Saturated Adiabatic Processes
JA Curry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is reproduced from the previous edition, volume 6, pp 2278–2282, Ó 2003, Elsevier Ltd.
Introduction
Adiabatic processes of moist (but unsaturated) air are described
elsewhere in this encyclopedia (see Thermodynamics: Moist
(Unsaturated) Air), and it is shown that potential temperature
remains constant during such processes as long as condensa-
tion does not occur. Once condensation occurs in adiabatic
cooling associated with ascent, the latent heat of condensation
is released. The rate at which saturated air cools as it expands
adiabatically is smaller than the rate at which unsaturated air
cools adiabatically, because part of the cooling is canceled by
the latent heat released during condensation.
The term ‘saturation’ indicates that the atmosphere has
a relative humidity (RH) of 100% or greater, with respect to
either liquid water or ice (see Thermodynamics: Humidity
Variables). In saturated air, the thermodynamic system under
consideration consists of dry air gases (primarily nitrogen and
oxygen), water vapor, and water in a condensed phase (liquid
and/or ice particles).
The RH is defined in eqn [1].
wv
H ¼
ws ðTÞ
where wv is the water vapor mixing ratio (defined as the ratio of
the water vapor mass to the dry air mass) and ws is the satu-
ration mixing ratio (defined as the ratio of the water vapor mass
at saturation to the dry air mass). For initially unsaturated air to
become saturated, the RH must increase. An increase in RH can
be accomplished by increasing the amount of water vapor in
the air (i.e., increasing wv) and/or by cooling the air, which
decreases ws(T). Here, the focus is on adiabatic cooling in rising
air as a mechanism for reaching saturation and the subsequent
thermodynamic processes associated with the adiabatic cooling
of saturated (and cloudy) air.
Adiabatic Processes
Expansion in the atmosphere occurs when air rises due to
mechanical lifting (e.g., orographic and frontal), large-scale
low-level convergence, turbulent mixing, and buoyancy effects.
The expansion is adiabatic if no heat is exchanged between the
air and the environment (e.g., radiative transfer).
The entropy equation for an adiabatic process for moist
(but unsaturated) air in the absence of condensation is written
as eqn [2] (see Thermodynamics: Moist (Unsaturated) Air).
0 ¼ cp dðln TÞ  Rdðln pÞ
where cp is the specific heat at constant pressure of air, T is
temperature, R is the specific gas constant for air, and p is
398 Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences 2nd Edition, Volume 5
pressure. From this equation, an expression for the potential
temperature, q (eqn [3]), can be derived.

R=cp
p0
q ¼ T [3]
p
The potential temperature is the temperature air would have
if it were compressed (or expanded) in an adiabatic reversible
process from a given state, p and T, to a pressure of 1000 hPa. q
is a conservative quantity for reversible adiabatic processes in
the atmosphere in the absence of phase changes associated
with condensation. From the definition of lapse rate, G ¼ dT/
dz, [1], and the hydrostatic equation, an expression for the dry
adiabatic lapse rate, Gd, (eqn [4]), can be written.
g
Gd ¼ z 9:8 C km1 [4]
cp
As air expands adiabatically and cools, the RH increases as
the temperature and saturation mixing ratio decreases. The
water vapor mixing ratio remains constant during adiabatic
ascent. At some point, the RH reaches 100%, and further
cooling results in saturation. (Note: Condensation is initiated
[1]
typically at relative humidities that slightly exceed 100%.) The
temperature at which saturation is reached can be approxi-
mated using eqn [5].
1
Ts ¼ þ 55 [5]
1 ln H

T  55 2840
for initial values of T (in Kelvin) and H. From eqn [3], the
saturation pressure, ps, can be determined as in eqn [6].

