POLITICAL SCIENCE PAPER-I

WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT.

MUSLIM POLITICAL THOUGHT.
POLITICAL THEORY.

COMPILED BY : EHSAN KAREEM.

 WESTERN POLITICAL PHILOSPHY.

PLATO (427-347BC)
INTRODUCTION.
▪ First philosopher who gave scientific touch to philosophy.
▪ Founded academy in Athens in 386BC.
PLATO’S WORKS.
▪ Three important books written by Plato. 1) The republic 2).statesmen 3) laws.
▪ Plato believes that virtue, art of statesmanship and proper conduct in life are teachable.
▪ Plato used dialectic method.
SOCRATES INFLUENCE ON PLATO.
A lot of influence, since we know philosophy of Socrates through the dialogues of Plato.
A PRACTICAL IDEALIST.
Plato believed that his ideal state was not impossible of realization if any place be found suitable for the
habitation of philosophers and the growth of philosophy.
Q 1: WRITE ABOUT THE MAIN FEATURES OF IDEAL STATE, CRITICALLY ANALYZE IT AND
WRITE ABOUT ARISTOTLE’S CRITICISM OF IDEAL STATE.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Sketch of ideal state in “the republic”.
▪ Importance of state and society according to Plato…..”No good life out of state”
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATO’S IDEAL STATE.
1) PLATO’s STATE IS BASED ON FUNCTIONAL SPECIALIZATION.
▪ Pythagoras classifies human nature in three sections that are reason, courage and appetite
▪ He based his ideal state on the three major classes.i.e.the ruling class, A military class, Professional
(Artisans).
2) SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN IDEAL STATE.
▪ Plato provided for a state regulated education system i.e. an education system run by the state.
SATGES IN EDUCATION SYSTEM.
▪ Elementary education (1-20)
▪ Higher education (20-35).
▪ Preparation of guardian class(35-50).
3).JUSTICE IN PLATO’S IDEAL STATE.
▪ According to Plato, justice is to provide one with what is "due".
4).DOMINANCE OF PHILOSPHY/GOVERNMENT BY PHILOSPHER KING.
▪ Plato and Socrates hold that virtue is knowledge and the highest virtue was the highest knowledge of
philosophy.
5).MONARCHY IS THE BEST FORM OF GOVERNMENT.
According to Plato, the best form of government is absolute monarchy. Absolute monarchy is not tyranny because the
rule of the philosopher king is on the basis of reason and not on appetite.
6).COMMUNISM IN THE IDEAL STATE.
Plato based his ideal state on the concept of communism. For his ideal state, he deprived the two important classes of
private ownership of property and children.
7).BAN ON ARTS AND LITERATURE.
Plato wanted an error free state and to him arts and literature were sources of corruption and immorality.
8).SEXUAL EQUALITY.
He gave' equal rights to male and female.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IDEAL STATE.
A HOLLOW CONCEPT.
State is to serve human beings and not to engulf their individual status. His ideal state demands sacrifices only.
SELF-CONTRADICTORY AND HALF-COMMUNISM.
On one side, he says about justice, on the other hand, expounds communism that is to deprive the two classes from the
private ownership and natural family life. Further, the majority professional class is free of communism
FUNCTIONAL SPECIALISATION ARE IMPRACTICABLE.
EDUCATION SYSTEM OF PLATO.
Undue importance to music, logic, games and philosophy. He ignored the important disciplines like Law, History,
Psychology and physical sciences etc.
RULE OF PHILOSPHY.
His concept of rule of the philosophy is against the human nature, democracy, equality and liberty etc.
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.
NO ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
NO CONSTITUTION.
Q2. PLATO’S EDUCATION SYSTEM.
“The republic is not a work upon politics, but the finest treatise on education that ever was written” (Rousseau)
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Plato believed that the state could promote justice and prevent crime by a proper system or education.
SCHEME OF HIS EDUCATION SYSTEM
▪ Plato disliked the Athenian system, instead liked Spartan System of Education, which was state regulated.
TWO PHASES OF HIS EDUCATION SYSTEM.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION.
▪ Up to the age of six, a child is to be taught simple religious and moral truth through stories.
▪ 7-18: It includes basic sciences, music, poetry and literature, and gymnastic to develop a sound physique.
▪ Those who do not study after 18 years are dropped down to become artisans or producers.
▪ 18-20: military training, which is calculated to develop courage, self-control, character and discipline.
▪ After military training there is a public examination and those who fail it are dropped down to become
warriors.
HIGHER EDUCATION.
▪ From 20 to 30 years of age, students are taught natural and mathematical sciences.
▪ At the age of 30 , is a selective test and those who fail are dropped down to become subordinate officers of
the state. The remaining students are given 5 years more training in mathematics, chiefly the science of
dialectics.
THE GUARDIANS.
▪ At the age of 35, they are required practical training for 15 years to become philosophers and
guardians.
FEATURES OF PLATOEDUCATION SYSTEM.
It is compulsory, state regulated and meant for both the sexes.
 + VE POINTS.
▪ Modern civil and military services properly trained and sifted are in line with it.
▪ His emphasis on women education is commendable. Also state regulated
▪ He is right compulsory and state regulated, but in spite of all these, there are following defects in it:
DEFECTS / -VE POINTS.
▪ Primarily meant for the ruling class only and ignores the lower classes, which represents majority of
population.
▪ No mention of study of finance, law and military tactics but only of abstract mathematics.
“There are two self-contradictory statements in Plato's Education Scheme; viz the extraordinary use of music
and the absolute control of the sour over the body, which is impossible” (JOWETT)
Q3. PLATO’S THEORY OF JUSTICE.
INTRODUCTION.
PLATO’S DEFINATION OF JUSTICE.
The Theory of Cephalous (Traditionalism)
Polemarchus: supports this Cephalous definition of justice by saying that justice means helping one's friends and
harming one's enemies. Plato rejects their definitions.
The Theory of Thrasymachus (Radicalism).
Regards justice as the interests of the sovereign. Plato rejects on the basis that it leads to "Might is Right”.
The Theory of Glucan (Pragmatism):
Justice is artificial and conventional. Says that it is good to be unjust but bad to suffer injustice. Plato rejects.
JUSTICE ACCORDING TO PLATO.
“Justice is doing one’s own job” (BOOK 4 OF PLATO)
“We must infer that all things are produced more plentifully and easily and of better quality when one man does one
thing which is natural to him and does it at the right time, and leaves other things” (PLATO)
Analogy between human being and state.
Three classes in the state.
Justice is a product of specialization of function.
“Justice is a product of class division and specialization of function” (PLATO)
Justice is the development of internal harmony.
“Justice is harmony” (BOOK 4 OF REPUBLIC)
Non-interference of state in public affairs.
Individual and social justice.
"The will to concentrate on one's own spheres of duty and not to middle with the spheres of others".(PLATO)
Education as a tool to make just society.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PLATO’S JUSTICE THEORY.
▪ It divides the society into three classes, which is impossible now.
▪ Restriction of individual’s freedom.
▪ Geographical division of vast state.
▪ Theory of non-interference of state in public affairs.
▪ Unnatural communism.
▪ Plato's unity through uniformity is not stable.
▪ Plato's Justice with Communism of property and wives ignores the fundamental human psychology.
Q4:PLATO’S THEORY OF COMMUNISM.
INTRODUCTION.
“In order to prevent possible corruption of the ruling class, rulers should not have families and private property”
PLATO’S ARGUMENT IN SUPPORT OF HIS NEW SOCIAL ORDER.
Private property and family were the sources of corruption in the society. Hence political and economic power must be in
separate hands.
COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY.
“Guardian class holds to right to govern; they must not have property. They must not have their own houses
and lands” (PLATO)
▪ The result of this according to Plato would be that there would be no competition for political power among
the ruling class attributable to the desire to use such power for economic welfare.
COMMUNISM OF FAMILY.
▪ Neither marriages nor any form of monogamous union were allowed among men and women in the ruling
class.
▪ Breeding is to be regulated by the State to produce best children from the women of best stock, mating and
sexual intercourse is periodic. Their children will be reared by the State.
▪ No individual parent-child relationship, for parents were parents of all and child were child of all.
RELATION B/W COMMUNISM OF PROPERTY AND FAMILY.
CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF PLATO’S COMMUNISM OF PRPERTY.
▪ It has a political or moral rather than an economic end.
▪ Half-communism
▪ Elimination of slaves.
▪ Lack of compatibility of economics and politics
▪ It does not take into consideration the lower classes in the stale:
▪ An extremist theory.
CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF PLATO’S COMMUNISM OF FAMILY.
▪Eradication of institution of family.
▪Negation of high status of human being.
▪No proper development of child.
▪Impracticable.

Q: PLATO’S CONCEPT OF PHILOSPHER KING.

“Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of
philosopher? Cities will never have rest from their evils” (Plato)
INTRODUCTION.
WHY PHILOSPHER KING?
“Politics is an art.as with all arts, its successful practice demands expert knowledge” (Plato)
WHY PLATO WAS AGINST DEMOCRACY OR MAJORITY RULE.
Defeat of Athens under democracy a bitter experience
INFLUENCE OF SOCRATES—VIRTUE IS KNOWLEDGE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSPHER KING.
▪He is above law and regulations.
▪He is true statesman and his government is best form of government.
▪He is fountain of justice in the state.
▪Although, he is above law, yet protection of property is his responsibility.
CRITICSM.
▪Government by philosopher king is opposite to the equality and democracy.
▪Education system under aristocracy can only produce imaginary persons.
▪No training for philosopher king in law and economics.
▪It is one-man dictatorship.
ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC).

INTRODUCTION.
▪ Born at Stagira.
▪ At 37 left Plato’s academy.
▪ 335BC, established his own school lyceum.
HIS WORK.
‘The politics’
HIS METHOD.
▪ Emphasized constitutionalism and rule of law.
▪ First known political scientist.
Q1: ARISTOTLE’S THEORY ABOUT THE ORIGIN, NAURE AND PURPOSE OF THE STATE.
INTRODUCTION.
HIS THEORY OF THE STATE.
NATURAL ORIGIN OF THE STATE.
“Man is a social animal”. Aristotle finds the origin of the state in the innate desire of an individual to satisfy his economic needs.
NATURE OF THE STATE.
The state is a community of some kind. Every community is established to realize some good. The state being the highest of all
communities aims at the good.
“The polis is the highest organization of the community through which man strives for moral perfection” (Aristotle).
THE ENDS OF THE STATE.
The welfare of all the individuals living in the state.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
Q2: ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF IDEAL STATE.
INTRODUCTION.
HIS IDEAL STATE. In his book ‘politics’ Aristotle discusses the ideal state, but Aristotle recognizes that to devote full time to
such a utopia is a waste of time.
“A state may be good without being perfect. The measure of the goodness or justness of a state is its capacity to
serve the general interest” (Aristotle)
MAIN FEATURES OF HISIDEAL STATE.
PRIMARY FUNCTION OF STATE IS THE WELFARE OF ITS CITIZENS.
The form of the constitution must reflect good life of individual.
“The ingredients of the good life are threefold—‘external goods’, ‘goods of the body’, and ‘goods of the soul’.
▪ The happy and well-balanced person requires all three, but he must give due consideration to the question of priority
and relative importance.
▪ To excessive importance to external goods (material possessions).
▪ Perfection of morality should be the preference over material gains.
PEACE LOVING, NOT AGGRESSIVE. Although should maintain sufficient strength for self-defense.
SIZE OF THE STATE.
Population. Neither too large, nor too small. Enough population to feed and to be self-sufficient.
Area. Moderation
LOCATION OF THE STATE.
▪ As to location, both military and commercial advantages must be considered.
▪ Access to sea is necessary.
COMMERCE OF THE STATE.
▪ Commercially, the state should import its necessities and export its surplus.
▪ The goal should be self-sufficiency and not the profit.
KINDS OF PEOPLE IN THE STATE.
▪ Full citizens
▪ Lower social classes—non-citizens –for the service of citizens .
DISTRIBUTION OF SERVICES IN THE STATE.
Six distinct services must be performed in the state i.e. agriculture, arts and crafts, defense, land ownership, religion and
government service.
THE FUNCTIONS OF LOWER CLASSES—NON-CITIZENS. Arts and crafts, farming.
FUNCTIONS OF CITIZENS.
▪ Defense to the younger.
▪ Governance to the middle age group.
▪ Religious functions to the old and mature.
LAND OWNERSHIP. To be shared by all but in a complex arrangement.
▪ Some land to be commonly owned for the support of common tables and to support the institutions of public ownership.
▪ Each owner will hold two plots, one in the city and second in the frontier area.
THE BEST STATE IS ONE WHICH HAS THE ABILITY TO HELP ITS CITIZENS ACHIEVE GOOD.
▪ There are three ways in which citizens may gain such goodness i.e. Natural endowment, proper habits, and rational
principles or capacity to reason.
▪ The first one is out of state’s control, while the other two can be improved through education.
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE IDEAL STATE.
“The state I say is a unity in diversity which should be made a community by education”( Aristotle)
The good state educate to teach well.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION SYSTEM.
▪ Must be common to all.
▪ Must be publically supported.
▪ The young will be taught to obey their elders, at the same time young will be taught to govern when they grow up.
▪ Obedience must be taught.
▪ Physical training an essential part.
▪ But study of books and physical training should not happen simultaneously since one hampers the other.
▪ Music should be taught because it has intrinsic value.
FAMILY SYSTEM IN THE IDEAL STATE.
▪ Best age for marriage in terms of quality children to be produced: 37 for males and 18 for the females.
▪ Too large families are to be avoided through exposure of deformed children and induction of miscarriage.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
+VES.
▪ A sketch of good state which aims at the moral perfection of its citizens.
▪ In his state, he has given preference to general interests.
_VES.
▪ Not possible entirely—impossible for a state to keep a fixed population.
▪ Immoral---exposure of deformed children and miscarriage.
Q3: ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF CITIZENSHIP.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Book III of politics deal with the question of citizen and state. “State is an assemblage of citizens”. So who are citizens?
▪ The essential attribute of citizenship according to Aristotle is performance of civic function, not for a limited but for
indefinite period.
DEFINATION OF CITIZAN ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
“A citizen is one who participates in the administration of justice and in legislating as a member of the governing
body, either or both, these two being the essential features of citizenship” (Aristotle).
The essence of citizenship according to Aristotle lays in the enjoyment of political rights and duties.
QUALIFICATION OF CITIZENSHIP.
▪ Must be a functioning member of city-state.
▪ The capacity to rule and be ruled in turn.
▪ Freedom from economic worries essential for proper discharge of duties of citizenship---thus holding the property.
▪ Manual work according to Aristotle deliberalises the soul and renders it unfit for political speculation and discharge of
civic duties---working class not citizens.
▪ Unconditional obedience to the laws of the state---a good citizen.
CRITICSM OF ARISTOTLE’S CONCEPTION OF CITIZENSHIP.
▪ Extremely aristocratic and not applicable to modern state.
▪ Impracticable.
▪ Suppression of working class---no rights of citizenship.
▪ Only promotes the rights of rich.
APPRAISAL. Gave the concept of citizenship---he held that a good citizen in a democracy had virtues different from those of a
good citizen in oligarchy.

