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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished).
About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10%
coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from
hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar,
geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 3% and are growing very rapidly.
In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep
within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar,
wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen
derived from renewable resources.
Renewable energy sources derive their energy from existing flow of energy, from
on-going natural processes such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes
and geothermal heat flows. A general definition for renewable energy sources is that
renewable energy is captured from an energy resource that is replaced rapidly by a
natural processes such as power generated from the sun or from the wind. Currently
the most promising (economically most feasible) alternative energy source includes
wind power, solar power and hydroelectric power.

1.2 FORMS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

1.2.1 Wind power

Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern wind turbines range from
around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.5–3
MW have become the most common for commercial use; the power output of a turbine
is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output
increases dramatically. Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as
offshore and high altitude sites are preferred locations for wind farms. Typical capacity
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factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable
sites.

1.2.2 Hydro power

Energy in water can be harnessed and used. Since water is about 800 times denser
than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield
considerable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water energy
Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams.
Examples are the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State and the Akosombo Dam in
Ghana. Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically
produce up to 100 kW of power. They are often used in water rich areas as a Remote –
Area Power Supply (RAPS). Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity systems derive kinetic
energy from rivers and oceans without using a dam.

1.2.3 Solar energy

Solar energy is the energy derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation.
Solar powered electrical generation relies on photovoltaic and heat engines. A partial
list of other solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar
architecture, day lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process
heat for industrial purposes.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar
techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to
harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favourable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

1.2.4 Biomass

Biomass (plant material) is a renewable energy source because the energy it

contains comes from the sun. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture the
sun's energy. When the plants are burnt, they release the sun's energy they contain. In
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this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As
long as biomass is produced sustainably, with only as much used as is grown, the
battery will last indefinitely.
In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy production:
growing plants specifically for energy use (known as first and third-generation
biomass), and using the residues (known as second-generation biomass) from plants
that are used for other things. See bio based economy. The best approaches vary from
region to region according to climate, soils and geography.

1.2.5 Biofuel

Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. The term
covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Liquid biofuels include bio
alcohols, such as bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include
biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials
and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being
developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feed stocks
for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but
it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle
emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel
can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel
additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from
diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using trans
esterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.

1.2.6 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal
energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal
energy originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive
decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in
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temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous
conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The
adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos,
meaning heat.
The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be stored deep within the Earth, all
the way down to Earth’s core – 4,000 miles down. At the core, temperatures may reach
over 9,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock.
Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly
known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This
magma then heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 degrees
Fahrenheit.
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times
and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for
electricity generation.

1.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA

India is the fourth largest country with regard to installed power generation
capacity in the field of renewable energy resources. Wind, Hydro, Solar, Biomass are
main renewable energy sources. India has an estimated energy potential of around
85,000MW from commercially exploitable sources. The MNES (Ministry of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources), Government of India, has undertaken measures to
facilitate the growth of both grid and off-grid Renewable Energy power through
specific programmes.

1.4 CUMULATIVE DEPLOYMENT OF VARIOUS RES

The Cumulative deployment of various Renewable Energy Systems (RES) as on

31/01/12

1.4.1 Power from Renewables

1.4.1.1 Grid – Interactive power

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TABLE 1.1 Cumulative installed capacity of grid-interactive RES

Renewable Target for Achievement Total Cumulative
Energy 2011-12 during achievement achievement up to
Program January,2012 during 2011-12 31.01.12
Wind Power 2400 101.00 2023.00 16179.00
Small Hydro 350 48.00 257.50 3300.13
Power
Biomass 465 25.00 145.50 1142.60
Power
Bagasse - 285.00 1952.53
Cogeneration
Solar Power 200 291.60 445.55 481.48
Waste to 25 - 1.20 20.20
power (urban)
Waste to - - 53.46
power
(industrial)
TOTAL 3425 485.60 3157.75 23129.40

The cumulative installed capacity of grid-interactive renewable energy systems for

power generation (Capacities in MW ) is given in the table 1.1. The cumulative
installed capacity of grid-interactive renewable energy systems for power generation
in India was 23129.4 MW until 31.01.2012 of which contributions of wind, small
hydro, biomass including agri-residues, bagasse cogeneration, solar were and waste to
power are 16179.00 MW, 3300.13MW,1142.60, 1952.53,481.48 and 73.66
respectively. It is found that the major contribution of about 70% of the total RES for
power generation.

1.4.1.2 Off – Grid interactive power

The cumulative installed capacity of off grid-interactive renewable energy systems

for power generation (Capacities in MW) is given in the table 1.2. The total cumulative
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installed capacity of off grid-interactive renewable energy systems for power

generation upto 31.01.2017 is 671.50 MW

TABLE 1.2 Cumulative installed capacity of off grid-interactive RES

Renewable Target for Achievement Total Cumulative
Energy 2017-18 during achievement achievement up
Program January,2018 during 2017-18 to 31.01.18
Water 1.00 (400 52 no’s 350 no’s 2025 no’s
mills/micro no’s)
hydel
Aero 0.50 0.06 0.33 1.45
generator/Hyb
rid systems
Waste to 15.00 - - 3.50
power (urban)
Waste to 0.94 27.31 89.43
power
(industrial)
Solar Power 20.00 5.02 11.00 81.01
Biomass (non- 80.00 4.4 51.89 347.85
bagasse)
cogeneration
Biomass 3.00 0.192 1.642 15.99
Gasifier
(rural)
Biomass 10.00 1.00 10.89 132.27
Gasifier
(industrial)
TOTAL 129.50 11.61 103.06 671.50
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1.4.1.3 Remote village electrification

Renewable Energy Target Achievement Total Cumulative

Program for during achievement achievement up
2017-18 January,2018 during 2017-18 to 31.01.18

No of remote 500 25.00 905 9009.00

villages/ Hamlets
provided with
Renewable Energy
systems

TABLE 1.3 Number of remote villages/ Hamlets provided with RES

1.4.1.4 Other Renewable Energy Systems

The cumulative achievements of other renewable energy systems like family biogas
plants, and solar water heating are shown in the table 1.4. The cumulative achievement
of family biogas plants were 44.75 lakhs upto 31.01. 2018 and that of solar water
heater is 4.98 MW.

TABLE 1.4 Cumulative achievements of other RES

Renewable Target Achievement Total Cumulative
Energy Program for during achievement achievement up to
2017-18 January,2018 during 2017-18 31.01.18

Family Biogas 1.50 0.21 0.70 44.75

Plants (No in
lakhs)

Solar Water 0.60 0.10 0.52 4.98

Heating

The number of remote villages/ Hamlets provided with Renewable Energy systems
in India is shown in the table 1.3. From the table it is found that the number of villages/
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Hamlets provided with Renewable Energy systems in India as on 31.01 2018 is

9009.00.

1.5 RENEWABLE ENERGY IN TAMILNADU

The Government of Tamil Nadu is committed to mitigate the climate change

effects by bringing out conductive policies to promote renewable energy generation in
the State. The Government intends to make renewable energy a people’s movement
just like rain water harvesting.
The state is blessed with various forms of renewable energy sources viz., Wind,
Solar, Biomass, Biogas, Small Hydro, etc. Municipal and Industrial wastes could also
be useful sources of energy while ensuring safe disposal.
The Government of Tamil Nadu realized the importance and need for renewable
energy, and set up a separate Agency, as registered society, called the Tamil Nadu
Energy Development Agency (TEDA) as early as 1985,as per G.O.Ms.No.163, P. &
D. (EC) Department, dated 29.11.1984 with the following specific objectives:-
1. To promote the use of new and renewable sources of energy (NRSE) and to
implement projects therefore.
2. To promote energy conservation activities. 
3. To encourage research and development on renewable sources of energy.