cp =Rd
Ts
ps ¼ p [6]
T
The coordinate (Ts, ps) is known as the saturation point of
the air mass.
During ascent, the water vapor mixing ratio, wv, remains
constant until saturation occurs. The dew point temperature (see
Thermodynamics: Humidity Variables), however, decreases
slightly during the ascent as pressure decreases. The lifting
condensation level, zs, corresponds to the level of the saturation
pressure, ps, which can be approximated as in eqn [7].
zs ¼ 0:12ðT0  TD0 Þ ðkmÞ [7]
This relation is an approximate expression of the height of
the lifting condensation level achieved in an adiabatic ascent
where T0 and TD0 represent the initial temperature and dew
[2]
point temperature of the air mass that is being lifted. Calculation
of the lifting condensation level provides a good estimate of the
cloud base height for clouds that form by adiabatic ascent.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382225-3.00406-0
 Thermodynamics j Saturated Adiabatic Processes 399

Once saturation occurs, further lifting of the air mass results determined from the adiabatic entropy eqn [9] and the
in condensation. Because of the latent heat released during hydrostatic equation (eqn [11]).
condensation, the decrease of temperature with height will be  
cp dT g
smaller than that in dry adiabatic ascent. In addition, the dwl ¼ þ dz [11]
Llv dz cp
potential temperature, q, which was conserved in a reversible
dry adiabatic ascent, is no longer conserved once condensation Substituting Gd ¼ g/cp and Gs ¼ dT/dz yields eqn [12]
occurs.
cp
The adiabatic entropy equation for air with changes of dwl ¼ ½G  Gs dz [12]
Llv d
phase between water vapor, liquid, and ice is written as eqn [8].

 Integrating eqn [12] from cloud base to height z gives the
A
0 ¼ ðcpd þ wt cl Þdðln TÞ  Rd dðln pd Þ  wv d lv liquid water content at height z. Because of the complicated
T