Q4: ARISTOTLE’S SLAVERY CONCEPT.

INTRODUCTION.
Aristotle considers property as an essential element of family; property divided as living and non-
living.
Living property is slave. He justifies slavery and important element of family life.
DEFINATION OF SLAVE ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
“Anyone who by birth is not free and is someone else’s property is called save” (Aristotle).
TYPES OF SLAVES ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
SLAVE BY LAW.
▪ Victorious can take the defeated as slaves, but says that they should be enslaved only if they
are intellectually inferior, but if intellectually superior victors should provide them opportunity
to become useful members of the society.
▪ A Greek should not make a Greek slave.
SLAVE BY NATURE.
▪ Purchased slaves. Owner can sell his purchased slaves.
▪ Genealogical slaves. Offspring’s of slaves.
LOGICS PROVIDED BY ARISTOTLE IN FAVOR OF SLAVERY.
Slavery is natural. “it is thus clear that as some are by nature free, so others are by nature slaves, and for these
latter the condition of slavery is both beneficial and just” (Aristotle).
Inequalities among human beings.
Slavery is a part of government. Some should rule others be ruled.
Every man is born to perform some specific function.
Slavery is both advisable and just. Providing master with leisure and slave with his mean of earning.
WHEN IS SLAVERY BENIFICIAL ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE?
When owner is not cruel towards his slaves it is advantageous to both.
ARISTOTLE’S REALSIM. He lived at a time when slavery was a universal institution.
CRITICISM OF ARISTOTLE’S SLAVERY CONCEPT.
▪ Unnatural.
▪ No fixed criteria that who is slave and who is not?
▪ Racial discrimination.
▪ Undue importance to heritance.
▪ Contrary to Aristotle’s own views. He says is for the good life of individual but on other side
favors slavery.

Q5: ARISTOTLE’S VIEWS ON VARIOUS FORMS OF STATES AND WHICH STATE IS BEST
ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
INTRODUCTION.
The measure of the goodness or justness of a state is its capacity to serve the general will.
ARISTOLE’S CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNMENT.
“Those constitutions which consider the common interest are right constitutions, judged by the
standard of absolute justice. Those constitutions which consider only personal interests of the ruler
are all wrong constitutions, or perversions of the right forms” (ARISTOTLE)
His classification is two-folds. 1) According to the no of persons who hold or share power 2).according
to the ends the government have in view.
PURE FORM.
Monarchy. With supreme virtue as its guiding principle
Aristocracy. Representing a mixture of virtue and wealth.
Polity. Representing material and medium virtues-power resting with middle class.
CORRUPT FORM.
Tyranny. Representing force, deceit and selfishness.
Oligarchy. Representing the greed of wealth
Democracy. Representing the Principle of equality with power in the hands of power
BEST FORM OF STATE—THE POLITY.
A practicable state must be based upon a balance of democratic and oligarchic principles.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE POLITY.
MODERATION. Middle class. Rich only know how to command and poor know just obedience.
Rich think of making property and poor jealous of other’s property.
MIXED CONSTITUTION. Mixture is one of oligarchy and democracy.
MODEST PROPERTY QUALIFIACTIONS FOR VOTER.
In order to restrict the number of those where power resides.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
Concept of middle class remarkable.
Q6: ARISTOTLE’S REVOLUTIONARY THEORY.
INTRODUCTION.
WHY DID HE WRITE ON REVOLUTION?. Frequent government changes in city states due to
deterioration and decadence in political life.
“Changes in the constitution of the state causes a revolution or when the ruling power has been
transferred from one man to another” (ARISTOTLE)
It was more a political than a legal change.
VARIOUS KINDS OF REVOLUTIONS.
▪ It may take a form of change of constitution or revolutionaries may try to grasp power without changing
constitution.
▪ It may make oligarchy a democracy or democracy an oligarchy.
▪ May be directed against the whole government or against particular institution of government.
GENERAL CAUSES OF REVOLUTION.
▪ When equal rights of citizens are neglected.
▪ When nepotism and bribery prevails in the society.
▪ When inefficient persons are appointed in place of efficient ones.
▪ When extraordinary importance given to particular group.
▪ Unfair means in election.
▪ When ordinary changes are neglected.
▪ Family disputes among nobles causes instability.
▪ Foreign influence.
CAUSES OF REVOLUTION IN PARTICULAR KINDS OF STATES.
Democracies: due to increased number of demagogues.
Oligarchies: due to oppressive rule of the oligarchs or rivalry among oligarchs themselves.
Aristocracies: jealously created due to restriction of honors to small circle.
PREVENTION OF REVOLUTIONS.
▪ Inculcate the spirit of obedience to law esp in small matters.
▪ Deceiving the public should not be frequently used.
▪ No concentration of power in few hands.
▪ Inclusive political participation.
▪ Administration must be efficient and law abiding.
▪ Bribery, corruption should be eradicated.
▪ Financial administration should be open to public scrutiny.
▪ Distribution of awards on the basis of distributive justice.
▪ The government should avoid internal revolution by making the public fiery of external attack.
Q: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN POLITICAL IDEAS OF PLATO AND
ARISTOTLE./”ARISTOTLE WAS GREAT BUT NOT GRFATEFUL STUDENT OF PLATO”
INTRODUCTION.
DIFFERENCES.
▪Plato pre-eminently a radical while Aristotle conservative in his political speculation.
▪Plato a deductive, Aristotle used inductive method.
▪Plato more an ideal, imaginative and Aristotle more a realist, logical and scientific thinker.
▪Plato proceeded from universal to the particular, Aristotle particular to universal.
SIMILARITIES.
▪Both hold that man is a social animal and needs society.
▪Both write on the basis of city state.
▪Similarity in views about education.
▪Both upheld and justified society.
▪Both despised foreigners and regarded Greeks superior of other races.
▪Both wanted to impose limitations on citizenship.
▪Both condemned democracy.

NICCOLI MACHIAVELLI (1469 Florence-1527)

INTRODUCTION.
▪ The most important political theorists with respect to development of realist political approach.
▪ The need is to understand that he lived in turbulent times at the beginning of the renaissance period.
WORKS. “The price ---1513”, “Discourses on Livy---1515-19”
MACHIAVELLI’S TIMES. In which context, ‘the prince’ was written?
The context of renaissance. Italy was in tatters. Florence under dictatorship.
THE PRINCE. It’s a memorandum on the art of government. It’s a real ‘politik’.it is pragmatic and gives
the techniques of successful ruler ship.
MAJOR THEMES IN THE PRINCE. Five interconnected themes that run through the book.
1) ON THE TYPES OF PRINCIPALITIES.
Machiavelli mentions five types: ecclesiastical, civil, hereditary, new and mixed.
These are gained and maintained in different ways.
2).MEANS AND METHODS OF ACQUISTION.
▪ He endorses the use of treachery and treason in acquiring power; ends justifies means.
▪ He also leans on the use of arms as a means of acquisition. Advises prince to study art of war.
▪ Advises the prince to use his own arms instead of others.
▪ Use of only national army instead of auxiliaries, mercenary and mixed.
THE CONDUCT OF PRINCE.
Machiavelli doctrine is a theory of preservation of state rather than the theory of the state itself.
The preservation of the power of the prince was the preservation of the state.
MACHIAVELLI’S ADVICES TO THE PRINCE FOR HIS CONDUCT.
▪ Being good is favored(sometimes he must be kind, religious ,devout and do charity), but if by
being bad he maintains his power then by all means he must be because political life cannot be
governed by a single set of moral and religious absolutes.
▪ Prince may sometimes be excused for performing acts of violence and deception, but in private life
such acts are not defensible.
▪ The prince should set fear in the minds of his subjects but not so much as to result in hatred for
him.
▪ The prince should have the courage of lion and the cunning of the fox. Force and fraud are the
main shields that can be used properly with respect to time and place.
▪ He advises the prince to avoid flatters in a way to let his advisers to tell him the truth.
▪ A prudent king should not be good listener but an aggressive and constant inquirer.
▪ The prince should strive for glory instead of being despised and hatred.
 ▪ The prince should pay respect to the traditions and customs because pay give respect to customs
than their liberty.
▪ The prince must fire the imagination of his subjects by grand schemes and enterprises.
▪ A prince must do all he can to keep his subjects materially contented. Must not impose heavy
taxes.
▪ Must always patronize art and literature to win the sympathies of intellectuals.
▪ He must be free from emotions, at the same time he must take advantage of the emotions of
others.
▪ He must be cool and calculating opportunist.
▪ In case of war b/w his neighbors, he should never remain neutral. And he should take side of
weaker one so that after victory he should oblige him for his support.
▪ He should select wise men as his advisors because the selection itself reflects his wisdom.
CONCLUSION.
THE ROLE OF FORTUNE IN HUMAN NATURE.
▪ Machiavelli concedes that fortune determines more than half of human actions, therefore
the prince must be aware of the times and adapt to them otherwise the fortune would
deal him a cruel hand.
▪ However he urges the prince to be audacious and bold for fortune.
HIS APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF POLITICS.
▪ His approach is referred to as political realism; looking at the world how it is instead of
how it ought to be.
▪ No values for morals and considering human nature as selfish.
▪ On this basis, he advises the prince to be bad wherever it is necessary to be so.
HIS VIEWS ON HUMAN NATURE.
In their actions, human are selfish and self-aggrandizing.
SEPERATION OF POLITICS AND ETHICS.
▪ As Machiavelli looks at the ends irrespective of the means; ends justifies the means, he
looks at politics as goal driven unbound by morals.
▪ It’s not that he completely denied the morals rather for political gains he ignored the
morals, therefore we can call him amoral instead of immoral.
MACHIAVELLI’S EMPHASIS ON THE USE OF FORCE OR THE ART OF WAR.
▪ Machiavelli heavily relies on the use of force in order to have hold on the power.
▪ He advises the prince to indulge in the study and practice of the art of war.
▪ He say that laws alone cannot be useful rather these should be supplemented with the
use of considerable amount of force.
MACHIAVELLI’S IMPORTANCE IN THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL THOUGHT.
▪ First political thinker of modern times who systematically analyzed the principles of
power and survival.
▪ His political realism.
▪ Some call him a proponent of amoral realism.
▪ “Machiavelli” a synonym for evil.

THOMAS HOBBES----- (1588 BORN IN ENGLAND---DIED 1679).

HIS TIMES.
Lived at a time when his country (England) was passing through the turmoil of civil war that’s
why he thought that only absolute monarchy could restore peace and order.
HIS WORKS.
▪ The elements of law, natural and politics.
▪ De cive (1640)
 ▪ Leviathan (1651)
HIS SPIRTUAL ANCESTRY.
▪ Agrees with Machiavelli that man is selfish by nature but insists that state can transform
a man into moral being.
▪ Is indebted to bodin for his concept of sovereignty, but unlike bodin he places no limits.
▪ Agrees with Grotius that reason is the basis of law but it must be sovereign’s reason.
▪ Modified the divine right theory by giving divine right to king instead of the state.
▪ Collectivism tinged with individualism, hedonistic utilitarianism.
▪ Like Machiavelli subordinated ethics and religion to politics.
Q.HOBBE’S THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTRACT.
INTRODUCTION.
HOBBES ON THE “STATE OF NATURE”.
▪ He based his views on another premise of his thought that is human nature.
▪ According to Hobbes, man was essentially selfish, egoistic and self-seeking.
“The state of nature was, a state of unceasing strife, a condition of war of every man against
every other man, where every man is enemy to every man” (HOBBES)
“The life of man was solitary, nasty, brutish and short” (HOBBES).
▪ Hobbes, however recognizes that even in the state of nature man had sense of the laws
of nature. These laws were to seek peace and follow it.
▪ Man also enjoyed natural liberty and natural rights.
▪ The perpetual fear and danger to life and property compelled man to enter into a mutual
agreement.
THE CONTRACT.
“I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man ,or to this assembly, of men
on this condition that thou givest up thy right to him,and authorize all his actions in like
manner” (HOBBES).
▪ The state is created and men have completely and unconditionally surrendered their natural rights.
▪ This is not a contract b/w people and the sovereign, rather a govt compact that’s why
sovereign is unpunishable and he has absolute powers.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
▪ Fear cannot alone be the basis of the state.
▪ His analysis of human nature is unsound.
▪ He also twisted the meaning of the ‘contract’.
▪ He is inconsistent in describing the terms of the contract.
▪ His legal theory of rights and sovereignty is also one-sided.
Q 2: THE HOBBESIAN LEVIATHAN.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Why did he proposed the theory of absolute sovereignty? England in his times.
▪ His sovereign is the result of social contract, having absolute powers.
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SOVEREIGN.
▪ He is not party to leviathan, thus his powers are unrestricted and irrevocable.
▪ No constitutional and other checks on his powers.
▪ He can do no injury to his subjects as he is their authorized agent of power.
▪ Property is the creation of the sovereign so he can impose taxes on property.
▪ He is unpunishable.
▪ If necessary, he can take away the freedom of speech.
▪ The sovereign has to protect the people externally as well as internally.
▪ No right of resistance against the sovereign.
 ▪ No covenant with God can be quoted against the sovereign.
▪ A minority can’t resist the sovereign (that it was not a party to choosing him).
▪ Sole source of authority and fountain of honor
RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE SOVEREIGN.
▪ Making of laws.
▪ Right of interpreting and administering laws.
▪ To govern and conduct policy.
▪ The right to choose his counsellors.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
▪ Absolute monarchy, little rights to the people.
▪ It is contrary to the human nature.
CONCLUSION.