1.5.1 Renewable Energy Installation in Tamil Nadu 

Achievements of TEDA as on 31.10.2017 are given in the table 1.5. The total
cumulative achievement up to 31.10.2017 is 7420.45 MW with Wind power
contributing the maximum of 6548.00 MW. About 88.24% of the total renewable
energy in the state is from wind power. The Bagasse Cogeneration is in the second
position with 610.00 MW. The contribution of biomass; small hydro power, solar
power, and waste to energy towards the Renewable Energy Systems in Tamil Nadu are
161.15 MW, 90.05 MW, 7.00 MW, and 4.25 MW respectively.

TABLE 1.5 Cumulative achievements of RES in Tamil Nadu

Renewable energy Cumulative achievement up to
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program/Systems 31.10.2017 (MW)

Wind Power 6548.00
Bagasse Cogeneration 610.00
Biomass Power 161.15
Small Hydro Power 90.05
Solar Power 7.00
Waste to Energy 4.25
Total 7420.45

The below figure 1.1 shows the contribution of various renewable energy in
Tamilnadu

CONTRIBUTION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN TAMIL NADU

2.17% 1.22% 0.09% 0.06%

8.22% Wind Power

Bagasse Cogeneration
Biomass Power
Small Hydro Power
Solar Power
Waste to Energy

88.24%

FIGURE 1.1 Contribution of Renewable Energy in Tamil Nadu

1.6 WIND ENERGY

Wind is the natural movement of air across the land or sea. Wind is caused by
uneven heating and cooling of the earth's surface and by the earth's rotation. Land and
water areas absorb and release different amount of heat received from the sun. As
warm air rises, cooler air rushes in to take its place, causing local winds. Wind energy
is in fact an indirect form of solar energy. Winds are generated due to heating of air by
solar radiation during the day at variable rates in different parts of hemisphere and
rotation of Earth. Heated air rises up and cooler air replaces it resulting in wind. Wind
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movement on Earth’s surface is influenced by terrain, water reserves, forest, vegetation

and habitat developments.
The rotation of the earth changes the direction of the flow of air. Wind is a form of
solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun,
the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are
modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow,
or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to generate
electricity.
Wind presents a vast source of renewable energy. For many centuries wind mill
have used wind flow or motion energy of wind for grain grinding, water pumping and
is still used for many other purposes.
Wind or air in motion contains the “kinetic energy” which is converted into
mechanical power by means of a wind turbine. The wind turbine is connected to a
generator for producing electricity.

1.7 POWER IN THE WIND

Kinetic energy of the flowing across a wind turbine is used to derive electrical
energy from wind. The power (P) contained in a flowing wind depends on its velocity
(V) and the density of air (). It is given by the formula below:-

1
P= V 3A in Watts
2

Where, A = swept area (area covered by its rotating blade) in m2.

 = Density of the air in kg/m3.

V = Velocity of the air flow in m/s.

Power depends on the cube of the wind speed. If wind speed increases by a factor
of two, the power output would increase by a factor of eight. Also, power is
proportional to the area. Thus, a large wind turbine will convert more power from the
wind. Wind power also depends on the density of the air, which varies under different
conditions. Under standard temperature (25 deg C) and pressure (760 mm of Hg), the
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air density is considered as 1.22 kg/ m3. Considering the density of the air, a simple
formula for the power can be written as :-
P= 0.6 V 3A in Watts

1.8 POWER EXTRACTED FROM THE WIND

The above equation gives amount of kinetic energy present in the wind in a
particular area. Although all the kinetic is not converted into useful power. Therefore
there is an equation to find how much energy the machine extracted from the wind.
The simple formula is given below:-
1
P=Cp  2 V 3A in Watts

Where Cp= Coefficient of performance

The Cp value varies and depends upon the physical condition, type of blade used
and its tip speed ratio. The value of Cp is 59% which is known as Betz limit.

1.9 EFFICIENCY OF WIND POWER CONVERSION

In the above equation, the power P represents the total power in the air stream. As
in the case with all energy conversion processes, only a part of the air stream energy
can be converted to useful energy. A wind turbine derives power from the kinetic
energy of the wind. The power available to a wind turbine is equal to change in the
kinetic energy of the wind. Therefore, the higher the change in the kinetic energy of
the wind flowing across the turbine, the larger will be the power conversion. Largest
kinetic energy change would occur when wind stops at the other side of the turbine
(zero kinetic energy), implying that all its energy has been converted. This complete
stopping of wind is not possible in rotating type wind machines. According to the Betz
limit, which was formulated in 1919, at most only 59% of the wind power can be
converted into useful power. Betz limit can be considered an ideal efficiency of a wind
turbine. In practice, the real efficiency of wind turbine is less and it is normally
referred to as coefficient of performance.

1.9.1 Coefficient of performance (Cp)

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The coefficient of performance, Cp, is defined as actual power output from a wind
machine divided by the available wind power, i.e.
P(real)
Cp =
P(ideal)
or
P(real)
Cp = 3
0.6 V A

1.9.2 Tip Speed ratio ()

The tip speed ratio () is defined as the ratio of the speed of rotor blade tip to the
undisturbed wind speed. The undisturbed wind speed is the speed of wind away from
the wind machine. If a rotor makes  revolution per minute (angular speed) and the
radius of the rotor is R, then the linear speed of the rotor tip would be = R. Let the
undisturbed wind speed be V, then the tip speed ratio will be given as
R
Tip Speed ratio,  =   V

It has been observed that the efficiency of wind turbines increases with the increase
in wind speed but decreases again at high wind speeds implying that there is an
optimum wind speed at which the turbine performance will be the maximum. This
kind of behaviour is best seen if we plot Cp versus tip speed ratio.

1.9.3 Variation of Cp with respect to tip speed ratio

The actual wind turbines convert wind energy at lower efficiency than given by the
Betz limit, due to various losses (drag on the blade, swirl imparted to airflow by the
rotor, etc.). This is true for all wind turbine designs. The practical wind turbines have
Cp which is less than Betz limit. Table 3.1 shows the relation between the C p and the
tip speed ratio.
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TABLE 1.6 Cp as a function of Tip speed ratio

Coefficient of performance
Type of blade Tip speed ratio
(Cp)

Savonius 0-0.19 0-1.5

Darreius 0-0.35 2.1-7

Multi blade 0-0.3 0-1.9

Two blade and Three

0.36-0.52 2.8-8
Blade Propeller

1.10 WIND SPEED V/S HEIGHT

At a given location, the wind speed increases as we go above the earth surface. At
the surface, the wind speed is zero due to the friction of air with the surface. As we go
up, wind speed increases more rapidly at lower heights but less rapidly at greater
heights (see Figure 3.1). At about 2000 meters from the ground the change is the wind
speed becomes zero. A typical variation in the wind speed is shown in the graph. The
vertical variation in the wind speed depends on the roughness of the terrain and wind
speed near the ground. The terrain roughness factor is represented by a constant, .
This constant can have value between 0.01 and 0.3. For water areas, like sea,  has a
value of about 0.01, for farm lands with trees  has a value of 0.12, for villages and
town  is about 0.28.
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A TYPICAL VARAITION IN WIND SPEED

18
15.8
16 14.75 15.2
14.3
13.5
14
12
Wind speed in m/s
10
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0 25 200 400 600 800 1000
Height in meter

FIGURE 1.2 A typical vertical variation in wind speed

If wind speed for a given location and at a given height is known, the wind speed
(V) at any other height at the same location can be estimated using following formula
New Height ❑
V (at unknown height) = V ( at known height)   Reference Height ❑

Where new height is the height at which at which wind speed needs to be estimated
and reference height is the height at which wind speed is known. The  is roughness
constant as described in the above paragraph.

