Schmidt, Theodor. Solar Ships for the new Millennium. TO Engineering. Retrieved on 2007-09-30.
90. ^ The sun21 completes the first transatlantic crossing with a solar powered boat. Transatlantic 21. Retrieved
on 2007-09-30.
91. ^ Solar-Power Research and Dryden. NASA. Retrieved on 2008-04-30.
92. ^ The NASA ERAST HALE UAV Program. Greg Goebel. Retrieved on 2008-04-30.
93. ^ Solar Sails Could Send Spacecraft 'Sailing' Through Space. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. Retrieved on 2007-11-26.
95. ^ Advantages of Using Molten Salt. Sandia National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29.
96. ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 63, 77, 101
97. ^ Chronicle of Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Retrieved on 2007-11-04.
98. ^ Solar Power Services: How PPAs are Changing the PV Value Chain
99. ^ Nellis Solar Power System
100. ^ Supporting Solar Photovoltaic Electricity - An Argument for Feed-in Tariffs. European Photovoltaic
Industry Association. Retrieved on 2008-06-09.

103. ^ DOE Concentrating Solar Power 2007 Funding Opportunity Project Prospectus. Department of Energy.
104. ^ PS10. SolarPACES (Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems). Retrieved on 2008-06-24.
References
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Energy 79 (4): 409–421. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.02.026.
Bénard, C. (1981). "Experimental Results of a Latent-Heat Solar-Roof, Used for Breeding Chickens". Solar
Energy 26 (4): 347–359. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(81)90181-X.
Bolton, James (1977). Solar Power and Fuels. Academic Press, Inc.. ISBN 0121123502.
Butti, Ken; Perlin, John (1981). A Golden Thread (2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology). Van
Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0442240058.
Daniels, Farrington (1964). Direct Use of the Sun's Energy. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345259386.
Halacy, Daniel (1973). The Coming Age of Solar Energy. Harper and Row. ISBN 0380002337.
Hunt, V. Daniel (1979). Energy Dictionary. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. ISBN 0442273959.
Karan, Kaul (2001). "Row Orientation Affects Fruit Yield in Field-Grown Okra". Journal of Sustainable
Agriculture 17 (2/3): 169–174. doi:10.1300/J064v17n02_14.
Leon, M. (2007). "Mathematical modeling and thermal performance analysis of unglazed transpired solar
collectors". Solar Energy 81 (1): 62–75. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.06.017.
Lieth, Helmut; Whittaker, Robert (1975). Primary Productivity of the Biosphere. Springer-Verlag1. ISBN
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Martin, Christopher L.; Goswami, D. Yogi (2005). Solar Energy Pocket Reference. International Solar
Energy Society. ISBN 0977128202.
Mazria, Edward (1979). The Passive Solar Energy Book. Rondale Press. ISBN 0878572384.
Meier, Anton (2005). "Solar chemical reactor technology for industrial production of lime". Solar Energy 80
(10): 1355–1362. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2005.05.017.
Mills, David (2004). "Advances in solar thermal electricity technology". Solar Energy 76 (1-3): 19–31.
doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(03)00102-6.
Müller, Reto (2007). "Band-approximated radiative heat transfer analysis of a solar chemical reactor for the
thermal dissociation of zinc oxide". Solar Energy 81 (10): 1285–1294. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.12.006.
Perlin, John (1999). From Space to Earth (The Story of Solar Electricity). Harvard University Press. ISBN
0674010132.
Bartlett, Robert (1998). Solution Mining: Leaching and Fluid Recovery of Materials. Routledge. ISBN
9056996339.
Scheer, Hermann (2002). The Solar Economy (Renewable Energy for a Sustainable Global Future).
Earthscan Publications Ltd. ISBN 1844070751.
Schittich, Christian (2003). Solar Architecture (Strategies Visions Concepts). Architektur-Dokumentation
GmbH & Co. KG. ISBN 3764307471.
Smil, Vaclav (1991). General Energetics: Energy in the Biosphere and Civilization. Wiley, 369. ISBN
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ISBN 0262194929.
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External links
Energy Education a2z from the Energy Education Foundation
Build It Solar, The Renewable Energy site for Do-It-Yourselfers
NASA photovoltaic info
US Solar calculator
Jimmy Carter solar panels on the west wing of the White House in 1980 (removed by Ronald
Reagan)
National Park Service installed 8.75 kW solar panels on a maintenance building of the White
House in 2002
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy"

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Solar energy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 14

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The controlled use of solar energy is an important consideration in

Solar distillation and disinfection techniques produce potable water for

Energy from the Sun

The absorption of solar energy by atmospheric convection (sensible

 The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans

Architecture and urban planning

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of

Agriculture and horticulture

Agriculture inherently seeks to optimize the capture of solar

The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The

Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior

Heating, cooling and ventilation

In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

Desalination and disinfection

Solar distillation is the production of potable water from saline or

type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick and multiple

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization.

Concentrating solar technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and

Concentrating solar power

Experimental solar power

A solar updraft tower (also known as a solar chimney or solar tower)

Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal

By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and

In 1974, the unmanned Sunrise II inaugurated the era of solar flight. In

Energy storage methods

Development, deployment and economics

 Solar power satellite

41. ^ Mazria(1979), p. 255

102. ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 139

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy"

 This page was last modified on 2 July 2008, at 11:14.

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The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans

Solar power satellite

This page was last modified on 2 July 2008, at 11:14.