JOHN LOCK: (1632 in England-1704)

INTRODUCTION.
▪ Founded the school of empiricism.
HIS WORKS.
▪ His two treatise of government
Q1: HIS THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTRACT.
INTRODUCTION.
HIS VIEWS ON HUMAN NATURE.
▪ His views on human nature have been described in “An essay concerning human nature”.
▪ Locke’s man in the state of nature is social as well as rational. He is capable of
recognizing a moral order.
HIS VIEWS ON STATE OF NATURE.
▪ State of nature was not pre-social, rather a pre-political.
▪ The state of nature was based on peace on good will.
▪ Rights in the state of nature i.e. right of property.
▪ Duties in the state of nature. i.e. to do what he can to preserve others provided his own
preservation doesn’t come in conflict .
WHY A NEED OF CONTRACT?
▪ Though the state of nature was a state of peace and reason, yet it was full of “fears and
continual dangers” because laws of nature were not clearly defined, no authority to
interpret those laws and also no authority to enforce those laws.
THE CONTRACTS.
To get rid of that condition of ‘continual fear’, the people entered into two contracts.
The first contract. State of nature is substituted by a civil society
The second contract. The government contract. The contract clearly signifies that each individual
agrees to lead the community as a whole. A body politics is formed by means of social contract.
The individuals giving up their personal right to interpret and administer the law of nature in
return for a guarantee that their natural rights to life, liberty and property would be protected.
“Each individual contracts with each to unite into and constitute a community. The end for which the
agreement is made is the protection and preservation of property” (LOCKE).
LIMITED GOVERNMENT AND RIGHT TO REVOLT.
▪ The government can’t exercise powers arbitrarily.
▪ Its powers must be directed towards the general welfare of the society.
 ▪ It cannot deprive a man of his property without his consent.
MERITS.
▪ Theory of limited government or constitutional government.
▪ Distinction between government and sovereign (the people).
▪ The concept of popular sovereignty.
▪ The concept of natural rights.
DEMERITS.
POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY AND INDIVIDUALISM.
▪ He gave the theory of the sovereignty of the people.
▪ Rule of majority.
▪ Impact on American Revolution and French revolution.

ROUSSEAU: (1712 GENEVA—1778)

INTRODUCTION.
His political philosophy heavily influence French revolution.
HIS WORKS.
Discourses on the origin of inequality among mankind (1755).
The social contract.

Q1:HIS THEORY OF SOCIAL CONTRACT.

INTRODUCTION.
“Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains” (Rousseau).
STATE OF NATURE.
▪ Rousseau believed that man lived in a free, happy and peaceful life in the state of nature.
▪ There were no rules or formal laws.
▪ But two things put an end to this happy existence (because of the creation of agriculture i.e. the
growth of population and private property. They started thinking in terms of mine and thine.
▪ With these developments peace, equality and freedom of state of nature were gone, and
replaced by war, murder, disputes. Inequality in access to resources came.
ESCAPING THE STATE OF STRIFE.
They escaped this miserable situation by entering into contract and instituting a civil society.
THE CONTRACT.
They met together and surrendered their natural rights by saying.
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will
and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole”
● Man doesn’t surrender completely to a sovereign ruler but each man gives himself to nobody in
particular but all. Man loses his natural liberty and unlimited rights, but he gains civil liberty
and property rights.
“In short, who gives himself to all gives himself to none…..it follows that we gain the exact equivalent of what
we lose ,as well as added power to conserve what we already have” (ROUSSEAU)
EVERYONE IN SOCIETY IS ENGAGED IN TWO TYPES OF RELATIONS.
As a member of ruling class he has relations with his fellow rulers.
As a member of the state he is related with ruler.
A LINE DRAWN BETWEEN STATE AND GOVERNMENT.
▪ State holds unlimited authority, the government plays the role of representative keeping
public according to state’s vision.
▪ Government is just an instrument in the hands of public and holds no authorities in separate.
THE CIVIL SOCIETY IS ESTABLISHED UPON GENERAL WILL.
The contract terminates the state of nature and ushers in a civil society transforming the
character of individual, substituting justice for instinct in his conduct and endowing his character
with morality.The continuous participation of general will leads to the formation of welfare
community
MERITS.
▪ Makes a distinction b/w state and government.
▪ Reconcile absolute authority of state with absolute freedom of the individual.
▪ Authority of the government is based on the consent of the governed.
“Will, not force is the basis of the state”
DEMERITS.
▪ It is philosophical, not historical---no evidence from history.
▪ The theory that men in state of nature lived in isolation is false from history-clan not
individual.
▪ The assumption that there was equality in state of nature is also wrong.
▪ Too much emphasis on will.
Q2: HIS THEORY OF GENERAL WILL.
INTRODUCTION.
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will
and in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole” (ROUSSEAU)
DIFFERENCE B/W ‘WILL OF ALL’ AND ‘GENERAL WILL’
“There is often great deal of difference b/w the will of all and the general will. The later considers the
common interests while former takes into account the private interests” ( ROUSSEAU)
ROUSSEAU’S SOCIAL CONTRACT AND THE ROLE OF GENERAL WILL.
▪ The individuals surrendered their natural freedom and powers to the community as a whole
under the general will.
▪ What is legitimate rule?—by consent—justice has to be diluted-must general will prevail.
▪ The legitimate rule can’t be authorized by title, rather by the consent of the governed.
▪ This general will is sovereign because individuals surrendered their individual wills and
interests to the supreme direction of general will and it is the custodian of interests of all.
▪ The law is the expression of the general will.it attached no importance to private interests.
THE FORMATION OF GENERAL WILL.
▪ All citizens have the right to contribute personally or through their representatives, to its
formation.
▪ The general will is the result when citizens make political decisions considering the good of
society rather than the particular interests of groups or individuals.
▪ Whoever doesn’t follow the general will be compelled to do so.
▪ The general will is a moral will.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERAL WILL ACCORDING TO ROUSSEAU.
▪ Unity.
▪ It is right will, or moral will, willing the welfare of the society.
▪ It is inalienable. Rousseau locates sovereignty in the general will.
CAN THE ‘GENERAL WILL’ BE WRONG?
“Even the question is wrong. If we devise the law after free and public debate by informed men general will
be as right as it can be” (ROUSSEAU)
CRITICSM.
▪ It is incomplete. Who is authorized to decide the general will?
▪ In actual practice, it is difficult to distinguish b/w general will and ‘will of all’.
MERITS.
▪ Concept of popular sovereignty. “Will not force is the basis of the state”
▪ It emphasizes the corporate character of the society in which isolated selfish will is misfi.
AN ESTIMATE OF ROUSSEAU.
▪ Influenced coming generations of the philosophers.
 ▪ One of the heroes of French revolution.
▪ Among the Founding fathers of romanticism.
▪ Concepts of popular sovereignty and majority rule.
COMPARISON OF HOBBES’, LOCKE’S, ROUSSEAU’S SOCIAL CONTRACT
THEORIES.

HOBBES LOCKE ROUSSEAU

WORK Leviathan Civil government Social contract

THE STATE OF a state of unceasing strife, a The state of nature was Free, happy and peaceful life in
NATURE condition of war of every man based on peace on good the state of nature.
against every other will.
NATURAL RIGHTS Natural right de- pends upon Rights of man are to life, liberty
Man is free in the state of nature
ones might. and property. and enjoys all rights incidental to his
person.

CONTRACT Contract unilateral and not Government limited in authority State results from a contract
binding on sovereign. and not absolute. between individuals-general will

SOVEREIGNTY is unlimited, indivisible, inalienable,Conceives of popular and not The general will is sovereign
absolute above law le- gal sovereignty.

INDIVIDUAL AND Limited rights and liberties to the

Rights to life, liberty and Individual liberty is a gift of the
STATE individual in state. property and can’t be deprived
sovereign state.
of.

STATE AND does not distinguish between distinguishes between state and
distinguish between state which is
GOVERNMENT state and Government government and state and sovereign and government which is
society subordinate

MUSLIM POLITICAL PHILOSPHERS.

AL-FARABI. (870-950AD)

INTRODUCTION.
“Infact,he profoundly influenced all subsequent muslim philosphers ,in particular ibn-e-baja
and ibn-e-rashd in spain and ibn-e-sina in the east” (ROSENTHAL)
HIS WORKS.
▪ Ara’-ahl-ul- madina alfazila ----the ideal state.
▪ Al-siasat ul-madina---on the government of the city state.
▪ Tehsil-ul-saada---on attaining happiness

Q 1: THE IDEAL STATE / INFLUENCE FROM PLATO IN SETTING OF HIS MODEL STATE.
INTRODUCTION.
Discusses his model state in his book “Ara ahl ul madina al fazila.
MODEL STATE OF AL-FARABI.
Much influenced by Plato in setting of his model state.
SUPREME HEAD OF THE MODEL STATE.
In the model state there must be a hierarchy of rulers coming under the control of a supreme
head.
Traits of supreme head.
Great intelligence, excellent memory, eloquence, firmness without weakness, love for justice,
love for truth, aversion to falsehood and contempt for wealth.
Preferably all these traits must be found in one person heading the affairs of the states. In case
not found in one person, it must be two or more than two persons.
OPPOSED FORMS OF THE MODEL STATE.
The ignorant state. That has no knowledge of true happiness and very often exchanges it for
health, wealth and pleasure.
The perverted state. That maintains a conduct similar to that of ignorant state even it knowns
what is true happiness and perfection.
The mistaken state. That has wrong ideas about God and happiness.
GOALOF THE IDEAL STATE.
The goal is not only to procure the material prosperity of its citizens, but also their future
destiny
ANALYSIS.
A mixture of Aristotelian and platonic elements.

AL-GHAZALI. (1058-1111 AD).

“Al-ghazali is the greatest, certainly the most sympathetic figure in the history of Islam and the
equal of Augustine in philosophical and theological importance” (MACDONALD)

INTRODUCTION.
▪ Born in Iran.
▪ 1091, appointed as professor at Nizamaya College, founded by nizam-ul-mulk.
HIS WORKS.
▪ Ihya-ul-uloom (revival of religious sciences) ---a masterpiece.
▪ Sirrul alaimeen.
▪ Iqtisad- bil-itiqad or the moderation in belief.
▪ Nasihat-ul-mulk or counsel for the kings.
HIS TIMES.
▪ The Abbasid caliphate was in a state of utter deterioration.
▪ The Seljuk sultans were the real rulers of the eastern region s of Islamic world.
▪ The challenge of the Shia ruler s of the Egypt for Abbasid.
▪ The European crusaders.

Q1: AL-GHAZALI’S CONCEPT OF THE STATE.

INTRODUCTION.
HIS THEORY OF THE STATE.
NEED FOR THE COMPANY.
▪ For the sake of protection of generation—sexual intercourse with opposite sex.
▪ For food, prep of clothes and the proper education and upbringing of the child.
▪ Trade and industry because he cannot produce everything on his own.
“Man is created in such a manner that he cannot live all by himself ,but is in constatnt need of
others, wishing that someone else like himself should always be with him” (GHAZALI)
PRINCIPLES OF THE STATE ACCORDING TO AL-GHAZALI.
Establishment of industries. . For the needs of the people
Fiqh or law. In order to organize the people.
Division of state into various departments.
▪ A man with outstanding education as head of each department.
▪ A collector or revenue officer to head the revenue department assisted by his staff.
▪ A king or Amir should be on the helm of affairs.
Necessity of the king or amir.
It is impossible to have permanent organization of worldly affairs without sultan or ruler.
“without amir ,there would be turmoil and neer ending changing of swords, a recurring satte of
famineand an end to all industries” (AL-GHAZALI)
Division of population of the society.
▪ Farmers, husbandmen, and handicraftsmen.
▪ The men of sword.
▪ The men of pen.
Ghazali preferred fixed currency.
ANALYSIS.

Q 2: AL-GHAZALI’S THEORY OF THE KHILAFAT.

INTRODUCTION.
DEFINATION OF KHILAFAT ACCORDING TO AL-GHAZALI.
The khilafat is a divine state which is required not by reason but by Shariah.
CHARACTERISTICS OF KHALIFA ACCORDING TO AL-GHAZALI.
▪ He should devote himself to spiritual and religious devotion.
▪ He must be simple, modest and just and a fountain of justice.
“You are a fountain of justice and the other officials who help you to govern are the streams
which flow from it. If the fountain is clear, everything will be right. If the fountain is turbid,no
hope of maintaining the channel” (AL-GHAZALI letter to harun-ur-rasheed)
IMPORTANCE OF KHILAFAT.
Is necessary because it protects the Muslim world from external and internal dangers.
“Din is the foundation and the sultan is the guardian” (GHAZALI)
DUTIES OF IMAM OR KHALIFA.
▪ To wage jihad or holy war.
▪ Should discharge the duties of govt and administration with the help of wazirs.
▪ Should have wide range of knowledge encompassing all fields of life.
▪ Should be pious.
▪ Must do justice.
▪ Must study the shariah.
▪ Should select men of caliber and character to run the affairs of the khilafat.
▪ Should observe regularly the working of his deputies and public servants.
▪ Should avoid being proud.
ANALYSIS.

AL-MAWARDI (974 basrah-1058)

INTRODUCTION.
▪ Belonged to Shafi School of fiqah.
▪ Was appointed qazi-ul-quzat of Baghdad.
HIS WORKS.
▪ Al-ahkam-ul-sultania (ordinances for government).
▪ Qawanin-al-wazarat.

Q 1: THEORY OF KHILAFAT (IMMAMATE).