1.11 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF WTG

Wind turbines simply convert some of the kinetic energy of the wind (or speed of
air at atmospheric pressure), from the air to rotor blade rotation, which rotates a shaft
connected to a generator, which in turn converts the rotational energy to electrical
energy.

The three basic parts of wind turbines are :-

1. The rotor blades which convert wind energy into rotational energy in form of
angular momentum.
2. The Shaft which transfers this rotational energy to Generator.
3. The Generator which converts the rotational energy into electrical energy by means
of electromagnetic induction.
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1.12 COMPONENTS OF WTGs

The main components of WTGs are

1. Tower
2. Nacelle
3. Rotor
4. Gearbox
5. Generator
6. Braking System
7. Yaw System
8. Controller
9. Anemometer

FIGURE 1.3 Components of WTG

1. Tower
Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here) or steel lattice. Because wind
speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and
generate more electricity.

2. Nacelle
The rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits atop the tower and includes the gear
box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. A cover protects the
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components inside the nacelle. Some nacelles are large enough for a technician to
stand inside while working.

3. Rotor
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.

4. Gearbox
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the
rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1200 to 1500
rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear
box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring
"direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear
boxes.

5. Generator
Usually an off-the-self-induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity.

6. Braking System
A disc brake which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to
stop the rotor in emergencies.

7. Yaw System
Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing
into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw
drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind.

8. Controller
The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour
(mph) and shuts off the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines cannot operate at wind
speeds above about 65 mph because their generators could overheat.

9. Anemometer
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Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller .

1.13 TYPES OF WTGs

There are two types. They are :-

Horizontal Axis wind turbine(HAWT)

Vertical Axis wind turbine(VAWT)

1.13.1 Horizontal Axis wind Turbine

HAWT have main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of the tower. They
should be pointed towards the wind. Gear box turns slow rotation of blades into
quicker rotation that is suitable to drive an electric generator.

1.13.2 Advantages of HAWT

1. Blades are to the side of the turbine’s center of gravity, helping stability.
2. The ability to pitch the rotor blade in storm so that damage is minimized.
3. Tall tower allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear and placement
on uneven land.
1.13.3 Vertical Axis wind turbine
In VAWT main rotor shaft is arranged vertically. Generator and gear box can be
placed near the ground using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground
based gear box.

Advantages of VAWT
1. No yaw mechanism is needed
2. VAWT have lower wind start up speeds than HAWT
3. VAWT can be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
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FIGURE 1.4 Differences between HAWT and VAWT

1.14 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HAWT AND VAWT

1. Energy Conversion Efficiency
Since VAWTs turn parallel with the ground, half the time its rotor blades turn
against the wind. This results in having lesser efficient energy conversion as compared
to HAWTs.
Also, most VAWTs are located near the ground. Since wind speeds are faster in
higher altitudes VAWTS produce lesser power when compared with HAWTs.

2. Installation
Since VAWTs can have rotor blades close to the ground, they are easier to install
compared to HAWTs that often require the rotor blades to be at a high altitude
depending on the blade length.

3. Maintenance
VAWTs are easier to maintain since they are installed near the ground. HAWTs
should be checked constantly, so that it faces against the wind, unlike VAWTs that
requires less maintenance.

4. Land area requirement

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HAWTs require a tower that can erect the rotor blades to a high enough location
that would maximize wind speed, while VAWTs require guy cables to ensure that the
machine remains stable. HAWTs require lesser land space when compared to VAWTs
since tower bases occupy minimal space whilst the need for guy cables for VAWTs
would entail occupying a much larger area.

WIND TURBINE AERODYNAMICS

FIGURE 1.5 Wind turbines Aerodynamics

Unlike the old-fashioned Dutch windmill design, which relied mostly on the wind’s
force to push the blades into motion, modern turbines use more
sophisticated aerodynamic principles to capture the wind’s energy most effectively.
The two primary aerodynamic forces at work in wind-turbine rotors are lift which acts
perpendicular to the direction of wind flow; and drag, which acts parallel to the
direction of wind flow.
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Turbine blades are shaped a lot like airplane wings -- they use an airfoil design. In
an airfoil, one surface of the blade is somewhat rounded, while the other is relatively
flat. But in one simplified explanation of lift, when wind travels over the rounded,
downwind face of the blade, it has to move faster to reach the end of the blade in time
to meet the wind travelling over the flat, upwind face of the blade (facing the direction
from which the wind is blowing). Since faster moving air tends to rise in the
atmosphere, the downwind, curved surface ends up with a low-pressure pocket just
above it. The low-pressure area sucks the blade in the downwind direction, an effect
known as "lift." On the upwind side of the blade, the wind is moving slower and
creating an area of higher pressure that pushes on the blade, trying to slow it down.
Like in the design of an airplane wing, a high lift-to-drag ratio is essential in designing
an efficient turbine blade. Turbine blades are twisted so they can always present an
angle that takes advantage of the ideal lift-to-drag force ratio.
Aerodynamics is not the only design consideration at play in creating an effective
wind turbine. Size matters - the longer the turbine blades (and therefore the greater the
diameter of the rotor), the more energy a turbine can capture from the wind and the
greater the electricity-generating capacity. Generally speaking, doubling the rotor
diameter produces a four-fold increase in energy output. In some cases, however, in a
lower-wind-speed area, a smaller-diameter rotor can end up producing more energy
than a larger rotor because with a smaller setup, it takes less wind power to spin the
smaller generator, so the turbine can be running at full capacity almost all the
time. Tower height is a major factor in production capacity, as well. The higher the
turbine, the more energy it can capture because wind speeds increase with elevation
increase -- ground friction and ground-level objects interrupt the flow of the wind.
Scientists estimate a 12% increase in wind speed with each doubling of elevation.

1.15 POWER CONTROL OF WIND TURBINES

Wind turbines are designed to produce electrical energy and generally designed so
that they yield maximum output at wind speed around 15m/s. All wind turbines are
designed with some sort of power control. There are two different ways of doing this
safety on modern wind turbines.
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1.15.1 Pitch Controlled Wind Turbine

On a pitch controlled wind turbine, the turbine’s electronic controller checks the
power output of the turbine several times per second. When the power output becomes
too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately turns the
rotor blades slightly out of wind. Controversially the blades are turned back into the
wind whenever the wind drops again. On a pitch controlled wind turbine the computer
will generally pitch the blades a few degree every time the wind changes in order to
keep the rotor blades at the optimum angle in order to maximize output for all wind
speeds.

1.15.2 Stall Controlled Wind Turbine

They are of two types.

A. Passive Stall Controlled Wind Turbines

B. Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines

1.15.3 Passive Stall Controlled Wind Turbine

Stall controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed
angle. The geometry of the rotor blade profile creates turbulence on the side of the
rotor blade. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the
rotor. As the actual wind speed in the area increases, the angle of attack of the rotor
blade will increase, until at some point it starts to stall. The basic advantage of stall
control is that one avoids moving parts in the rotor itself. On the other hand, stall
control represents a very complex aerodynamic design problem, and related design
challenges in the structural dynamics of the whole wind turbine, e.g. to avoid stall-
induced vibrations. Around two thirds of the wind turbines currently being installed in
the world are stall controlled.
1.15.4 Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbine
An increasing number of larger wind turbines (1 MW and up) are being developed
with an active stall power control mechanism. Technically, the active stall machines
 22

resemble pitch controlled machines, since they have pitchable blades. In order to get a
reasonably large torque at low wind speeds, the machines will usually be programmed
to pitch their blades much like a pitch controlled machine at low wind speeds. When
the machine reaches its rated power, that is, if the generator is about to be overloaded,
the machine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction from what a pitch controlled
machine does. In other words, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in
order to make the blades go into a deeper stall, thus wasting the excess energy in the
wind. One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the power output
more accurately than with passive stall. Another advantage is that the machine can be
run almost exactly at rated power at all high wind speeds. A normal passive stall
controlled wind turbine will usually have a drop in the electrical power output for
higher wind speeds, as the rotor blades go into deeper stall.