 form of Gs, this equation must be integrated numerically.
Llv wv Ail Lil wi Integration of eqn [12] shows that the adiabatic liquid water
þd þ wi d d [8]
T T T content increases with height above the cloud base and
Here, cpd is the specific heat of dry air, cl is the specific increasing cloud base temperature. Because of the variation of
heat of liquid water, Rd is the specific gas constant for dry air, Gs with temperature, clouds with warmer bases have larger
wl is the liquid water mixing ratio, wi is the ice water mixing values of Gd  Gs and thus larger values of the adiabatic liquid
ratio, wt is the total water mixing ratio, Llv is the latent heat water content. The adiabatic liquid water content represents an
of vaporization, Lil is the latent heat of sublimation, Alv is the upper bound on the liquid water that can be produced in
affinity for vaporization, and Ail is the affinity for freezing. a cloud by rising motion. Processes such as precipitation and
An approximate form of the entropy equation that has no ice mixing with dry air reduce the cloud liquid water content
phase assumes that condensation occurs at 100% RH, and relative to the adiabatic value.
neglects the specific heats of water relative to dry air, is As adiabatic cooling proceeds, the cloud may eventually
written as eqn [9]. cool to the point where ice crystals form. Assuming that a water
cloud is present initially, then the formation of ice crystals
Llv
0 ¼ cpd dðln TÞ  Rd dðln pÞ þ dws [9] releases latent heat during fusion. Once the cloud glaciates, it is
T supersaturated with respect to ice, and deposition occurs on the
The saturated adiabatic lapse rate, Gs, can be determined ice crystals, releasing the latent heat of sublimation, until the
from the adiabatic entropy eqn [9], the hydrostatic equation, ambient RH is at ice saturation. Further cooling will result in
ideal gas law, the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, and dry the increase of ice water content in the cloud and the release of
adiabatic lapse rate (eqn [10]). the latent heat of sublimation into the atmosphere.
" # Assuming that the thermodynamic system consists of moist
1 þ ðLlv ws =Rd TÞ
Gs ¼ Gd [10] air plus liquid water, and that the freezing and subsequent
1 þ ð3L2lv ws =cpd Rd T 2 Þ deposition occur isobarically and adiabatically, then the
enthalpy of the system will not change during this trans-
where 3 ¼ 0.622 (the ratio of the molecular weights of water to
formation. This process can be idealized by assuming that first
dry air). The denominator of eqn [10] is larger than the
the water freezes at constant temperature and latent heat of
numerator, and thus Gs < Gd. Table 1 shows the values of Gs for
freezing is released, then water vapor is deposited on the ice
selected values of T and p. It is seen that the temperature vari-
and latent heat of sublimation is released. The temperature
ation of Gs exceeds the pressure variation. At low temperatures
change associated with the freezing and subsequent deposition
and high pressures, Gs approaches Gd. Values of Gs determined
can be approximated from eqn [8] according to eqn [13].
from eqn [10] are within about 0.5% of the values determined
from a more exact form of the entropy eqn [8]. Because of the Lil wl þ Liv ws ½1  ðesi =es Þ
approximate nature of eqn [9], Gs is sometimes called the DT ¼ [13]
cp þ ð3wi L2iv =Rd T 2 Þ
pseudoadiabatic lapse rate.
The amount of water condensed in saturated adiabatic This expression gives the increase in temperature due to the
ascent, called the adiabatic liquid water content, can be freezing of cloud water and the subsequent deposition of water
vapor onto the ice crystals. In clouds that cool by adiabatic
ascent, the freezing does not occur isobarically, but gradually
over a temperature interval.
Table 1 Gs for selected values of temperature and pressure (K km1) Once the cloud has glaciated, further adiabatic ascent results
in deposition of water vapor onto the ice crystals. Analogously
Pressure (hPa)
to eqn [10], the ice-saturation adiabatic lapse rate is given by
T ( C) 1000 700 500 eqn [14], where wsi is the saturation mixing ratio with respect to
ice and Liv is the latent heat of sublimation.
30 9.2 9.0 8.7
" #
20 8.6 8.2 7.8 1 þ ðLiv wsi =Rd TÞ
10 7.7 7.1 6.4 Gsi ¼ Gd [14]
1 þ ð3L2iv wsi =cpd Rd T 2 Þ
0 6.5 5.8 5.1
10 5.3 4.6 4.0
The melting process is distinctly different from the freezing
20 4.3 3.7 3.3
process. Melting may occur as ice particles fall to temperatures
400 Thermodynamics j Saturated Adiabatic Processes
that are above the melting point. In contrast to freezing, which
may be distributed through a considerable vertical depth,
melting of ice particles can be quite localized, occurring in
a very narrow layer around the freezing point. Cooling of the
atmosphere from the melting can result in an isothermal layer
near 0  C. Because of their large size and density, hailstones do
not melt at the freezing level in the same manner as a small ice
crystal or a snowflake with a low density, but melt over a deeper
layer. If atmospheric relative humidities are low in the atmo-
sphere below the melting level, then the melting water will
evaporate, cooling the hailstone and retarding the melting.
Conserved Thermodynamic Variables under
Saturated Conditions
Potential temperature is a conserved variable in reversible
adiabatic processes. The concept of potential temperature
becomes less useful when applied to a saturated air, since
potential temperature is not conserved during phase changes of
water. Derivation of a potential temperature that is conserved
in saturated adiabatic ascent eliminates the need to include
latent heat source terms in the time-dependent thermodynamic
equation.
An analogous variable that is conserved for a cloud in
adiabatic ascent can be determined that relates temperature
and pressure in a saturated adiabatic process. A conserved
temperature for cloud in adiabatic ascent can be derived from
eqn [8]. A conserved potential temperature for clouds will
obviously be far more complex than the potential temperature
derived for a dry adiabatic process, since eqn [8] is considerably
more complex than eqn [1]. A number of different conserved
potential temperatures have been used for clouds that employ
various approximate forms of eqn [8].
The simplest possible case is that in which saturation
conditions are maintained, ice is not present, and the heat
capacities of the water vapor and condensed water are neglec-
ted relative to that of dry air. Using these approximations, the
entropy eqn [8] becomes eqn [15].


L ws
0 ¼ cpd dðln TÞ  Rd dðln pÞ þ d lv [15]
T batic entropy eqn [8] as given in eqn [23].
For a dry adiabatic process, eqn [16] is obtained from
eqn [3].
cpd dðln qÞ ¼ cpd dðln TÞ  Rd dðln pÞ [16]
Equating eqn [3] with eqn [16] yields eqn [17].