INTRODUCTION.
Al-mawardi’s book (al ahkamul sultanya) is the greatest theoretical exposition of the Islamic
constitutional law” (BAGLEY)
HIS TIMES.
▪ Abbasid caliphate was at its lowest ebb.
▪ He wrote ahkam-ul-sultanya to defend the khilafat against its detractors and to restore
the authority of abbasid caliphate to its original position.
PRINCIPLES OF CALIPHATE ACCORDING TO AL-MAWARDI.
▪ Sovereignty belongs to Allah.
▪ Authority is vested in the khalifa as the successor of holy prophet.
▪ The duty of the khalifa is to enforce shariah against heresy and Muslims against enemies
DEFINATION OF CALIPHATE ACCORDING TO MAWARDI.
“The institution replacing prophecy in the defense of the faith and the administration of the
world.it is demanded by shariah and not by reason”
QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE ELECTION OF CALIPH.
▪ Upholds justice under all conditions.
▪ Has knowledge of religion and has the policy of muslims’ interest at heart.
▪ Possesses all physical organs.
▪ Wisdom and bravery.
▪ Must belong to quraish tribe. The tribe of prophet.
MODE OF ELECTION OF IMAM.
▪ May be elected by Electoral College consisting of people present in the capital.
▪ May be nominated by the ruling imam.
DUTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF IMAM.
▪ To uphold Islamic religion and shariah.
▪ Must dispense justice.
▪ Must maintain law and order.
▪ Should enforce the criminal code of the Quran.
▪ Must defend the frontiers of the Islamic state.
▪ Must establish the supremacy of islam.
▪ To collect zakat and kharaj.
▪ Should pay allownces and stipend from bait-ul-maal to deserving people.
▪ Should appoint honest and sincere men to the principle offices of the state.
▪ Should keep himself informed of the affairs of the state.
DUTIES OF THE PEOPLE.
▪ Must obey the imam.
▪ Should render him help in the defense and security of the Islamic state.
REMOVAL OF THE IMAM.
The conditions in which imam can be impeached or removed.
▪ If there is a change in the moral status of the imam.is involved in immoral pleasures
▪ If imam renounces or distorts the established principles of Islam.
▪ If imam suffers from three kinds of bodily defects(loss of physical senses, loss of bodily
organs).
ANALYSIS.
▪ A sketch of true Islamic state.
▪ Detailed sketch from appointment, qualifications, responsibilities and impeachment.
Q 2: THEORY OF WAZARAT.
INTRODUCTION.
HIS THEORY OF WAZARAT.
▪ In his book ahkam-ul-sultania.
▪ He says that in the field of politics it is better to appoint an advisor rather than one sole
person at the helm of affairs.
▪ He says that appointment of imam doesn’t mean that imam should give all connections
with the administration of the state.
DEFINATION OF WAZIR ACCORDING TO MAWARDI.
“Minister is a man taking responsibility or a man commanding a task” (MAWARDI).
KINDS OF WAZARAT.
▪ Wazarat of delegation.
▪ Wazarat of execution.
WAZARAT OF DELEGATION.
“The wazir of delegation is a person in whom the imam has fullest confidence and to whom the
the whole administration of the realm is designated”
HIS STATUS AND LIMITATIONS.
▪ He cannot appoint anyone as his successor or assistant.
▪ Imam can dismiss the officers appointed by him.
▪ If wazir gives a certain order and imam opposes it, then we should consider the essence
of law—feature of constitutional government.
▪ The wazir of delegation is equal to modern day senior wazir or prime minister.
QUALITIES FOR WAZIR OF DELEGATION.
▪ Must be very honest,self confident,not greedy,experienced,talented and fore-sightness.
▪ Pleasant relations with the people.
▪ Must be muslim. A non-muslim can’t be appointed as wazir of delegation—the
constitution of 1973.
FUNCTIONS OF WAZIR OF DELEGATION.
▪ Preparation of state policy under imam’s directions and must be according to islam.
▪ To make arrangements for the protection of state and islam.
▪ To appoint important officials i.e. judges.
▪ To maintain law and order in the state.
▪ To punish the wrongdoers.
WAZARAT OF EXECUTION.
It is similar to the secretary of state in modern times.
QUALITIES FOR WAZIR OF EXECUTION.
▪ Honesty,confidence,not greedy,intelligence
▪ Good relationships with the people.
▪ Diplomacy and experience .
▪ A non-muslim can be appointed as wazir od execution.
FUNCTIONS OF WAZIR OF EXECUTION.
▪ The chief function is to execute the decrees of imam.
▪ He should be the main official channel of information for imam.
VARIUOS DEPARTMENTS TO ASSISST THE MINISTERIES.
▪ Judiciary.
▪ Revenue.
▪ Army.
ANALYSIS.
Reflecting elements of modern governance and state theory
IBNE-E-KHULDUN.(1332 tunis-1406)

INTRODUCTION.
▪ At the age of 40, wrote muqademah.
▪ Held the office of chief qazi of the Malika fiqh.
▪ On his visit to Damascus, met Timor the lame.

Q 1: MUQADIMMAH (PROLEGOMENA).
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Kitab-ul-ibrar is known as muqademah. A book on history, sociology, historiography,
economics, theology and political theory.
MAIN PARTS OF MUQADIMMAH. Is divided into 6 parts.
Chapter 1: on civilization in general.
Chapter 2: on Bedouin civilization.
Chapter 3: on dynasties, the caliphate
Chapter 4: countries and cities.
Chapter 5: on various aspects of making livelihood, such as profit and craft.
Chapter 6: the various kinds of sciences.
IMPORTANCE OF MUQADIMMAH IN POLITICAL PHILOSPHY.
▪ For the first time, a distinction was made between village and city life.
▪ Arabiya was considered the basis of political life.
▪ Islam was named universal civilization.
▪ It is said that economic, military, religious and cultural factors are inter-related.
▪ Diff b/w Shariah and human made laws is made.
▪ Evolutionary process of origin, development and decline of the state is discussed.
“By the consensus of all critical opinion, ibn-e-khuldun was the greatest historical philosopher
Islam has ever produced and one of the greatest of all times” (P.K.Hitti)
CONCLUSION.
A masterpiece.

Q 2: THEORY OF KHILAFAT.
INTRODUCTION.
HIS TIMES.
In his times, khilafat had long ceased to exist and the title of khalifa was assumed by various
other Muslim rulers of Spain, Fatimid Egypt.
THREE KINDS OF STATES OR GOVERNMENTS DISTINGUISHED BY IBN-E-KHULDUN.
▪ Khilafa or divinely inspired Islamic state.
▪ Mulk under sharia or state under divinely promulgated laws.
▪ Mulk under siyasa aqlia under qawaneen-e-siyasa.
KHILAFAT.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ It has its base on shariah.
▪ It has to work for spiritual and moral development.
▪ It was Islamic state established by holy prophet under divine guidance of Quran and
maintained by four caliphs.
TWO FORCES OF KHILAFAT ACCORDING TO IBN-E-KHULDUN.
▪ The prophetic shariah.
▪ The asbiyah
 “if the law giver eliminated the asbiya,the laws would become inoperative,since they can function with the
help of asbiya” (Ibne-khuldun)
DEFINATION OF KHALIFA.
“The representative of the prophet;the exponent of the divinely inspired law(sharia) and one whose
function is to protect religion and the state” (Ibn-e-khuldun)
QUALITIES OF KHALIFA.
▪ Must have complete knowledge of Islam and should spend his time in preaching of islam.
▪ Must maintain economic neutrality, should focus on economic welfare by enforcing
necessary taxes.
▪ Must be a man of justice.
▪ Courageous and brave.
▪ Should have knowledge of war and war strategies.
▪ Must be physically fit and polite.
DUTIES OF KHALIFA.
▪ Must provide internal and external protection to his people. And must maintain al-shartah or
police for internal protection and al-jaish or military department for external protection.
▪ To arrange food,residence and clothes for those who don’t have.
▪ As trade is very important ,must provide environment for trade.
▪ Must provide easy and speedy justice.
▪ Laws should be according to Islam.
▪ Everyone should be given his due right.
MULK UNDER SHARIAH.
▪ Although outward form of khilafat was preserved, inward form was changed.
▪ It was the case in the times of muawya, Marwan and his sons, also in the early days of
Abbasids.
▪ The second best though not ideal one.
▪ Shariah was no more the creative force ,but a matter of science and instruction.
Factors for change.
▪ Rise of asbiya of clan or tribe as a force in politics.
▪ Also due to rise of urban life among muslims.
MULK UNDER SIASIYA AQLIA.
▪ Really. it is not an Islamic state, rather a Muslim state.
▪ Shariah was mere a routine matter of religious injunctions and the authority of ulema to
interpret it had ceased. Ulema just worked as qazis under political authority of ruler.
▪ After two generation asbiya of clan is weakened and degenerated, thus dominated and
overthrown by other tribe who is strong in asbiya.
“The state gives rise to civilization which in turn provide wealth and luxury to the ruler, who become
degenerate and defeated by nomadic neighbor who are still strong in asbiya”

Q: THEORY OF ASBIYAH.
INTRODUCTION.
Concept of asbiya one of the main aspects of muqadimmah.
DEFINATION OF ASBIYA.
He uses the term asbiyah to describe the bond of cohesion among humans in a group.
“Asbiya means integrity, unity and passion of being one. It is a force which unites people of
family, tribe and country by provoking a sense of being one” (IBN-E-KHULDUN).
ACCORDING TO IBNE-EKHULDUN STATE STANDS ON TWO PILLARS.
Religion and asbiya.
▪
It is possible that people belonging to different religions may devise a strong state.
▪
THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ASBIYA is based on blood relations.
 ▪ It may be real i.e. family
▪ It may be artificial i.e. a tribe.
LEVELS OF ASBIYA.
It is most strong in nomadic phase and decreases as civilization advances.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ASBIYA.
▪ A source of dynamism.
▪ Strong asbiya is a source of ruling.
▪ Asbiya is a source of honor.
▪ Fall of asbiya causes fall of honor.
▪ Protection from cruelty.
▪ It is variable.
▪ Religion –the strongest source of asbiya.
▪ A source of state stability.

IBN-E-KHULDUN AS THE FATHER OF POLITICAL ECEONOMY.

ALLAMA IQBAL.

INTRODUCTION.

1).IQBAL AND NATIOANLISM.

INTRODUCTION.
HIS VIEWS ON NATIOANLISM.
▪ Transition from soft view on nationalism to hard one.
▪ Iqbal advocated religious nationalism.
▪ Against modern secular western nationalism.
WHY MUSLIM NATIONALISM?
When Islam and nationalism are irreconcilable---for practical purpose.
OBJECTIONS.
What about the Muslims living outside northwest India?
Iqbal should have used another word instead of Muslim nationalism. Because Muslims attaching
themselves with ethnic or linguistic nationalism afterwards like Arab nationalism,
Nationalism and secularism are one and same.
Objection by religious elements in India. The dangers of leaving religion—comparison b/w
secular Europe and Christian Europe
WHY WAS IQBAL AGAINST EUROPEAN NATIONALSIM?
▪ He was against secular politics.
▪ According to Iqbal nationalism is not an end but a mean to an end.
▪ His concept of Muslim nationalism in india. Majority muslim satte coexisting with
minorities in particular muslim majority areas.

2).VIEWS ON IJTIHAD.
INTRODUCTION.
CAUSES OF MUSLIM DECLINE ACCORDING TO IQBAL.
Muslims abandoned ijtihad and adopted taqleed or blind following
TRADITIONAL MEANING OF IJTIHAD.
IJTIHAD ACCORDING TO IQBAL.
▪ Iqbal changed the traditional meaning. By ijtihad Iqbal means movement in social
structure of Islam.”muslism should adopt the principles of permanence and change”
 ▪ The values concerned with ibaddat are permanent and cant be changed.
▪ The values concerned with muamlaat are subject to law of change.
WHICH TYPE OF IJTIHAD ACCORDIN TO IQBAL.
▪ Not individual ijtihad but collective ijtihad (ijma).
▪ Elected assembly of muslims should exercise this power (ijma)
WHY IJTIHAD-E-MUTLAQ.
▪ It means reinterpretation of Islamic law by reverting back to original sources.
▪ What happened after the decline of Mughal empire..wahabi and khilafat movements.
IJTIHAD AND KHATAM-E-NABOAT ACCORDING TO IQBAL.
The ability of man to interpret the wahi (ijtihad).
IJTIHAD AND CREATION OF PAKISTAN.
▪ Pakistan a result of ijtihad---Muslim nationalism a new concept because islam opposes
nationalism. It is amalgam of secularism and Islamism. Muslim nationalism is the
islamisation of western concept.
▪ Now to run Pakistan, there is need of ijtihad thinking instead of taqleedi thinking.

3) RELIGION AND POLITICS.

Religion and politics are intertwined.
4) STATE AND INDIVIDUAL.
He wants to see the individual as an armful member; both as an individual and also as a useful
organ of the community.
5) IQBAL AND DEMOCRACY.
▪ Iqbal was critical of the political system of the west. In his opinion, the western concept of
democracy hinged on capitalism. He is also critical of despotism and dictatorship.
▪ However, he finds democracy the best available system. He advocated democracy with the
inclusion of elements of Islamic political system
IQBAL AND ISLAMIC SOCIALISM.

Q: CONCEPT OF KHUDI.

TRADITIOAL MEANING OF KHUDI (EGO).

IQBAL’S CONCEPT OF EGO.
▪ Self-realization, what is the status of human in this world, what is my duties as Ashrafi
makhlooqaat.what should be one’s conduct.
▪ To realize and develop his own qualities, his own personality and good qualities step by step
in such a way that he will come closer to the greatest ego, all comprehensive, the God in
which our small egos are contained. And the closer he comes to God, the more he
understands him and the more he becomes perfect.
WHAT A PERSON NEEDS TO UNDERSTND?
▪ To realsie himself as “faqeer”
▪ To consider himself “ameen”
▪ His status as Khalifa of Allah.
QUALITIES OF IQBAL’S SHAHEEN.
▪ Buland-parwaz.
▪ Teez nigah.
▪ Doesn’t make permanent dwelling.
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE.