1.16 WIND FARMS

Wind farms may be defined as the cluster of wind turbines. This is the group of the
wind turbines in a location mainly used for the purpose of electricity generation. The
land between the wind turbines may be used for the purpose of agriculture.

1.17 TYPES OF WIND FARMS

The two types of wind farms are :-

1. Onshore wind farms
2. Off shore wind farms

1.17.1 Onshore wind farms

Onshore wind farms are the wind farms that are setup in mountains and hilly areas.

1.17.2 Offshore wind farms

Offshore wind farms are the wind farms that are setup in water surfaces.

1.18 ADVANTAGES OF WIND ENERGY

1. Wind energy is absolutely renewable, as it takes no fuel or other resources that can
be expended.
 23

2. Wind farms do not produce extreme noise and they have not shown off any effect
on farms, other life stocks or tourism concerns.

3. Not only wind power is a renewable source but like other reusable energies it gives
no harmful greenhouse gases while being operated.

1.19 BENEFITS OF WIND ENERGY OVER FOSSIL FUELS

The below table 3.2 shows the benefits of the wind energy over the othe fossil fuel
generation

TABLE 1.7 Benefits of wind energy over fossil fuels

Benefit Wind Energy Generation Fossil Fuel Generation

Flow of money Flow of money goes into Payments for oil, gas or coal end
the local community up out of the region or country.
because developers pay
local land owners for wind
rights and tax revenues

Utilities and Using a renewable fuel
Energy helps hedge against volatile
Consumers fuel prices and the uncertain
cost of complying with
future environmental
regulations
Fossil fuel prices can dramatically
increase overtime. The price
increase causes utility rates to
increase accordingly

Environmental Wind turbines emit no Generation plants that uses fossil

Effects pollutants or greenhouse fuels emits greenhouse gases and
gases. Avian issues can be pollutants into the surrounding
mitigated with careful atmosphere
sitting

Multi-use Wind energy is compatible
Compatibility with agricultural activities
and can act as an additional
revenue stream to keep
farmland in production
24
Land use for fossil fuel cannot be
used for other purposes. In fact,
property values close to such
plants are likely to suffer.
 25

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

A literature survey was conducted to review the performance and failures with
respect to the Wind turbine generators in different parts of the world. T. Ackerman and
L. Soder compared torque coefficients and corresponding power coefficients against
tip speed ratio of wind turbine. The torque coefficient showed a nearly linear decrease
as the tip speed ratio increases. R. T. Griffiths analyzed the performance of a typical
wind turbine to give maximum power coefficient at a tip speed ratio of 5 over a range
of speed ratios and pitch angles using blade element theory. Lissaman, P. B. S
calculated the wind farm efficiency for a specific wind speed. The ratio of the entire
power generated by the real farm to the one corresponding to all wind turbines
operating in the absence of wake effects is the wind farm efficiency. The wind farm
efficiency is a function of the turbine type employed, the wind farm configuration and
wind speed. Estimation of overall efficiency of a wind farm is of crucial importance to
a wind farm design procedure. A. K. Wright and D. H. Wood presented the starting
and low wind speed behavior of a small horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT). A
small, three – bladed, horizontal axis wind turbine can start at a wind speed of about
4.6 m/s on average. Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) of Savonius type can start at
lower wind speeds, down to about 2 m/s, but they have a poor efficiency, the power
coefficient, Cp, being less than 0.25. Yoshida, S. compared the performance of
downwind – turbines with upwind – turbines in complex terrain. The result shown the
2 MW downwind – turbines were produced 7.6% more annual energy than upwind –
turbines with same dimensions. Baku M. Nagai et al. described the performance of a 3
kW wind turbine generator (WTG) with variable pitch control system. The wind
turbine showed a power coefficient of 0.257 under the average wind speed of 7.3 m/s.
Chen, P. et al. predicted performance analysis of wind turbine airfoil for large wind
turbine by interactive viscous–inviscid approach and computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) method with different turbulence models. Wind tunnel test was conducted to
validate predicted results and investigated leading edge roughness effect on airfoil
performance and found leading edge roughness degrades airfoil performance. N.
Boccard estimated the mean capacity factor of wind power plants ranged from 30% to
 26

45% between 1998 and 2008 in European countries. K. K. Sasi and S. Basu studied
capacity factor and selection of size of wind electric generators based on Indian sites.
They concluded that for every wind regime there exists an optimum value of the rated
wind speed of the WEG to be installed at the site that maximizes the WEG output on
an annual basis. The annual levelized cost of energy for WEG operation at a site varies
with the wind speed rating of the machine and the least cost occurs when the machine
is rated at a wind speed which may be less than or equal to optimum rated speed of a
WEG depending on the site characteristics and the machine cost. S. H. Jangamshetti
and V. G. Rau explained normalized power curves as a tool for identification of
optimum wind turbine generator parameters and reported overall efficiency of 35%.
The WTG parameters were determined at the maximum value of the product of
normalized average output power and capacity factor.
R. Billinton and G. Bai estimated capacity factor of WTG and measured WTG
power curves using an accurate generic model. Lindley, D and Gamble, C analyzed
the construction nand operational performance of a 5 MW wind farm installed at a site
near Ilfracombe in Devon in U.K. This wind farm had generated over 10 million
kilowatt hours with an availability of 95% and a capacity factor of 31% with nine
months of it operation. S. Iniyan et al evaluated the performance of wind turbine
generators for the largest demonstration wind farm (10 MW) in Asia and calculated the
technical availability, real availability, capacity factor and maximum down time of the
wind turbine generators and identified 30 fault conditions and analyzed by pareto
diagram. S. Iniyan et al carried out a critical analysis on wind farms to improve the
performance and reliability of 6 MW demonstration wind farm. They determined the
average technical availability, real availability and capacity factor were 92%, 54% and
19% respectively. The failure rate was high to an extend of 6.7 × 10 -5 h-1 in the case of
a yaw control defect and the factor of reliability was found to be 0.5 at 10000 h. The
analysis revealed that when the reliability factor of wind energy system was improved
from 0.5 to 0.9 then the utilization of wind energy increased by 82%. K. K. Sasi and
Sujay Basu analyzed performance of wind farm in India and suggested steps to be
adopted by the government agencies in order to ensure the desired growth of the wind
industry in the country and also presented wind farm development policy in India.
 27

2.1 JOURNALS RELATED TO OUR PROJECT

The various journals related to our project has been viewed and listed below:-

1) Performance, reliability and failure analysis of wind farm in a developing

Country
Renewable Energy, Volume 35, Issue 12, December 2010, Pages 2739 - 2751
G.M. Joselin Herbert, S. Iniyan, Ranko Goic

In this paper, an analysis of the performance, failure and reliability, as well as a

spare parts analysis has been conducted for a wind farm, which has 15 wind turbine
generators (WTGs), each of 225 kW capacities. This wind farm is located at
Muppandal, Tamil Nadu, and South India. The average value of performance
parameters such as technical availability, real availability and capacity factor for the
wind farm were 94%, 82.88% and 24.9% respectively during the years 2000e2004.
This paper also deals with Pareto analysis to find out the reduction in problems, when
one problem is tackled partly and completely. The Weibull technique was also used for
the reliability analysis. The reliability factor in the initial period after one year seems to
be good as the wind farm has a lower failure rate of 0.000019. As a supplemental
activity, spare parts optimization was also carried out for a few vital components of
this wind farm and the results are presented. The failure and its financial implications
are also analyzed in this paper.