L ws
d lv ¼ cpd dðln qÞ [17]
T
This expression is integrated to a height in the atmosphere
where all of the water vapor has been condensed out by adia-
batic cooling. The corresponding temperature is called the
equivalent potential temperature, qe, given in eqn [18].
!
Llv ws
qe ¼ q exp [18]
cpd T
It is easily determined that qe > q, which arises from the
latent heat released from the condensation of water vapor.
Because of the approximations made in eqn [16], the
equivalent potential temperature is only approximately
conserved in a saturated adiabatic process. Although approxi-
mate, eqn [18] retains the essential physics of the process,
whereby the condensation of water vapor provides energy to
the moist air and increases its temperature relative to what the
temperature would have been in dry adiabatic ascent.
An alternative but analogous potential temperature, the
liquid water potential temperature, ql, is derived as follows.
Equation [16] is written as in eqn [19], where dws ¼ dwl


L w
0 ¼ cpd dðln TÞ  Rd dðln pÞ  d lv l [19]
T
Then a procedure analogous to the derivation of qe write ql
as in eqn [20] can be followed.
!
Llv wl
ql ¼ q exp  [20]
cpd T
One advantage of ql over qe is that ql reverts to q, the dry
potential temperature, in the absence of liquid water.
In the presence of ice, an ice–liquid water potential
temperature, qil, can be derived from the approximate form of
eqn [8] given as eqn [21].



L w Liv wi
0 ¼ cpd dðln TÞ ¼ Rd dðln pÞ  d lv l  d [21]
T T
qil can then be written as in eqn [22].
!
L w Liv wi
qil ¼ q exp  lv l  [22]
cpd T cpd T
The derivation of the ice–liquid water potential temperature
implies that it is applicable only under conditions of equilib-
rium, since the affinity terms were not included. Since ice and
liquid are both at equilibrium only at the triple point, use of the
ice–liquid water potential temperature is inconsistent physically
at temperatures away from the triple point. Nevertheless, the
ice–liquid water potential is an economical and not too inac-
curate way to treat ice processes in a numerical cloud model.
The entropy potential temperature, qh, includes ice
processes and is derived from the complete form of the adia-

Rd =ðcpd þwt cl Þ !
p0 ðLiv þ Aiv Þwl ðL þ Ail Þwi
qh ¼ T  exp  il
p ðcpd þ wt cl ÞT ðcpd þ wt cl ÞT
[23]
The entropy potential temperature is thus the most general
potential temperature considered here. Unlike ql and qil, qh is
applicable to nonequilibrium conditions such as subsaturated
or supersaturated environments.
Another moist thermodynamical variable that is often used
is the moist static energy, h (eqn [24]).
h ¼ ðcpd þ wt cl ÞT þ Llv wv þ ð1 þ wt Þgz [24]
The moist static energy is conserved for adiabatic, saturated,
or unsaturated transformations for a closed system in which the
pressure change is hydrostatic.
It is important to note the conditions under which qe
and the other conserved thermodynamic variables are not
conserved. Examples include cases where external radiative

heating or conduction takes place, since these alter the entropy.
Other examples include atmospheric conditions in which
latent heating occurs externally, such as the evaporation of
water into air from the ocean or when precipitation falls out.
See also: Thermodynamics: Humidity Variables; Moist
(Unsaturated) Air.
Thermodynamics j Saturated Adiabatic Processes 401
Further Reading
Curry, J.A., Webster, P.J., 1999. Thermodynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans.
Academic Press, London, UK.
Dutton, J.A., 1986. The Ceaseless Wind: An Introduction to the Theory of Atmospheric
Motion. Dover Publications, Mineola, NY.
Emanuel, K.A., 1994. Atmospheric Convection. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Iribarne, J.V., Godson, W.L., 1981. Atmospheric Thermodynamics. Kluwer, Boston, MA.