Jean Bodin (1530-1596) a French political philosopher coined the term political science.
SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE.
TWO FACES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE.
Conflict and cooperation are the two faces of political science.
✔ The state is the final authority in the society. It uses different ways to find the solutions to the
conflicts and problems in the society.
✔ Welfare of the people is the aim of every state through solving the conflicts.
NORMATIVE OR PRESCRIPTIVE / EMPERICAL OR DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES.
▪ Normative/prescriptive:
▪ Empirical/descriptive:
BEHAVIOURALIST MOVEMENT:
Gabriel a almond, David Easton, Robert A.Dahi.
POST-BEHAVIOURALISM.
▪Post-behaviorists insisted that political science should be relevant to life and its problems and
thereby enhance human welfare.
▪ David Easton an authority on post-behaviouralism.
DEVELOPMENT OF STATE AND EMERGENCE OF THE MODERN NATION-STATE
SYSTEM.
Different factors produced different types of states in different societies.
1. THE ORIENTAL EMPIRE.
2. THE CITY STATE OF GREEK.
▪ Around 1000 BC,Political theory may be said to begin with Greek city states.
DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK CITY STATE.
▪ Tribal administration developed into local principle of government.
TWO INTEGRAL IDEAS OF GREEK CITY STATE.
▪ Each city was a politically organized state .
▪ The Greek city state was deliberately limited in size and population.
+VE POINTS OF GREEK CITY STATE.
▪ Developed to the stage of conscious effort directed to the realisation of liberty and equal laws.
▪ It was a great experiment not only in the art of self-government, but also in the quest of virtue.
▪ Direct and active involvement of each citizen in state affairs.
▪ The state was all inclusive. It was at once a state, church and school.
▪ Were typical examples of direct democracy.
-VE POINTS OF GREEK CITY STATE.
▪ Love for complete independence caused their collapse in front of powerful state under Philip of
Macedonia.
▪ Not a disciplined society--too much liberty.
▪ Wanting in humanity. Liberty that they wanted for themselves denied the same to others. Considered
slavery as natural.
▪ No distinction between state and other aspects of society .
THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
 ⮚ order
⮚ Unity.
⮚ Centralization.
⮚ Imperialism.
⮚ Merger of church and state.
THE FEUDAL STATE.
it marked the transition from the imperialism of Roman world to the nationalism of modern world.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDAL STATE.
⮚ Powerful nobles. No single sovereign authority.
⮚ Military power was concentrated in the lord chief.
⮚ No uniform and impartial law, rather customs served as the law of land.
⮚ Church exercising a powerful position.
SERVICES OF FEUDAL STATE.
⮚ After the downfall of Roman Empire it was feudal state that gave Europe order and avoided total
chaos.
⮚ Secondly, it fostered among the big landlords self-reliance and love of personal independence.
DEFECTS OF FEUDAL SYSTEM.
⮚ it was confusion of public and private rights.
⮚ it also rendered difficult the formation of strong national government, as a country was split.
THE NATION-STATE.
DECLINE OF FEUDAL STATE.
⮚ Internal disputes and constant situation of conflict.
⮚ Renaissance and reformation, Spirit of nationalism among Europeans.
✔ nation-state gave rise to modern theories of sovereignty and equality of states,
✔ it also helped the growth of international law.
GROWTH OF NATION STATE.
⮚ Start of nation state as absolute monarchies.why??
o need for consolidation,impacts of thoughts of political thinkers like machiavelli and hobbes.
RISE OF DEMOCRACY.
⮚ Conflict b/w the king and people. People demanded rights and privileges.
⮚ Democracy brought with it three main principles; equality, popular sovereignty and nationality.
▪ Declaration of the rights of Man 1789.
⮚ The selfishness of the ruling families was checked and methods of government became milder and
fairer.
⮚ Laws were made with due consideration of the interests of the people, and opinions were freely
brought to the test of discussion.
⮚ It also brought the policy of laissez-faire in the field of industry,trade and commerce.
⮚ Movement of diffusion owing to economic freedom.
⮚ A marked tendency in concentration both of capital and land.
CONCLUSION.
The modern state is a nation state and it has become the basic pattern throughout the world. it
actualizes the principle of self-determination or the right of each nation to govern itself”
(J.C Johari)
SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY OF GOVERNMENT / THEORY OF SOCIAL
CONTRACT.
INTRODUCTION.
⮚ It has been discussed by Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. But they rejected it.
⮚ It was revived in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. During these times the people had become
politically conscious and they started questioning the authority of the rulers.
⮚ This theory had many supporters but three of them became very famous and they present their
own theories which are:
▪ Hobbes Theory of State
 ▪ Locke Theory of State and
▪ Rousseau Theory of state
SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY.
According to theory of social contract there are three stages through which human society passed.
▪ A state of nature
▪ The social contract
▪ The civil society or the State
❖ In the beginning there was no state.
▪ People lived under certain rules not made by them. These were called Laws of Nature.
▪ There was no government. People were free to do they like. This was called the State or
Nature.
▪ According to some, the State of Nature was pre-social. others say it pre political (before the
state).
❖ In the state of nature people had some problems.Whether happy or miserable, the people were
compelled to say good bye to the state of nature. So they made an agreement or a contract and in
this way they came Out of their difficulties.
❖ As a result of this contract the civil society or the state came into existence.
▪ Laws of nature were replaced by men made laws, people not only enjoyed rights,
but they also have to perform certain duties.
CRITICISM OF SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY.
1. UNHISTORICAL.
History does not prove any proof in support of this theory
2. SOCIOLOGICALLU UNSCIETIFIC.
▪ Sociology is the science of society. It tells us that we have always lived in society.
3. ILLOGICAL AND UNACCEPTABLE.
▪ This theory says that soon after the contract the state was created. Such a sudden change
in human history is not possible.
4. SELF-CONTRADICTORY.
▪ This theory is self-contradictory. This theory says that men make a contract and created
the state.
5. BASED ON WRONG ASSUMPTIONS.
▪ According to this social contract theory of government the state is based on the contract. It
is like a joint stock company. But this is wrong.

CHAPTER 2: THE STATE AND ITS ELEMENTS.

⮚ The state is the highest form of human association.
⮚ The word “state” was first coined by Nicholas Machiavelli in his work ‘the prince’.
“State is a community of people inhabiting a definite territory free of external control and
possessing an organized government to which people show habitual obedience” (Garner)
ELEMENTS OF THE STATE.
PHYSICAL BASES
⮚ Population.
⮚ Territory.
POLITICAL BASES.
⮚ Government.. The working agency of the state and political organization of the state.
⮚ Sovereignty. Internal and external.
DIFFERENCE B/W STATE AND SOCIETY.
STATE SOCIETY

The scope is limited The scope is much wider

Fixed territory No fixed territory

Political organization Social organization

 Has power to enforce laws No power to enforce law, instead is run on customs.

DIFF B/W SATATE AND GOVERNMENT.

STATE GOVERNMENT

It consists of government, land ,population and Government is a part of state

sovereignty

State possesses original powers Powers of government are derived from the state.

Permanent and continuous Temporary

Abstract and invisible Concrete and visible

CHAPTER 3: THE CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY.

⮚ Aristotle referred it to be “supreme power ‘ in the state.
⮚ Jean bodin father of modern theory of sovereignty.
DEFINATION OF SOVEREIGNTY.
“The supreme power in the state free of internal and external influences”.
TWO ASPECTS OF SOVEREIGNTY.
Internal and external.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOVEREIGNTY.
⮚ Sovereignty is absolute from legal point of view.
⮚ Sovereignty is permanent. It lasts as long as the state.
⮚ It is universal. It extends to all within the territory of the state.
⮚ Sovereignty of the state is inalienable. It cannot be destroyed without destroying the state.
⮚ Sovereignty cannot be divided b/w or shared by a plurality.
⮚ Sovereignty is exclusive. The state alone has the sovereign authority and legitimate power to make
citizens obey its dictates.
KINDS OF SOVEREIGNTY.
TITULAR SOVEREIGNTY.
⮚ By titular sovereignty we mean sovereignty by the title only.The Britain king is the best example.
DEFACTO AND JURE SOVEREIGNTY.
⮚ De facto sovereignty indicates to a sovereign without constitutional support enjoys sovereign
powers.
⮚ De jure sovereign is recognized by law or the constitution, but not in position to exercise its power.
LEGAL AND POLITICAL SOVEREIGN.
⮚ Legal sovereignty represents the lawyer's conception of sovereignty. It is associated with the
supreme law-making authority in the state.
⮚ In England, Parliament is the legal sovereign which enjoys unlimited powers of law making.
⮚ Behind the legal sovereignty there is another power, which is unknown to law. It is political
sovereignty.
▪ In modern representative democracies the political sovereignty is very often identified with
either the whole mass of the people or with electorate or with public opinion.
POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY.
⮚ When sovereignty resides in the people of the state it is called as popular sovereignty.
⮚ This theory was expounded by Rousseau. Free will of the people.
AUSTIN’S THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY (MONISTIC VIEW).
INTRODUCTION OF AUSTIN.
⮚ A 19th century English jurist.Is regarded as greatest exponent of monist theory of jurisprudence.
⮚ In his book ‘province of jurisprudence determined (1832)’
HIS THEORY.
“If a determinate human superior, not in the habit of obedience to a like superior, receives habitual
obedience from the bulk of a given society that determinate superior is sovereign in that society and that
society (including superior) is a society political and independent.”
AUSTIN’S VIEWS ON NATURE OF LAW. It is the basis of his theory of sovereignty.
“Law is the command given by a superior to inferior”
MAIN TENETS OF AUSTIN’S THEORY OFNSOVEREIGNTY.
⮚ Sovereign power is essential in every political society.
⮚ Sovereignty is a person or body of persons.
⮚ Sovereign power is indivisible. Division of sovereignty leads to its destruction.
⮚ The command of sovereignty is superior to over all individuals and associations.
⮚ Obedience to sovereign must be habitual. obedience should be continuous and from majority of
population.
CRITICISM.
⮚ Even sovereign’s acts are shaped by so many other influences, such as morals, values and customs of
the society.
⮚ Austin says that the sovereign is possessed of unlimited powers, which is again not acceptable. It is
possible only in theory not in practice.
⮚ Thirdly Austin says that sovereign is indivisible. All powers must be centered in the hands of one
person or a body of persons called sovereign.But this has been also disproved by Federal system of
government.
⮚ Criticized further on the grounds of his definition of law. Austin defines law as “command given by a
superior to inferior”. This is also not true. No sovereign can ignore the existence of customary law,
which has grown through usage in every country.
CONCLUSION.
It seems to be that Austin’s theory may not be accepted as valid for political philosophy. His legal theory of
sovereign. Narrows down “the meaning of vital terms.” It should, however be admitted that as an analysis of
strictly legal nature of sovereignty. Austin’s theory is clear and logical.
PLURALIST THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY.
INTRODUCTION.
⮚ It was a reaction to monistic or legal theory of sovereignty.
⮚ The pluralist theory rejects monistic view and tries to establish that there is no single source of
authority that is all competent and comprehensive.
MAIN PROPONENTS.
⮚ Laski says that sovereignty is neither absolute nor a unity. It is pluralist, constitutional and
responsible.
⮚ Another exponent of pluralist theory Robert M.Maclver propounds that state is one of the several
human associations, although it exercises unique functions.
MAIN TENETS OF PLURALIST THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY.
⮚ Pluralist sovereignty deals with political aspects of sovereignty.
⮚ State is one of the several human associations catering to various interests of the individuals.
State is arbiter over conflicting interests of different associations.
⮚ State should compete with other human associations to claim superior authority.
⮚ State was not absolute or supreme legally.
 ⮚ State is not the only source of legislation or law.
⮚ Law is very antithesis of command.
⮚ The state is both the child and parent of law.
⮚ The root of obedience of law isn’t coercion but the will to obey.
⮚ State and government are not different.
CRITICISM.
⮚ Critics maintain that without establishment of a classless society, sovereignty can neither be divided
nor be limited.
⮚ The demands for freedom from different associations also are criticized. The pluralist view will lead
to political anarchy and social instability.
⮚ The pluralist limits the sovereignty in order to maintain independence of individuals and other
associations, however in order to maintain the rights of the individuals and associations, the state
must have sovereign power.
MERITS.
⮚ Inspite of all these criticism it cannot be denied that the pluralist theory of sovereignty protested the
rigid and dogmatic legalism of the Austin’s theory of sovereignty.
⮚ It supports humanist and democratic ideas.
⮚ It challenged the concept of unlimited sovereignty.
⮚ This theory also pointed out the importance of other associations.
CONCLUSION.
In short, we can say that the greatest contribution of this theory is that it gave state a human face, and
checked it from being a threat to the liberty.
CHAPTER 5: LAW, JUSTICE, LIBERTY, EQUALITY.
LAW.
“Without law, there is no order, and without order men are lost, not knowing where they go, not knowing
what they do” (Mac. Ivar)
MEANING OF LAW.
⮚ The term ‘law’ refers to a body of rules enforced by the courts.
⮚ The study of law is called jurisprudence.
DEFINATION OF LAW.
“Law is any general rule which desires to do or abstain from doing a class of acts, and for the disobedience of
which some penalty may reasonably be expected by the person disobeying “Sidgwick.
SOUCES OF LAW.
1. CUSTOM OR USAGES.
By custom, it is meant that a practice followed repeatedly by people generation after generation.
2. JUDICIAL DECISIONS.
▪ These are also called adjudication.The decisions of English Chancellor were examples of laws
thus created.
3. SCIENTIFIC COMMENTARIES.
▪ The writings of great jurists have sometimes contained legal principles, which have been
incorporated into law. Lawyers and judges attach importance to their carefully considered
opinions. Coke, Blackstone in England and Kent in America are modern times examples.
4. LEGISLATURE.This is the direct source of law at present, and the most important one. Legislatures
 5. EQUITY.Equity means fairness or justice. It is also one kind of judge made law.
▪ Sometimes the courts maybe confronted with the disputes about which the law is silent.
o Under those circumstances, the courts decide the dispute taking recourse to equity;
general principles of fairness, reasonableness, common sense and natural justice.
6. RELIGION.The words of priests and the contents in holy books also provide some sources to law
making.
KINDS OF LAW.
1. NATURAL LAW.Natural Law is often thought to be as divine law.
2. POSITIVE LAW / POLITICAL LAW.Positive law is called as political law. It is created by human agency. It is
written in nature.
2.1. NATIONAL LAW.It determines the private and public relations of the people living in a
state.
2.1.1. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.It explains the structure of government and the
relationships between the various organs of the government.
2.1.2. ORDINARY LAW/COMMON LAW.according to which the people in a
state, are governed is called ordinary law. It includes all the municipal
laws
2.1.2.1. PUBLIC LAW.Public law deals with relations between the
individuals and the state.
2.1.2.2. PRIVATE LAW.It deals with the relations between one
individual and another.
2.2. INTERNATIONAL LAW. International law regulates the conduct and relations of various
status in the world.
RULE OF LAW.
“Englishmen are ruled by the law, and by the law alone; a man with us may be punished for a breach of law,
but can be punished for nothing else” Dicey.
⮚ The concept of rule of law is one of the distinguished features of the English constitution.
⮚ It is antithetical to “Administrative law,” which is prevalent in the continental countries like France.
MEANING OF RULE OF LAW.
⮚ By rule of law, it is meant that administration is run strictly in accordance with law. There is no room
for exercising arbitrary powers by any authority.
⮚ All are under the same law and none is over and above the law.
⮚ All are equal before law and all are tried in the same courts.
BASIC FEATURES:
1. NO SPECIAL RIGHTS.
▪ Law does not recognize any special rights or privilege for any individual or group of
individuals.
▪ Law is supreme not individuals.
2. EQUALITY BEFORE LAW.
▪ Law does not make any distinction between one person and another on the basis of race,
religion, sex etc.
▪ All are equal before law
3. PREDOMINANCE OF LEGAL SPIRIT.
▪ This is to mean that no man is punished without a proper trial.
 ▪ No person is deprived of his life, liberty and property except for a breach of law established in a
court of law.
▪ All persons; private citizens and government officials are subject to the same law. There is no
separate law for government officials.
DECLINE OF THE RULE OF LAW.
⮚ The concept of rule of law as explained by dicey is no longer found in England today.
o Due to the growth of delegated legislation, advent of administrative tribunals, changed socio
– economic circumstances.
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW.
It directly deals with the conflicts between the state and the individual.
BASIC FEATURES OF ADMINISTARTIVE LAW:
⮚ It deals with the composition and the powers of administrative authorities.
⮚ It fixes the limits of the powers of those authorities and procedures to be followed by these
authorities in exercising such powers.
⮚ Administrative law seems to put the bureaucracy within the limits.
JUSTICE.
The important elements of justice are,
1. Law
2. Liberty
3. Rights
4. Equality
This includes fraternity also, in this section relevant aspects of justice are described.
THREE KINDS OF JUSTIC ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE.
RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE.
This is giving punishment to an individual for the crime committed by him.
COMPENSATORY JUSTICE.
This is a principle which suggests to give compensation to a victim of a crime (or a criminal).
REDISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE.
According to this principle benefits and burdens are redistributed.
SOURCES OF JUSTICE.
RELIGION AS A SOURCE OF JUSTICE.
▪ Concept in Islam.
▪ St. Thomas Aquinas of the great Roman Church in the middle ages had maintained that the words
and deeds of Jesus, church fathers and preachers formed the basis of law and consequently of
justice.
▪ In Hinduism Manu is regarded as the ancient law giver.
LAW OF NATURE.