2) A review of wind energy technologies

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 11, Issue 6, August 2007,
Pages 1117 – 1145
G.M. Joselin Herbert, S. Iniyan, E. Sreevalsanand, S. Rajapandian

Energy is an essential ingredient of socio-economic development and economic

growth. Renewable energy sources like wind energy is indigenous and can help in
reducing the dependency on fossil fuels. Wind is the indirect form of solar energy and
is always being replenished by the sun. Wind is caused by the differential heating of
the earth’s surface by the sun. It has been estimated that roughly 10 million MW of
energy are continuously available in the earth’s wind. Wind energy provides a variable
 28

and environmental friendly option and national energy security at a time when
decreasing global reserves of fossil fuels threatens the long-term sustainability of
global economy. This paper reviews the wind resource assessment models, site
selection models and aerodynamic models including wake effect. The different
existing performance and reliability evaluation models, various problems related to
wind turbine components (blade, gearbox, generator and transformer) and grid for
wind energy system have been discussed. This paper also reviews different techniques
and loads for design, control systems and economics of wind energy conversion
system.

3) The field performance of a remote 10 kW wind turbine

Renewabl Energy, Volume 28, (2003) 13–33
A.J. Bowen,N. Zakay, R.L. Ives
The collection and analysis of 15 months of continuously recorded field data from a
small remote wind–diesel power system located at a remote farm in North Canterbury,
about 100 km north of Christchurch at a coastal farm site are reported. The paper
focuses on the available wind data and the performance of the 10 kW Bergey wind
turbine.

4) Analysis of the turbine standstill for a grid connected wind farm (case study)
Renewable Energy, Volume 31, Issue 1, January 2006, Pages 89-104
M.A. Abderrazzaq, B. Hahn

In the present paper, several types of collected data were employed to analyze the
causes of turbines shutdown in a grid-connected wind farm. Although the average
availability of the considered wind farm exceeds 96%, the individual availability of
some turbines does not exceed 92%. In this context, the present paper introduces a
novel approach of understanding the turbine standstill and availability calculation. This
approach is based on a variation of monthly energy production to weight the shutdown
time including the maintenance and fault hours. The calm hours in summer are 60%
less than the average calm time for the considered wind farm. The distribution of
inoperative hours reveals a 300% difference between the original and weighed times of
downtime. On the other hand, weighed times are used to assess the impact of various
 29

faults causing turbines shutdown. The frequency distribution of the faults has shown
that 42% of turbine shutdowns are caused by network disturbances, 70% of them are
attributed to grid disconnections. Finally, the time distribution of the network faults is
investigated to illustrate their impact on the turbine standstill.

5) Effect of some design parameters on the performance of a Giromill vertical

axis wind turbine
Ain Shams Engineering Journal, Volume 1, Issue 1, September 2010, Pages 85 -
95
M. El-Samanoudy, A.A.E. Ghorab, Sh.Z. Youssef

This paper describes the effect of some design parameters on the performance of a
Giromill vertical axis wind turbine. A Giromill wind turbine has been designed,
manufactured and tested. The turbine performance has been investigated with varying
the design parameters such as, pitch angle, number of blades, airfoil type, turbine
radius and its chord length. Then, the results were used for the comparison between the
performances achieved while changing the design parameters. Vast number of
experiments has been performed with changing the above mentioned parameters. The
effect of each parameter on the power coefficient and torque coefficient has been
studied and explanation of the results was also discussed. It has been found that the
pitch angle, turbine radius and chord length have a significant effect on turbine power
coefficient. The maximum power coefficient obtained in this research was 25% using
turbine radius of 40 cm, chord length 15 cm, pitch angle of 10_, airfoil type NACA
0024, and four blades (which is found to be the best configuration in this study). For
the effect of pitch angle, the obtained maximum power coefficient is decreasing; this
decrease in performance was due to increasing in the pitch angle above 10_ and also
due to decreasing it below this value showing the high effect of pitch angle. It was also
noticed that, when decreasing the turbine radius to 20 cm at 0_ pitch angle the
maximum power coefficient is much decreased. Moreover, decreasing the chord length
to 12 cm at 10_ pitch angle decreases the maximum power coefficient significantly,
which again show the high effect of turbine radius and chord length. In order to
compare the effect of airfoil type; the blades with NACA 4420 were used compared to
 30

NACA 0024 at the same above parameters of turbine radius 40 cm, chord length 15
cm, pitch angle of 10_ and four blades. The maximum power coefficient obtained was
15%. Finally, the effect of the number of blades have been investigated using two,
three and four blades at 0_ pitch angle and the same other above parameters of turbine
radius 40 cm, chord length 15 cm and airfoil type NACA 0024. The obtained
maximum power coefficients were decreased significantly when decreasing the
number of blades from four to two blades.

6) Reliability analysis for wind turbines with incomplete failure data collected
from after the date of initial Installation
Reliability Engineering & System Safety, Volume 94, Issue 6, June 2009, Pages
1057-1063
HaitaoGuo, Simon Watson, Peter Tavner, Jiangping Xiang

Reliability has an impact on wind energy project costs and benefits. Both life test
data and field failure data can be used for reliability analysis. In wind energy industry,
wind farm operators have greater interest in recording wind turbine operating data.
However, field failure data may be tainted or incomplete, and therefore it needs a more
general mathematical model and algorithms to solve the model. The aim of this paper
is to provide a solution to this problem. A three-parameter Weibull failure rate function
is discussed for wind turbines and the parameters are estimated by maximum
likelihood and least squares. Two populations of German and Danish wind turbines are
analyzed. The traditional Weibull failure rate function is also employed for
comparison. Analysis shows that the three-parameter Weibull function can obtain more
accuracy on reliability growth of wind turbines. This work will be helpful in the
understanding of the reliability growth of wind energy systems as wind energy
technologies evolving. The proposed three-parameter Weibull function is also
applicable to the life test of the components that have been used for a period of time,
not only in wind energy but also in other industries.

7) Reliability analysis of grid connected small wind turbine power electronics

Applied Energy, Volume 86, Issue 9, September 2009, Pages 1617-1623
Md. Arifujjaman, M.T. Iqbal, J. E. Quaicoe
 31

Grid connection of small permanent magnet generator (PMG) based wind turbines
requires a power conditioning system comprising a bridge rectifier, a dc–dc converter
and a grid-tie inverter. This work presents a reliability analysis and an identification of
the least reliable component of the power conditioning system of such grid connection
arrangements. Reliability of the configuration is analyzed for the worst case scenario
of maximum conversion losses at a particular wind speed. The analysis reveals that the
reliability of the power conditioning system of such PMG based wind turbines is fairly
low and it reduces to 84% of initial value within one year. The investigation is further
enhanced by identifying the least reliable component within the power conditioning
system and found that the inverter has the dominant effect on the system reliability,
while the dc–dc converter has the least significant effect. The reliability analysis
demonstrates that a permanent magnet generator based wind energy conversion system
is not the best option from the point of view of power conditioning system reliability.
The analysis also reveals that new research is required to determine a robust power
electronics configuration for small wind turbine conversion systems.

8) Failure analysis and risk management of a collapsed large wind turbine tower
Engineering Failure Analysis, Volume 18, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 295-313
Jui-Sheng Chou, Wan-Ting Tu

Developing renewable energy is crucial as nations face the twin threats of global
warming and a reduction in energy supplies. Wind turbines are one of the most
promising sources of renewable energy in Taiwan. However, on September 28, 2008,
Typhoon Jangmi struck Taiwan, bringing strong winds and heavy rainfall that
collapsed a wind turbine tower located on the shore of Taichung Harbor. This study
provides significant insights into, and lessons learned from, post-disaster inspection
into the causes of tower failure during this typhoon. This event represented the first
time that a wind turbine in Taiwan that had to be reconstructed after collapsing. To
 32

prevent similar accidents, the likely causal mechanisms are examined from the risk
management perspective. Data for case analysis are collected from original tower
design reports, the tower design code, construction records and documents, historical
wind-speed data, structural tower analysis, and intact and fractured bolt material tests.
Furthermore, similar accidents in other countries and their causes are reviewed to
identify potential risk factors affecting the lifecycle of wind turbines.

9) Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) for wind turbines

International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, Volume 32, Issue 7,
September 2010, Pages 817 - 824
H. Arabian-Hoseynabadi, H. Oraee, P.J. Tavner
The Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) method has been used to study
the reliability of many different power generation systems. This paper now applies that
method to a wind turbine (WT) system using a proprietary software reliability analysis
tool. Comparison is made between the quantitative results of an FMEA and reliability
field data from real wind turbine systems and their assemblies. These results are
discussed to establish relationships which are useful for future wind turbine designs.
The main system studied is an existing design 2 MW wind turbine with a Doubly Fed
Induction Generator (DFIG), which is then compared with a hypothetical wind turbine
system using the Brushless Doubly Fed Generator (BDFG) of the same rating.
The software reliability analysis tool used for these studies was Relex Reliability
Studio 2007 Version 2.

10)Experimental investigation of wake effects of wind turbine performance

Renewable Energy, Volume 36, Issue 8, August 2011, Pages 2078-2086
M. S. Adaramola, P.-A. Krogstad

The wake interference effect on the performance of a downstream wind turbine was
investigated experimentally. Two similar model turbines with the same rotor diameter
were used. The effects on the performance of the downstream turbine of the distance of
separation between the turbines and the amount of power extracted from the upstream
turbine were studied. The effects of these parameters on the total power output from
the turbines were also estimated. The reduction in the maximum power coefficient of
 33

the downstream turbine is strongly dependent on the distance between the turbines and
the operating condition of the upstream turbine. Depending on the distance of
separation and blade pitch angle, the loss in power from the downstream turbine varies
from about 20 to 46% compared to the power output from an unobstructed single
turbine operating at its designed conditions. By operating the upstream turbine slightly
outside this optimum setting or yawing the upstream turbine, the power output from
the downstream turbine was significantly improved. This study shows that the total
power output could be increased by installing an upstream turbine which extracts less
power than the following turbines. By operating the upstream turbine in yawed
condition, the gain in total power output from the two turbines could be increased by
about 12%.

11)Feasibility study of wind farms: A case study for Izmir, Turkey  

Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 94, Issue 10,
October 2006, Pages 725-743
Baris Ozerdem, Serra Ozer, Mahir Tosun

Wind is one of the world’s fastest growing renewable energy sources. The rapid
growth in wind power is a result of improvements accomplished in technology. This
paper presents the technical and economical feasibility of wind farms. The method is
applied to a potential wind farm site located in Izmir, Turkey. The site is considered on
technical and economical parameters for the complete plant and its running costs. For
technical consideration wind speed, prevailing wind direction, and temperature
measurements are performed. For economical consideration, three different scenarios
namely, auto producer, auto producer group, and independent power producer (IPP)
cases, are investigated and compared with respect to net present value (NPV), internal
rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PBP) criteria. The study indicates the costs
of generated energy by wind turbines with different characteristics as a function of the
installed capacity. It is concluded that, the larger the installed capacity, the smaller the
generating cost per kWh. The generating cost was calculated as low as 2.68 US
cent/kWh for the IPP scenario. The profitability analysis also shows that, larger
 34

installed capacity with larger rated power wind turbines present higher IRR of the
investment. The sensitivity analysis backs up the findings.

12)The concept of a smart wind turbine system

Renewable Energy, Volume 49, Issue 1, March 2012, Pages 403-410
R.N. Sharma, U.K. Madawala

A smart wind turbine concept with variable length blades and an innovative hybrid
mechanical- electrical power conversion system was analyzed. The variable length
blade concept uses the idea of extending the turbine blades when wind speeds fall
below rated level, hence increasing the swept area, and thus maintaining a relatively
high power output. It is shown for a typical site, the annual energy output of such a
wind turbine that could double its blade length, could be twice that of a corresponding
turbine with fixed length blades. From a cost analysis, it is shown that the concept
would be feasible if the cost of the rotor could be kept less than 4.3 times the cost of a
standard rotor with fixed length blades. Given the variable length blade turbine system
exhibits a more-or-less linear maximum power curve, as opposed to a non-linear curve
for the standard turbine, an innovative hybrid mechanical-electrical power conversion
system was proposed and tested proving the feasibility of the concept.

13)Analysis of the furling behavior of small wind turbines

Applied Energy, Volume 87, Issue 7, July 2010, Pages 2278-2292
Etienne Audierne, Jorge Elizondo, Leonardo Bergami, Humberto Ibarra, Oliver
Probst

Furling is the dominant mechanism for over speed and power control of small wind
turbines. In this paper we present a consistent model of the dynamics of gravity-
controlled furling systems based on Lagrangian formalism. The aerodynamic forces
acting on tail vane and rotor have been modeled using Xfoil and blade element
momentum (BEM) theory, respectively. Due to the proximity of tail vane and rotor a
model of the near-wake generated by the rotor was incorporated into the model,
assuming a parabolic wake shape. The different design parameters, such as lever
lengths and axis tilt angles, have been studied in a systematic manner and their impact
 35

on the wind speed values for entering and leaving the furling regime have been
assessed. In the first part of the study the free-stream in-flow wind speed was fixed at a
given value and the system was allowed to reach stable conditions. The steady-state
values of the yaw and furling angle were recorded as a function of wind speed both for
increasing and decreasing wind speed and the consequences for design choices have
been discussed. In the second part, a slow variation of input wind speed was
superimposed on the constant wind speed signal and the dynamic response of the
system was analyzed. The results of the study are thought to provide an initial roadmap
for the design of furling systems

14)Failure Analysis of Small Composite Sandwich Turbine Blade Subjected to

Extreme Wind Load
Procedia Engineering, Volume 14, 2011, Pages 1973-1981
C.P. Chen, T.Y. Kam

In this paper, the progressive failure process of composite sandwich wind turbine
blades subjected to wind load is studied via both theoretical and experimental
approaches. In the theoretical study, the wind pressure acted on the wind blade surface
is estimated in an aerodynamic analysis. The stresses in the wind blade are determined
using the finite element code ANSYS in which the skin and the core of the blade are
modeled using shell and solid elements, respectively. A phenomenological failure
criterion is adopted to predict the first-ply failure strength of the blade. After the
occurrence of the initial failure, the material properties at the failure locations are
modified following a material degradation rule. The updated stiffness matrix of the
blade is then obtained with the consideration of the changes of the material properties
and configuration of the blade. An incremental load approach together with a
sequential stiffness adjustment technique is used to trace the load-displacement curve
and thus determine the ultimate strength of the blade. In the experimental
investigation, a composite sandwich wind blade was fabricated for strength testing. In
the test, the Whiffle-tree approach was used to simulate the wind load on the blade.
The measured ultimate load of the wind blade was then used to validate the accuracy
of the proposed method for failure analysis of composite sandwich wind blades.
 36