ECONOMICS AS A SOURCE OF JUSTICE.

▪ Men, in order to fulfil hunger, enters into economic activities.
▪ Conflicts among diff organizations; settlement procedure which lead to justice and law.
ETHICS.
The underlying principle is that rendering of justice should have its bases on morals and sense of doing the
right thing.
 o No one should be punished for an offence which he has not committed or not done.
o But the guilty should not be left out without punishment.
LEGAL JUSTICE.
It has two specific meanings.
1. Law should be reasonable.
2. Each one should get justice according to law.
JOHN RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE.
▪ Since it appeared in 1971, John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice has become a classic.
▪ Rawls aims to express an essential part of the common core of the democratic tradition—justice as
fairness—and to provide an alternative to utilitarianism, which had dominated the Anglo-Saxon
tradition of political thought since the nineteenth century.
▪ Rawls substitutes the ideal of the social contract as a more satisfactory account of the basic rights
and liberties of citizens as free and equal persons.
▪ “Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a
whole cannot override.” (JOHN RAWLS)
ISLAMIC THEORY OF JUSTICE.
THE MEANING OF JUSTICE IN ISLAM.
▪ In the Islamic worldview, justice denotes placing things in their rightful place. 
▪ It also means giving others equal treatment
“There are seven categories of people whom God will shelter under His shade on the Day when there will be no shade
except His.  [One is] the just leader.”(Saheeh Muslim)
“O My slaves, I have forbidden injustice for Myself and forbade it also for you.  So avoid being unjust to one
another.” (Saheeh Muslim)
THE IMPORTANCE OF JUSTICE.
▪ The Quran, the sacred scripture of Islam, considers justice to be a supreme virtue. 
▪ It is a basic objective of Islam to the degree that it stands next in order of priority to belief in God’s
exclusive right to worship (Tawheed) and the truth of Muhammad’s prophethood. 
“God commands justice and fair dealing...” (Quran 16:90)
“O you who believe, be upright for God, and (be) bearers of witness with justice!” (Quran 5:8)
EQUALITY IN JUSTICE.
The Quranic standards of justice transcend considerations of race, religion, color, and creed, as Muslims are
commanded to be just to their friends and foes alike, and to be just at all levels, as the Quran puts it:
“O you who believe!  Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even if it be against yourselves,
your parents, and your relatives, or whether it is against the rich or the poor...” (Quran 4:135)
“Let not the hatred of a people swerve you away from justice.  Be just, for this is closest to
righteousness…” (Quran 5:8)
With regards to relations with non-Muslims, the Quran further states:
“God does not forbid you from doing good and being just to those who have neither fought you over your
faith nor evicted you from your homes...” (Quran 60:8)
JUSTICE AND SELF.
The Quranic concept of justice also extends justice to being a personal virtue, and one of the standards of moral
excellence that a believer is encouraged to attain as part of his God-consciousness.  God says:
“…Be just, for it is closest to God-consciousness…” (Quran 5:8)
The Prophet himself instructed:
“Be conscious of God and be just to your children”

LIBERTY.
MEANING OF LIBERTY.
Liberty is derived from a Latin word “Liber”, which means free or independent.But doesn’t mean unrestricted.
Law is the condition of liberty. While laws are restrictions to liberty, it is imperative that, the so imposed laws are not
unjust as excessive and stringent restrictions hamper the intellectual and moral growth of the individual.
DEFINATION OF LIBERTY.
“Liberty means the power of doing what we ought to do” – Montesquieu.
“Liberty means the absence of restraints” – Prof Seely.
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying – T.H. Green.
Liberty is the product of Rights. It is the maximum opportunity to do desired things with a minimum of controls and
regulations consonant with a well – ordered society
KINDS OF LIBERTY.
1. NATURAL LIBERTY.
2. SOCIAL LIBERTY.
⮚ Civil or social liberty consists in the rights and privileges that the society recognizes.
Social liberty has the following sub categories:
PERSONAL LIBERTY.
POLITICAL LIBERTY.
▪ Simply stated political liberty consists in provisions for universal adult franchise, free and fair elections, and
freedom for the avenues that make a healthy public opinion
ECONOMIC LIBERTY.The individual should be free from the constant fear of unemployment and insufficiency.
DOMESTIC LIBERTY.
NATIONAL LIBERTY.It is synonymous with national independence.
INTERNATIONAL LIBERTY.
3. MORAL LIBERTY.Moral liberty lies in man’s capacity to act as per his rational self.
IMPORTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM.
▪ Individual freedom means that every individual human being in the society is free to act according to his own
free will
▪ “As an attitude of mind which makes man to act according needs and interest”
▪ It is an essential condition for man’s happiness and of the development of his personality.
EQUALITY.
DEFINATION OF EQUALITY.
▪ Equality means, that whatever conditions are guaranteed to us, in the form of rights, shall also in the same
measure be guaranteed to others, and that whatever rights are given to others shall also be given to us.
▪ Equality like liberty is an important theme of democracy.
TWO ASPECTS OF EQUALITY.
POSATIVE ASPECT OF EQUALITY.
⮚ In a positive sense, equality means the provision of adequate opportunities to all, without any discrimination
on the basis of birth wealth, castle, color, creed etc.
NEGATIVE ASPECT OF EQUALITY.
⮚ It denotes, that, in its negative aspect, equality implies the absence of special privileges.
KINDS OF EQUALITY.
NATURAL EQUALITY.
⮚ Natural equality is meant as the provision of equal treatment and equal opportunities to all human beings,
irrespective of natural differences.
CIVIL EQUALITY.Equality before law.
POLITICAL EQUALITY.Equality in political rights which is possible in democracy.
SOCIAL EQUALITY.Equal status of human irrespective of colour,creed and religion.
ECONOMIC EQUALITY.Equal opportunity in terms of availability of consumer goods and employment and honorable
way of income.
INTERNATIONAL EQUALITY.
 ⮚ All nations and states are equal.
⮚ All the people in the world are equal, no superior race.
OBJECTIVES OF EQUALITY.
⮚ Eradication of culture of special privilege.
⮚ Equality in opportunities for development.
⮚ Equal rights to all
LIBERTY AND EQUALITY.
▪ Liberty essential for equality but liberty with some restrictions bounded by law.
RIGHTS.
DEFINATION OF RIGHTS.
▪ Rights are legal or moral recognition of choices or interests to which particular weight is attached.
▪ The freedom is the central idea of rights.
“The capacity on the part of the individual of conceiving a good as the same for himself and others”
(T. H. Green)
CHARACTERISTICS OF RIGHTS/NATURE OF RIGHTS.
▪ Right is viewed in the sense of liberty, right is liberty.
▪ rights imply duties.
▪ Identification of rights as special claims is another characteristic feature of rights
▪ Sometimes it has been found that there are rights for few and rights for many.
▪ individuals alone and without any help from the state cannot enjoy rights.
▪ For the enforcement of rights law is essential.
DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF RIGHTS.
NATURAL RIGHTS.
BILL OF RIGHTS.
▪ The bill of rights forms a very important part in the history of rights of man.
▪ The Bill of Rights sought to protect certain basic rights for the common people.
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS.
▪ The same rights are called fundamental in the sense that these rights are inviolable or cannot be violated
simply to satisfy the needs of a section of government or population.
HUMAN RIGHTS.
“Human rights are rights to which people are entitled by virtue of being human. They are universal.
NATURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS.
▪ Human rights are called moral entitlements.
▪ The human rights originated from the concept of natural rights.
▪ Human rights have also a slight relationship with the idea of religion or God.
▪ Some want to delineate the human rights as fundamental.
▪ These rights challenge the state power to recognize or not to recognize rights of individuals.
CATAGORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS.
▪ Originally civil rights such as life, liberty and freedom from torture were human rights.
▪ In the next phase some political and economic rights were included into the human rights.
▪ People began to claim rights relating to peace, development and humanitarianism.
KINDS OF HUMAN RIGHTS.
▪ Right to Life:
▪ Right to Equality:
▪ Right to Justice:
▪ Right to Non-interference:
▪ Right to Freedom of Movement, Residence, and Nationality:
▪ Social Rights:
▪ Right to Freedom of Expression, Assembly and Association:
▪ Right to Economic Security and Cultural Protection:
 ▪ Right to Compulsory and Humanist Education and Knowledge:
▪ Right to Participation in Governance:
MORAL AND LEGAL DUTIES OF INDIVIDUALS TOWARDS SOCIETY.
DUTY.
▪ A duty is an obligation.
▪ Rights and duties are related to each other. The rights of one are the duties of the other and vice versa.
▪ If we have right to enjoy our rights, it is our cardinal duty to perform our duties.
MORAL DUTIES.
▪ Moral duties are those obligations which we should observe but we are not legally bound to observe them.
serve our parents, teachers, brothers and sisters and the relatives.
LEGAL DUTIES:
▪ An individual is legally bound to perform legal duties. If he does not perform them, he will be punished by the
state.It is our legal duty to remain loyal to our country.
▪ Traitors are tried by the Judiciary and are punished by the state
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RIGHTS AND DUTIES.
Professor Laski finds the following points of relationship between the rights and duties:
▪ The right of one is related to the duty of the other:
▪ The duty of the one is the right of the other and vice versa:
▪ The state guarantees the enjoyment of certain rights to every individual:
▪ If the state protects me in the enjoyment of my rights:It becomes my cardinal duty to serve the state in full spirit.
CONCLUSION.Thus, it is quite clear that rights and duties are so closely related to each other, that they cannot be
separated from each other.
POLITICAL POWER.
INTRODUCTION.
⮚ Power implies ability to influence or control others or to get things done by others
AUTHORITY.
INTRODUCTION.
⮚ The power or right to give orders and enforce obedience, the power to influence others based on recognized
knowledge or expertise.
⮚ Authority can most simply be defined as legitimate power.
WEBER’S CLASSIFICATION OF AUTHORITY.
TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY.
▪ Because authority is based on customs and traditions which are long established.
▪ People show respect to a particular authority on the ground that their forefathers did the same.
o The governing system of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Morocco
CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY.
▪ People obey the authority or show allegiance due to the charisma possessed by the authority.
▪ An individual creates impact upon the mind of the people by dint of his personality or charisma.
o Leaders such as Hitler, Mussolini, Nepoleon, Ayatoallah Khomeini, and Fidel Castro
LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY.
▪ In almost all the modern states this type of authority is generally found.
▪ It is legal because the formal authority is supported by existing laws of the constitution.
POWER, LEGITIMACY AND AUTHORITY.
⮚ Power, legitimacy, and authority go together.
▪ Authority is like power; the only difference is that it is power that is supported by institutions.
▪ Where there is only power with no authority, then you need to have legitimacy to create trust and
establish authority.
⮚ In short, the important characteristics of state are power, authority, and legitimacy.
POWER IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS.
⮚ Joseph Nye differentiates between two types of power. Soft and hard.
COMPARATIVE POLITICS.

1). POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION.

INTRODUCTION.
⮚ Political socialization is the process by which political culture is transmitted in a given society.
⮚ Process through which individuals become aware of politics and form political values.
AGENTS OF POLITICAL SOCIALISATION.
FAMILY. Until adolescence most agree with parents
SCHOOL. Most children learn about their country at school, usually through a curriculum known as civic
education.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CLASS. The social class to which one belongs shapes one’s views.
PEER GROUPS. At all ages, friends and acquaintances will influence one’s beliefs.
RELIGION. Different religious traditions have very different values, and one’s faith often significantly
influences one’s political views.
KEY EVENTS. A major political event can shape an entire generation’s attitudes toward its nation.
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT.
It determines the policies and curricula, including what books students may read, for public schools.
2).POLITICAL CULTURE.
It was first proposed by Gabriel Almond (1956) and subsequently employed in The Civic Culture  (Almond and Verba,
1963).
A  political culture  is a set of attitudes and practices held by a people that shapes their political  behavior. It includes
moral judgments, political  myths, beliefs, and ideas about what makes for a good society.
KINDS AND FORMS OF POLITICAL CULTURE.
▪ On the basis of number and power, political culture takes two forms – elitist and mass based.
▪ On the basis of continuity, cultures can be conservative or modern or most modern or postmodern.
▪ From the viewpoint of speed, cultures can be static, slow or revolutionary.
▪ On the basis of ideologies, can be communist, socialist, democratic, authoritarian or fascist.
Finer puts political cultures into four categories:
o Mature
o Developed
o Low
o Lowest.
ALMONDS CLASSIFICATION OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS.
1. Anglo-American Political System:
▪ Its political culture is homogeneous. It combines modern, transitional and secular outlooks.
2. Continental European Political System:
▪ It has few traits of uniformity. In some areas there is polarization of political cultures, some of its
elements are traditional whereas others are rational.
▪ Bureaucracy holds the keys of decision and policy making structures.
3. Non-Western Political System:
▪ Form of authority is charismatic, which leads to instability, indecision and subjectivity.
▪ Narrow political interests prevail, though underground.
4. Totalitarian Political System:
▪ It is fully monolith, organized and authoritarian, complete control over press and media
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT.
DEFINATION.
“The idea of political progress from a less desirable state of being towards one that is more desirable, land
the conditions that allow it.”
Development of institutions, attitudes, and values that form the political power system of a society.
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT.
▪ Political development as political modernization.
▪ Political development as the operation of a nation-state.
▪ Political development as administrative and legal development.
▪ Political development as mass mobilization and participation.
▪ Political development as the building of democracy.
▪ Political development as stability and orderly change.
▪ Political development and mobilization and power.
NECESSITY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN DEVOLPING COUNTRIES.
COMPONENTS OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT.
Development-Modernization.
Modernization:
▪ A pattern of evolutionary change from traditional through transitional to modern society, typified by
Western or European examples.
▪ Modernization is mostly seen in terms of economic development phenomenon.
▪ Modernization is considered as a process of industrialization, urbanization, and spread of education,
secularism, mass media and rationalization. It is also correlated with democracy.

SOCIAL CHANGE.
INTRODUCTION:
Social change is the transformation of culture and social organization/structure over time.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE.
▪ It happens everywhere, but the rate of change varies from place to place.
▪ Social change is sometimes intentional but often unplanned.
▪ Social change often generates controversy.e.g move for homosexual rights has caused controversy.
▪ Some changes matter more than others do.
WHAT CAUSES SOCIAL CHANGE.
▪ The first source is invention. Inventions produce new products, ideas, and social patterns.
▪ The second source is discovery..
▪ The third source is diffusion. Diffusion is the spreading of ideas and objects to other societies.
▪ The ‘mass media’ is a vital factor in the speed of social change.
▪ Conflict: tension and conflict (between races, religions, classes etc.).
▪ Idealistic factors: Idealistic factors include values, beliefs, and ideologies.
▪ The need for adaptation: The need for adaptation within social systems.
▪ Environmental factors: environmental factors such as drought and famine.
▪ Economic & political advantage: For example, ‘Globalisation’ & ‘the WTO’
▪ Demographic Change: Change occurs from an increase in the population or human migration.
▪ Social Movements and Change: from people joining for a common cause. Called a social movement.
▪ The Role of Values and Ethics:
▪ Religion:
▪ Technology and Information:
CIVIL SOCIETY.
INTRODUCTION.
❖ civil society includes charities; neighborhood self-help schemes; international bodies like the UN or the Red
Cross; religious-based pressure-groups; human rights campaigns in repressive societies; and non-governmental
organizations improving health, education and living-standards in both the developed and developing nations. 
FEATURES OF CIVIL SOCIETY:
❖ Universality - it affects everybody, in every nation on earth.
❖ Civil society groups may establish ties to political parties and the state, but they must retain their
independence, and they do not seek political power for themselves .
FUNCTIONS OF CIVIL SOCITY/ WHAT CIVIL SOCIETY CAN DO TO DEVELOP DEMOCRACY?
▪ to limit and control the power of the state.
▪ to expose the corrupt conduct of public officials and lobby for good governance reforms.
▪ to promote political participation.  NGOs can do this by educating people about their rights and obligations.
▪ develop the other values of democracy:  tolerance, moderation, compromise, and respect for opposing view. 
▪ to develop programs for democratic civic education in the schools as well.
▪ to lobby for the needs and concerns of their members, as women, students, farmers, environmentalists, trade
unionists, lawyers, doctors, and so on.
▪ to provide new forms of interest and solidarity that cut across old forms of tribal, linguistic, religious.
▪ provide a training ground for future political leaders. 
▪ to inform the public about important public issues.  
▪ play an important role in mediating and helping to resolve conflict.
▪ monitoring the conduct of elections.  

VIOLENCE AND TERRORISM IN POLITICS.

WHAT IS POLITICAL VIOLENCE?
Terrorism is the use of violence by non-state actors against civilians in order to achieve a political goal. 
State-sponsored terrorism is violence (genocide, war crimes, torture) by a state as an instrument of foreign policy.
Guerrilla war involves violence by non-state actors targeting the state.
Political violence is violence outside of state control that is politically motivated.
WHY POLITICAL VIOLENCE?
Scholars use three categories of factors: institutional, ideational, and individual.
Institutional: how state, economic, or social systems contribute to political violence.
Ideational: the effect of political, religious ideas in causing political violence.
Individual: what motivates individual people to engage in violence-rational or psychological factors.
FORMS OF POLITICAL VIOLENCE.
▪ Revolutions.
▪ Civil wars.
Political Violence in Context: Faith, Terrorism, and Revolution: religious fundamentalism.
There are two main factors that connect religious fundamentalism to political violence:
▪ A hostility to modernity.
▪ The belief that modern states actively seek to exterminate and denigrate believers.
COUNTERING POLITICAL VIOLENCE.
▪ Democracy—representation to all: socio-economic and political.
▪ Political reforms.’
▪ Social and economic reforms.
▪ Security situation.
CHAPTER: POLITICAL PARTICIPATION.

FRANCHISE AND REPRESENTATION:

INTRODUCTION,
One important role player in democracy is the electorate. Electorate consists of the voting public.
The voting right is called suffrage or franchise. Voting is a political right given to any eligible citizen.
THRORIES OF THE NATURE OF SUFFRAGE:
The Natural Right Theory: Claims that the right to vote is a natural and inherited right to every citizen.
The Legal Theory: suffrage is not a natural right, but a political right granted by the law of the state.
The Ethical Theory: considers the right to vote a means of self-expression of individual in political affairs. The Tribal
Theory: In early Greek and Roman States, suffrage was extended only to the citizen class.
The Feudal Theory: claims that the right to vote depends on social status.(ownership of land).
RESTRICTIONS ON SUFFRAGE.
Property or tax paying as a qualification:
▪ In the nineteenth century the main qualification for franchise was this.
▪ The justification was that possession of property was a trustworthy indication.
Educational qualification: (brazil,chille) . J.S Mill advocated this.
▪ Argued that people who cannot read or write cannot and should not participate in public affairs.
Sex qualification:
Nationality Qualification: those who are citizens of the state.
Age Qualification:
UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE:
INTRODUCTION.
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF ADULT SUFFRAGE:
▪ Democracy implies popular sovereignty. Suffrage must be universal.
▪ The laws of the state affect invariably everyone in the state, therefore it is natural.
▪ If the suffrage is restricted, the government would tend to protect only their interest.
▪ Universal suffrage is essential for the development of the individual.
▪ Right to vote enhances the opportunity for self – expression in public affairs.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST ADULT SUFFRAGE:
▪ The ignorant man votes to elect the leaders.
▪ Thirdly, political parties, mostly capitalize on the parochial attitudes of the voters.
▪ The electorate ignorant of national problems choose parties which appeal to their local issues.
TYPES OF VOTE:
One man one vote: everyone is entitled for one and only one vote.
Single Transferable vote: the voter has only one vote. But he can make his priority like 1, 2, and 3.
Plural Voting: several qualifications are there for right to vote i.e. payment of tax and education.
Open Ballot: the voters raise their hands to support a candidate.
Secret Ballot: voter casts his vote in favor of a candidate, without the knowledge of another person.
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION:
INTRODUCTION.
“Every section of the society will get representation in the parliament, in proportion to their population”.
The main purpose is to secure a representative assembly.
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION:
▪ Eminent political thinkers like J.S.Mill has supported proportional representation.
▪ A legislature should represent, all the sections of the electorate.
DEMERITS OF PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION:
▪ Keeps the division in society intact.
▪ Secondly, each minority will tend to organize itself in to a political party.
▪ Democracy is based on the conception of national welfare and a common interest.
▪ Proportional representation substitutes narrow sectional interests for the national welfare.
▪ Fifthly, proportional representation promotes, too many political parties.
FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATIVE:
INTRODUCTION.
▪ The representation should be occupational or for economic interests.
▪ Generally an urban constituency consists of various economic interests, like tradesman.
MERITS OF FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATION:
▪ The legislature would be composed of the representatives of organized interests.
DEMERITS OF FUNCTIONAL REPRESENTATION:
▪ Will be interested only in protecting functional interest and not general.
▪ Also leads to multi parties.
▪ Two opposing groups may paralyze the government. E.g agriculturists and industrialists.
▪ is practically impossible to find representative for each and every occupation.
CONCLUSION.
▪ it can be said that democracy lives by integration and not by disintegration. As functional representation
encourages disruptive forces, it is against the spirit of democracy.
MINORITY REPRESENTATION:
The word minority is used in more than one sense.
o In the legislature, the majority becomes the ruling party and the minority party becomes opposition.
o Apart from this political minority, there are several other minorities like, linguistic, racial and communal.
METHODS OF MINORITY REPRESENTATION.
COMMUNAL REPRESENTATION.
▪ Under this system special arrangements are made for minority representation.
▪ There may be separate electorates for separate communities. Such a provision was made during the British rule
in India. It provided for representation for each community.
DRAWBACKS OF PROPORTIONAL AND COMMUNAL REPRESENATTAION.
o promote division among the society.
PUBLIC OPINION:
INTRODUCTION.
▪ The aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs shared by some portion of the adult population.
▪ The collective opinion of many people on some issue, as a guide to action, decision, or the like.
THE FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION. Three stages.
▪ The rise of an issue-discussion. A hope for the solution.
▪ Proposed solutions and
▪ Arrival at a consensus.
NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC OPINION.
▪ General Agreement:
▪ Rational/Logical:
▪ General Welfare:
▪ Related to all aspects of life. Socio-economic and political.
▪ Upholds Morality. Never against morality.
▪ Not an Imposed Opinion: It is a generally held consensus
▪ Neither Destructive nor Negative: positive in content because it always represents public welfare.
▪ Based on Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression:
▪ Real Sanction behind Laws of the State:
FACTORS INFLUENCING PUBLIC OPINIONS:
▪ A person’s opinion is the result of four influencing factors:
▪ Political Socialization and resulting ideology
o Demographics
o Education
o Income
o Region
o Ethnicity
o Religion
▪ Self Interest – How will the opinion benefit the person?
▪ Political Knowledge and Information – political sophistication 
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PUBLIC OPINION. 
▪ People’s capacity to think
 ▪ Interest of people in national problem
▪ Formation of groups
▪ Initiative by political leaders.
▪ Role of writers.
▪ Literate masses.
▪ Homogeneity and community interest.
 AGENCIES OF PUBLIC OPINION FORMATION.
▪ Newspapers
▪ Radio
▪ Television.
▪ Cinema.
▪ Political parties.
 MEASUREEMNT OF PUBLIC OPINION.
INFORMAL WAYS OF MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION.
▪ Elections.
▪ Interests groups and lobbying.
▪ The media.
▪ Letters to public officials and calls.
▪ Protests
▪ Straw polls.
FORMAL WAYS OF MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION.
❖ Sample surveys.
Types of surveys.
▪ Face to face interviews.
▪ Telephone interviews.
▪ Mail surveys.
▪ Other methods of data collection.
THE ROLE OF PUBLIC OPINION IN DEMOCRACY.
❖ In modern society, the voice of the people forms the crux of any legislation or policy in the land. While this
facet of societal feedback is prevalent in all societies regardless of the degree of authoritarianism, it is
especially true for democratic societies of the world.
❖ Public opinion is important in a democracy.
❖ Grant land, “A wise man makes his own decisions, an ignorant man follows the public opinion.”
THE PROPAGANDA.
INTRODUCTION.
Communication of distorted ideas or inadequate facts or conveyed in a manner or tone so as to create in the object of
propaganda an emotional response favorable to the implicit bias of the propagandist.
“Propaganda is the attempt to influence others to some predetermined end by appealing to their thought and feeling” (R Miller)
“Propaganda is the deliberate use of communication to induce people to favor one predetermined line of thought or
action over another” (Anderson and Parker)
❖ Every government maintains this device to influence people in the direction of accepted patterns (depart of
public relations).
USES OF PROPAGANDA.
▪ The govt, business houses, the political parties use it so serve their own purposes.
▪ In the two world wars the battle on the propaganda front was as intense as on the military.
▪ Propaganda can be useful to bring about a change in the policy of the government.
▪ Govt uses propaganda to win people's cooperation for implementing its policies.
THE TECHNIQUE OF PROPAGANDA.
Psychological warfare is the use of propaganda against an enemy through mass communications.
POLITICAL PARTIES
DEFINATION
❖ A political party has been defined as an organized body of people who stand for certain principles and policies in
political life of the country, sponsor candidates for political office and seek to promote the interest of the country
as a whole.
Edmund Burke:
“A political party is a body of men united for promoting the national interest, upon some particular principle in which
they all are agreed.” 
Gilchrist:
“A Political party is an organized group of citizens who professes to share the same political views“
NEED FOR POLITICAL PARTY.
▪ Representative government require the existence of political parties.
▪ Parties act as the transmitter of ideas, approaches to social needs and national goals.
▪ Provide political education to citizens, widen their awareness of social problems .
▪ Create leadership by recruiting and training activists
▪ They work for the alleviation of sufferings of the people during days of famine, drought etc.
▪ They perform the job of political mobilization and recruitment.
KINDS OF POLITICAL PARTIES.
▪ Conservatives.
▪ Liberals.
▪ Reactionaries.
▪ Radicals.
▪ Apart from this, there are also leftists and rightists.
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES.
▪ Recruiting candidates for office
▪ Nominating Candidates - peer review
▪ Organizing and running elections.
▪ Making and running the government.
▪ Proposing alternative policies – organized opposition to the party in power
▪ Coordinating the actions of government.
SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM:
▪ In which there will be only one political party in a country.law of the land will not allow rivals.
▪ Best example for this system is communist China.
MERITS.
▪ The government can be run efficiently without wasting time in discussion and controversies.
▪ There is high national discipline.
▪ There is no political rivalry.
▪ Uniformity in policy.
DEMERITS.
▪ There will no difference between the party and the government.
▪ Legislature may be law-making body with no change of frank discussion and deliberation.
▪ The state with a single party rule will lead to authoritarianism and totalitarianism.
▪ People are ruthlessly suppressed.
TWO PARTY SYSTEM
▪ In which there will be two political parties one is the ruling party and the other is the opposition party.
▪ Example of two party systems are, England, U.S.A – The Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
MERITS.
▪ In a parliamentary government, the two party systems provides for stable government.
▪ A real representative government is possible only in a two party system.
▪ Since parties are well organized, they held to mold public opinion.
 ▪ Voters are well aware of policies and programs of the parties.
▪ The opposition party is playing constructive role.
DEMERITS.
▪ It gives rise to dictatorship of the cabinet and lower the prestige of legislature.
▪ There will be possibility of despotism of ruling party.
▪ Representation of various interests and minorities is denied.
▪ It gives rise to blind devotion and allegiance to the party and the leaders.
MULTI PARTY SYSTEM:
▪ Cleavages in social structures and differences in a state cause the emergence of multiparty system.
▪ A multiparty system is the one in which there will be more than two parties in a state.
MERITS.
▪ The possibility of cabinet dictatorship is rule out.
▪ Greater individual freedom, and all shades of opinion be expressed through various political parties.
▪ Adequate representation to various interests in a state is accorded in multiparty system.
▪ The voter has wider choice in the two party system.
DEMERITS.
▪ There will be no stable government.
▪ Multiplicity of political divisions and parties may create chaos.
▪ Parties divide people into hostile groups
▪ Coalition ministries will exist precariously for a short time.
▪ Fraud in the buying of votes will undermine political morality.