15)Exergy and reliability analysis of wind turbine systems: A case study

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 11, Issue 8, October 2007,
Pages 1811-1826
Onder Ozgener, Leyla Ozgener

The present study undertakes an exergy and reliability analysis of wind turbine
systems and applies to a local one in Turkey: the exergy performance and reliability of
the small wind turbine generator have been evaluated in a demonstration (1.5 kW) in
Solar Energy Institute of Ege University (latitude 38.24 N, longitude 27.50 E), Izmir,
Turkey. In order to extract the maximum possible power, it is important that the blades
of small wind turbines start rotating at the lowest possible wind speed. The starting
performance of a three-bladed, 3m diameter horizontal axis wind turbine was
measured in field tests. The average technical availability, real availability, capacity
factor and exergy efficiency value have been analyzed from September 2002 to
November 2003 and they are found to be 94.20%, 51.67%, 11.58%, and 0-48.72%
respectively. The reliability analysis has also been done for the small wind turbine
generator. The failure rate is high to an extent of 2.28×10 -4h-1 and the factor of
reliability is found to be 0.37 at 4380 h. If failure rate can be decreased, not only this
system but also other wind turbine systems of real availability, capacity factor and
exergy efficiency will be improved.

16)Comparative assessment of performance of foreign and local wind turbine

manufacturers in China
Renewable Energy, Volume 39, Issue 1, March 2012, Pages 424-432
Zhen-yn Zhao, Wen-jun Ling, George Zillante, Jian Zuo

Compared to the conventional fossil fuel energy, wind power provides clean energy
which can mitigate the impacts of greenhouse gas emission and optimize the electric
power source structure. During the last decade, the strong support of the Chinese
government has contributed to the rapid development of the Chinese wind power
sector which has in turn resulted in a significant growth of the Chinese wind turbine
manufacturing industry. This growth went through several phases including the initial
approval of several leading global Wind Turbine Manufacturers (WTMs) to enter the
 37

Chinese market through various methods which included the establishment of wholly
foreign-owned enterprises from 2005. Similarly, several government policies have
contributed to the significant expansion in terms of both productivity and quantities by
local Chinese WTMs. The entrance of foreign WTMs into the Chinese market coupled
with the rapid growth of local WTMs has contributed to intense competition in China’s
wind turbine manufacture market. This paper analyzes the characteristics of the wind
turbine manufacturing industry in China and establishes a hierarchical structure of the
WTMs’ competitive priority system. This system consists of 5 indicators and 10 sub-
indicators. By comparing the different performances of each indicator, the competitive
advantages and disadvantages of the foreign and local WTMs in the Chinese market
are identified. The findings provide a valuable reference for the WTMs to improve
their competitive priorities and to formulate their competitive strategy in the Chinese
wind turbine market. This paper provides inputs for the sustainable development of
wind power industry in other countries.

17)Performance of a 3 kW wind turbine generator with variable pitch control

system
Applied Energy, Volume 86, Issue 9, September 2009, Pages 1774–1782
Baku M. Nagai, Kazumasa Ameku, Jitendro Nath Roy

A prototype 3 kW horizontal upwind type wind turbine generator of 4 m in

diameter has been designed and examined under real wind conditions. The machine
was designed based on the concept that even small wind turbines should have a
variable pitch control system just as large wind turbines, especially in Japan where
typhoons occur at least once a year. A characteristic of the machine is the use of a
worm and gear system with a stepping motor installed in the center of the hub, and the
rotational main shaft. The machine is constructed with no mechanical breaking system
so as to avoid damage from strong winds. In a storm, the wind turbine is slowed down
by adjusting the pitch angle and the maximum electrical load. Usually the machine is
controlled at several stages depending on the rotational speed of the blades. Two
control methods have been applied: the variable pitch angle, and regulation of the
generator field current. The characteristics of the generator under each rotational speed
 38

and field current are first investigated in the laboratory. This paper describes the
performances of the wind turbine in terms of the functions of wind turbine rotational
speed, generated outputs, and its stability for wind speed changes. The expected
performances of the machine have been confirmed under real wind conditions and
compared with numerical simulation results. The wind turbine showed a power
coefficient of 0.257 under the average wind speed of 7.3 m/s.

18)Aerodynamic performance analysis of horizontal axis wind turbines

Renewable Energy, Volume 4, Issue 5, July 1994, Pages 505-518
V. H. Morcos

The present work studies the wind energy resources in Egypt and the aerodynamic
performance of propeller type and multi-bladed horizontal axis wind turbines with
three different airfoil blade sections (flat-plate, symmetric and circular-arc airfoils).
Power, thrust and torque coefficients were investigated as functions of wind turbine
design parameters (blade angle, rotor solidity, drag-to-lift coefficient ratio and blade
section) and operating conditions (tip-speed ratios). Axial and tangential induction
factors and drag coefficient were introduced in the calculations. Recommended design
and operating values are given for each wind turbine. The analysis of the theoretical
results shows that flat-plate and symmetric airfoil blade sections operate at a wider
range of tip-speed ratios than that of circular-arc airfoil blade sections, so they are
recommended for small and large sized wind turbines, respectively. Also, the analysis
of the available local wind speed measurements indicates that the future potential of
wind energy conversion systems in Egypt is promising. Several sites along the
Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts have high annual average wind speed and power
density of 6.4 m s−1 and 160 W m−2, respectively.

19)Performance evaluation of pairing between sites and wind turbines

Renewable Energy Volume 32, (2007), Pages 1934 – 1947
Ssu-yuan Hua, Jung-ho Chen

This paper presents a simple method for determination of pairing between sites and
wind generators. It requires six parameters to describe the matching between turbine
 39

models and site characteristics, and the energy output performance can thus be easily
estimated and used as the index of pairing effectiveness. To describe a Weibull model
of wind speed distribution, the shape parameter and the scale parameter are necessarily
required. Besides, four other parameters are chosen to specify the characteristics of the
power curve of a wind generator: the cut-in speed, the rated speed, the cutoff speed and
the nominal power. By combining these six parameters, the average power output of
some particular wind turbine at a specific site can be practically and quickly
approximated as a reference for turbine siting consideration. An example is also shown
to demonstrate the utilization of the proposed method to choose between a group of
wind sites and a list of commercial wind turbines.

20)Evaluating the performance of wind turbines in selected locations in Oyo state,

Nigeria
Renewable Energy, Volume 36, Issue 12, December 2011, Pages 3297-3304
M. S. Adaramola, O. M. Oyewola

The wind speed distribution and wind energy potential are investigated in three
selected locations in Oyo state using wind speed data that span between 12 and 20
years measured at 10 m height. In addition, the performances of selected small to
medium size wind turbines in these sites were examined. The annual energy output and
capacity factor for these turbines were determined. It was found that the monthly mean
wind speeds in Oyo state ranges from 2.85 m/s to 5.20 m/s. While the monthly mean
power density varies between 27.08 W/m2 and 164.48 W/m2, while the annual mean
power density is in the range of 67.28 W/m2 and 106.60 W/m2. Based on annual energy
output, wind turbines with cut-in wind speed of about 2.5 m/s and moderate rated
wind speeds will be best suited for all the sites.
 40

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

 In this project, operational experience of site-specific data of different wind farms

located at Muppandal region (Southern part of India) were collected and interpreted in
detail.
 Wind energy production shows a wide range of variation due to climatic and
technical factors.
 The stoppage time of the Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs) reduced the real
availability.
 Wind turbines simply convert some of the kinetic energy of the wind (or speed of
air at atmospheric pressure), from the air to rotor blade rotation.
 Rotar blade rotates a shaft connected to a generator, which in turn converts the
rotational energy to electrical energy.
 Here we are using taguchi method to improve the performance, reduce failure and
enhance reliability interpretation of wind farms.
 For the optimization of the project I am going to use taguchi method with the help
of MINITAB optimization tool.
 By doing this I am going to improve the performance, reliability of the wind farm
by increasing to 20%.
 41

CHAPTER 4

DATA COLLECTION

This is the initial and the most important stage of our project which includes the
collection of the data regarding the performance and failure. I collected details for
several WTGs. The classification of these wind turbines can be based on their makes.
Mainly we concentrate on three makes. Make ‘1’ includes 9 WTGs each of 225 kW
capacities, 10 WTGs each of 250 kW capacities and 10 number of 400 kW capacity
WTGs. Make ‘2’ comprises of 7 number of 750 kW WTGs and 10 number of 1650
kW WTGs. 8 number of 250 kW WTGs are included in Make ‘3’ category.
The data collected for analysing the performance, failure and reliability of the WTGs
are :-
 Technical specifications of WTGs
 Generation details for five/three years
 Stoppage time of the machine
 Due to Low wind
 Due to Failures
 Due to Maintenance
 Failure details for five/three years

4.1 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WTGs

4.1.1 Technical specifications of WTGs of Make ‘1’

Table 5.1 clearly shows the technical details of WTGs of Make ‘1’.

TABLE 4.1 Technical specifications of WTGs of Make ‘1’

Specifications 225 kW 250 kW 400 kW
ROTOR
Diameter 29.8 m 28 m 31 m
Area of swept circle 697.46 m² 600 m2 (approx) 754.8 m2
Speed 37.5 rpm 45 rpm 30.5 rpm
Number of blades 3 3 3
 42

ROTOR BLADES
Material
830 kg
Weight of blades
Stall Stall Stall
Performance
NACA 63 – 200
regulation
Profile
Width : Base
Tip
Twist
GEAR
Type Plane/tooth wheel
1:40 1:40 gear
Ratio
1:42.5
Generator
Type Asynchronous 3
Rated output phased
Main voltage 400/100 kW
Frequency 400 m/L
50 Hz
Design data
Rotor output 225 kW 250 kW 400 kW
Rated wind speed 15 m/s
3.5 m/s 4 m/s
Wind speed – cut in
28 m/s 25 m/s
Wind speed – cut out
67 m/s 60 m/s
Survival wind speed
Tower structure
Construction Tubular Tubular Tubular
Height of tower 30 m 30 m 36 m

Weights
Complete nacelle
23.5 T
Complete tower
 43

Total machine 50000 kg

4.1.2 Technical specifications of WTGs of Make ‘2’

The technical specifications of WTGs of make ‘2’ are shown in the below table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2 Technical specifications of WTGs of Make ‘2’

Specifications 750 kW 1650 kW
ROTOR
Diameter 48.2 82 m
Area of swept circle 1824 m2 5281 m2
Number of blades 3 3
Speed 20 16

ROTOR BLADES
Material LM Glass fiber
Weight of blades 3.1 Tonnes
Active stall
Performance regulation Stall
Profile NACA 63 – series
Width : Base
3.5 m
Tip
GEAR
Type 1 step planet 2 step paralle Planetary/helical stages
Ratio shaft
1:67.5
Generator
Type Asynchronous water cooled Asynchronous water
Rated output 750 kW cooled
Main voltage 690 V 1650 kW
Frequency 50 Hz 230/110 V
50/60 Hz
Design data
 44

Rotor output 750 kW 1650 kW

Rated wind speed 17 m/s 14 m/s
Wind speed – cut in < 3.5 m/s 3.5 m/s
Wind speed – cut out 25 m/s 20 m/s
Survival wind speed 60 m/s 52.5 m/s
Tower structure
Construction Tubular Tubular
Height of tower 55 m 78 m

Weights
Complete nacelle 22000 kg 52 tonnes
Complete tower 46000 kg 115 tonnes
Rotor 13500 kg
Total machine 81500 kg

41.2.1 Technical specifications of WTGs of Make ‘3’

Table 5.3 below gives the technical details of WTGs of Make ‘3’.

TABLE 4.3 Technical specifications of WTGs of Make ‘3’

Specifications 250 kW
ROTOR
Diameter 28.5 m
Area of swept circle 638 sq.m
Speed (max) 46 rev/min
Number of blades 3

ROTOR BLADES
Material GRP
Weight of blades 650 kg each
Performance regulation Stall effect
Profile NACA/WORTMANN
Width : Base 1255 mm approx.
 45

Tip 450 mm approx.

Twist 28 degrees
GEAR
Type Planetary gear
Ratio 1:38.7
Cooling Oil in sump - splash

Generator
Type Asynchronous
Pole changing 4/6
Rated output 25/80 kW
Main voltage 400 V ± 10%
Frequency 50 HZ ± 5%

Design data
Rotor output 250 kW
Rated wind speed 14 m/s
Wind speed – cut in 4 m/s
Wind speed – cut out 23 m/s
Survival wind speed 58 m/s
Max. output coefficient 0.44

Tower structure
Construction Welded
Corrosion protection Hot dip galvanised
Height of tower 30 m

Weights
Complete nacelle 11500 kg
Complete tower 15000 kg
Total machine 26500 kg
 46

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence  is apparently intelligent behaviour by machines, rather than

the natural intelligence (NI) of humans and other animals. In computer science AI
research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its
environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some
goal. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics
"cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as
"learning" and "problem solving".

5.2 TAGUCHI APPROACH

Taguchi’s parametric design is an effective tool for robust design. It offers a simple
and systematic qualitative optimal design at a relatively low cost. It has been widely
used for the last two decades. The greatest advantage of this approach is to save the
experimental time as well as the cost by finding out the significant factors. One of the
important steps involved in Taguchi’s technique is selection of an orthogonal array
(OA). An OA is a small set from all possibilities which helps to determine least no. of
experiments, which will further help to conduct experiments to determine the optimum
level for each process parameters and establish the relative importance of individual
process parameters. To obtain optimum process parameters setting, Taguchi proposed
a statistical measure of performance called signal to noise ratio(S/N ratio). This ratio
considers both the mean and the variability. In addition to S/N ratio, ANOVA is used
to indicate the influence of process parameters on performance measures. Taguchi
proposed three categories of performance characteristics in the analysis of the S/N
ratio, that is, the smaller the better, the higher the better, and the nominal the better
(Ross,1996). Numerous researchers have been used Taguchi method to materials
processing for process optimization (Hari singh, 2008; Hari singh and Kumar, 2003;
Anrin et al., 2009; Barua et al., 1997; Mahapatra et al., 2006; Thamizhmanii et al.,
 47

2007; Tian syung Lan, 2009). In the present work the first criterion selects the-smaller-
the-better characteristic of the minimum is best and larger the better type for hardness.
 48

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

The Taguchi method is a powerful tool and efficient method for optimizing the
quality performance of the system. The Taguchi method is used to achieve high-quality
targets without increasing the cost. It is expected that developing better optimal
parameters for getting increase in power production. Traditional methods are very
complicated and difficult to use. Additionally, these methods also require a large
number of analysis data's when the number of process parameters increases. In order to
minimize the number of tests required. Taguchi experimental design method, a
powerful tool for designing high-quality system, was developed by Taguchi. Taguchi
recommends analysing the mean response for each run in the array, and he also
suggests to analyse variation using an appropriately chosen signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).
For this project I am going to use MINITAB software for optimize the work using
Taguchi method.
 49

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