INTEREST GROUPS:
INTRODUCTION.
“Non-profit and usually  voluntary organization  whose  members  have a  common cause  for which they seek
to  influence  public policy, without seeking  political control”
TYPES OF INTEREST GROUPS:
Associational Interest Groups: Examples are trade unions, chamber of commerce and industry, shopkeeper’s
association and lawyer organization etc.
Institutional Interest Groups: Examples are service organizations like defence, police and civil service personnel,
employees in educational institutions
Adhoc Interest Groups: Set up for a specific temporary demand which is terminated on the attainment of its objective
FACTORS AFFECTING THE FUNCTIONS OF INTEREST GROUPS.
The functional style of interest groups vary in different political systems conditions by five factors.
▪ Pattern of political institution
▪ Nature of party system
▪ Political culture and attitude of leaders and people.
▪ The nature of issues and problem concerned
▪ The character the type of the concerned interest groups.
PARTY SYSTEMS AND INTEREST GROUPS.
▪ Different types of party systems give rise to different form of interest group activities.
▪ In counties where party system is weak, the interest groups work on their own.
▪ In some countries these groups have closer relationship with the political parties.
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF INTEREST GROUPS.
Lobbying government. Lobbying activities include contacting members of legislature and the executive to disseminate
information about the positive or adverse effects of proposed legislation
Engaging in election activities. Electioneering techniques include giving money to candidates, endorsing candidates
or issues, and conducting grassroots activities such as get-out-the-vote drives.
Educating various publics. Interest groups work hard to educate the public at large.
Mobilizing various publics. It include writing letters, making phone calls, contacting policy-makers, and
demonstrating. 
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTY AND INTEREST GROUP.
 ▪ Parties are formal, open and recognized, competing for power, Interest groups are informal, often secretive,
conspirational and sometimes even unrecognized.
▪ While parties are accountable to the electorate and seek to organize and control the operations of government,
interest groups lack such accountability.
▪ Finer Call them as “anonymous empire” others “invisible or unofficial government”
CONCLUSION.
Unlike political parties, interest groups do not work for capturing power. Their objectives are limited and specific. They
provide necessary link in functioning of democracy.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.

LEGISLATURE.
WHAT ARE LEGISLATURES?
▪ It is the first branch of the government.
▪ It is the law making body of the government. It expresses the will of the people.
THE FUNCTIONS OF LEGISLATURE:
o Enact laws
o Oversee administration
o Pass the budget
o Hear public grievances.
o Discuss subjects like
▪ Development plans
▪ National policies
▪ International relations.
KINDS OF LEGISLATURE:
1. Unicameral Legislature: Example: China (National Peoples Conference)
2. Bicameral Unicameral:- Examples : USA,india,Pakistan.
THE RELATION BETWEEN LEGISLATURE AND THE EXECUTIVE.
▪ In case of parliamentary & presidential systems.
▪ In case of liberal democracies and centralized states.
▪ In case of federation and unitary system

THE EXECUTIVE.
INTRODUCTION:
▪ It is one of the three branches of government as given above.
▪ It is the duty of the executive or enforce the laws passed by the legislature.
KINDS OF EXECUTIVE.
▪ The executive who exercise real power is the real executive.
▪ The executive who has nominal power is the normal executive.
TYPES OF EXECUTIVE WITH RESPECT TO MODE OF APPOINTMENT .
▪ The elected/ political executive---temporary.
▪ The selected executive ---permanent
RELATION B/W EXECUTIVE AND LEGISLATURE.
▪ In parliamentary and presidential form of government
▪ In federal and unitary form of government.
▪ In democratic and dictatorship.
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF EXECUTIVE:
▪ Enforcing law
▪ Maintaining peace and order.
▪ Repelling aggression.
 ▪ Building friendly relations with other states
▪ When necessary to wage war to protect the country.
▪ Making appointments to higher posts.
▪ Raising money and spending them.
▪ Convening the sessions of the legislature and conducting business.
▪ Issues ordinances whenever the legislature is to in session.
▪ Implement schemes and projects to improve the social and economic conditions of the people.
▪ Power to grant pardon, reprieve or remission of punishment.

THE JUDICIARY.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Judiciary is the third important organ of the government machinery.
▪ Its main function is to interrupter laws and administer justice.
“There is to better test of excellence of government than the efficiency of its judicial system” (LORD BRYCE).
FUNCTIONS OF JUDICIARY.
▪ Administration of justice.
▪ To determine what is law and what is the scope and meaning of it.
▪ To give advisory opinion on matters referred to it.
▪ To issue orders or writs for the purpose of preventing violation of rights and laws.
▪ To act as guardian of the constitution.
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF JUDICIARY.
▪ The welfare of the citizens greatly depends upon speedy and impartial justice.
▪ The judiciary is the guardian of the rights of man
THE QUALIFICATION OF THE JUDGES
▪ Nationality and citizenship
▪ Age
▪ A degree in law
▪ Experience in the judiciary or practice as a lawyer for a specific period
▪ Standing as an eminent jurist
JUDICIAL REVIEW.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Judicial Review is an important contribution of the U.S.A. to political science.
▪ The power of the Judiciary to declare law unconstitutional is called judicial review.
MERITS OF JUDICIAL REVIEW.
▪ Judges are competent to make judicial review by virtue of their knowledge and experience.
▪ It enables the federal judiciary to act as the guardian of the constitution.
▪ The courts are independent and less biased than legislatures.
▪ It protects the fundamental rights of the people in particular the rights of the minorities.
▪ It is necessary to preserve a free and limited government.
▪ It enables the judiciary to guard against legislative haste and rashness.
DE-MERITS.
▪ It may violate the spirit of separation of powers.
▪ Courts infringe upon legislative and executive functions and affect smooth functioning.
▪ delays the implementation of important social policies that are necessary
▪ It makes the judiciary a super legislature.
▪ Judges may overlook the challenges of changing times and may refuse to move forward.
▪ Judges may follow blindly only the letter of the law totally ignoring its spirit.
● Judicial review has been accepted as an important doctrine in the working of the judiciary.
JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
 ▪ “Judicial activism” is inspired by the public, who knock the doors of justice and thus judicial activism is basically
citizen’s activism.
▪ By exercising the right to freedom of expression and assuring the representation of the common citizen, the
press has raised same particular issues, conducted risky investigation and exposed serious omissions,
sometimes going to court with public interest litigation.
▪ The lions share of citizens activism is that of the press, the fourth estate. When the administration fails to
respond the citizen looks to the press for communication and turn to the judiciary for a remedy.
INDEPENDENCE OF JUDICIARY.
INTRODUCTION.
The need for independence of the judiciary has acquired an added dimension under modern conditions.
FACTORS WHICH MAKE JUDICIARY INDEPENDENT.
Mode of appointment of judges:
▪ Election by the people. Eg., Many states of America.
▪ Election by legislature. Eg., Switzerland
▪ Appointment by the executive. Eg., India, U.K, U.S.A…the most common and acceptable method.
Long Tenure. In case of a short tenure the judge will remain busy in planning for his re-election, sometimes he indulges
in corrupt practices.
Security of Service: it is essential that the executive should not remove them at will.
Adequate salary to the judges: so that they are able to maintain a good standard of living and they do not amass wealth
by adopting corrupt practices.
High Qualification: the judges should be able persons since only an able judge can give correct decisions and express his
views freely.
Separation of judiciary from the control of the executive: it should be free of the control of the executive.
No practice after retirement: because his previous colleagues would favor him in the cases in which he appears as a
lawyer.
CONCLUSION.

POLITICAL ELITES.
DEFINATION.
▪ Aristotle held that some persons are fit to rule while others are fit to be ruled over.
▪ Elite means 'chosen few'.
▪ Elite consists of those persons who come at the top because of their superior quality.
▪ Such chosen few generally exist in trade-Unions, bureaucracy, armed forces and almost everywhere.
THE ELITE THEORY:
The Elite Theory consists of the idea that there are two groups:

(1) The selected few who govern the society because of their ability and
(2) The vast masses who are governed because they are destined to be ruled.
▪ Elite theory assures that men may be equal in the eyes of God but not in the eyes of man.
▪ Elites arise in every type of society and state because of the ancient traditions, wealth, physical might,
economic status and ability.
ROLE OF TH ELITE:
▪ It formulates the policies and takes the decisions.
▪ Elite give political education to the masses and they set certain model standards in the society.
▪ Help the poor and remove their genuine grievances.
▪ In times of crisis the people look to the elite to show them the way.
CRITICISM OF ELITICISM:
▪ Elite cannot control the whole sphere of political activity:
▪ Wealth and political position cannot be proportionate:
▪ Elites are more concerned about their personal interest than of the whole community:
▪ Decision-making does not lie solely in the hands of the elites:
 ▪ Ideas of elites never create values:
▪ Elites are not cohesive, conscious and conspiratorial:
▪ Elites do not rule with their inherent ability:

CHAPTER: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.

UNITARY VS FEDERAL.

UNITARY.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ In which all the powers are concentrated in the hands of the central government.
▪ The central govt creates local units for administrative convenience and delegates to them such power as it
deems necessary and may take back such powers when it deem necessary.
EXAMPLES.
England, France, Japan, Sri Lanka are examples of unitary governments.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF UNITARY GOVERNMENT.
▪ The supremacy of the central government;
▪ The absence of the subsidiary sovereign bodies.
MERITS
▪ There is unity, uniformity of law, policy and administration.
▪ There is no conflict of authority and responsibility.
▪ A unitary government will make prompt decisions and take speedy action.
▪ A unitary government is less expensive.
▪ Amendments to the constitution are easy.
▪ Suitable for small countries.
DE-MERITS
▪
The concentration of powers may pave way for the despotism of the central government.
▪
The central government will have to tackle so many complex problems that they have no adequate time to
devote to local affairs.
▪ The central government will not be acquainted with local problems, local interest and initiative.
▪ It is not suitable for big countries
FEDERAL:
INTRODUCTION.
▪Where final authority is divided between sub-units and a center.
▪Unlike a unitary state, sovereignty is constitutionally split so that units at each level have formal authority and
can act independently of the others in some area.
Prof. Dicey defines federalism as a political contrivance intended to reconcile national unity with the maintenance of
state rights.
FEATURES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.
▪ The supremacy of the constitution. The constitution defines division of power.
▪ Citizens are subject to the authority of all levels from the national all the way down to the local governments; 
▪ Neither level of government could change on its own its relationship with the others; 
▪ The division of powers between the central government and state governments.
▪ The rigidity of the constitution.
▪ The independent judiciary.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SUCCESSFUL WORKING OF FEDERATION.
▪ Linguistic Affinity.
▪ Ideological Differences
▪ Religion.
▪ Territorial equality.
 ▪ Communication. The example of east-Pakistan
MERITS.
▪ It is suitable for countries having a diversity of race, religion and language.
▪ Local needs are met with effectively.
▪ Responsibilities of the central government are lessened.
▪ People get training in the art of self-government.
▪ Small states can have dignity and be safe from foreign aggression.
DEMERITS.
▪ It is inefficient because of diversity of law and administration.
▪ There is always a tug-of- war between national and local interests.
▪ It is highly expensive.

COMPARISON OF FEDERATION AND CONFEDEERATION.

FEDERATION CONFEDERATION

SOVEREIGNTY Held by the federal government. In a Federation, the federal Held by the member states. In a Confederation, the
government will hold the ultimate authority and the member federal government is accountable to the member states
states will be subordinate to it. who are the ultimate authority.

CENTRAL AUTHORITYThe central authority of a federation is a federal government The central authority of a confederation is usually a weak
which governs the member states. body appointed by the member states.

POWERS OF THE Determined by the constitution of the federation, but will Usually will focus on joint foreign policy and defense
CENTRAL AUTHORITYgenerally have rights to exercise control over the diplomatic, matters, but rarely will have the power to do much more
military,economic, and legal spheres of the member states. than that.

PARLIAMENTRY VS PRESIDENTIAL.

PARLIAMENTRY.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ In which the executive is responsible to the legislature.
▪ It is also called the cabinet government or responsible government.
EXAMPLES.
India, United Kingdom (U.K), Pakistan
MAIN FEATURES.
▪ The executive is of two types.
o One is the nominal and the other is the real.
▪ The ruling party should have a clear and stable majority in the legislature.
▪ Head of a cabinet is the leader of the majority party in the legislature. He is the prime minister.
▪ The prime minister and the cabinet ministers are selected from among members of parliament.
▪ Concept of individual and collective responsibility of the cabinet.
MERITS.
▪ The harmony and co-operation between the legislature and the executive.
▪ It is flexible and elastic.
▪ Opposition political party offers a constructive criticism of governmental policies.
▪ It is responsive to public opinion.
DEMERITS.
▪ It is against the theory of separation of powers.
 ▪In the absence of majority, coalition is the only alternative. Coalition government is a weak form of
government and may result in political instability.
▪ No continuity in policies.
PRESIDENTIAL
INTRODUCTION.
The presidential form of government is that in which the executive is not responsible to the legislature.
Example: United States of America (U.S.A)
ESSENTIAL FEATURES.
▪ The president is the real executive. There is no nominal or ceremonial executive.
▪ The powers of the three organs namely, legislature, executive and judiciary are separated
▪ Separation of powers supplemented by the system of checks and balances.
▪ The tenure of the president is fixed. can be removed by the legislature by impeachment.
MERITS.
▪ Stable government is possible.
▪ Experts are appointed as heads of the departments without party affiliations.
▪ There is continuous and consistent policy.
▪ Highly suitable during the period of national crisis.
▪ There is no chance for concentration of powers.
DEMERITS.
▪ The executive is not responsible to the legislature and can do whatever it pleases.
▪ There is always the possibility of deadlocks between the legislature and the executive.
▪ It is not flexible form of government.
▪ The executive finds it difficult to follow a vigorous foreign policy due to lack of harmony.
MODERN DICTATORSHIP.
INTRODUCTION.
▪ Dictatorship is against democracy. While democracy upholds liberty, dictatorship suppresses liberty.
F.NEUMANN says
“By dictatorship, we understand the rule of a person, a group of persons who arrogate to themselves and monopolize
power in the state, exercising it without restraint.”
 REASONS BEHIND THE RISE OF MODERN DICTATORSHIP .
▪ Victorious powers of World War I treated defeated powers like Germany with disrespect.
▪ During the inter-war period (1919-39) failure of democracy led to the spread of dictatorship.
▪ The League of Nations could do nothing to save democracy.
FEATURES OF MODERN DICTATORSHIP.
▪ Modern dictatorship is one man rule and authoritarian.
▪ One party rule – Example: Communist Party – China
▪ No individual freedom for people.
▪ Wide gulf between dictator and people based on fear and force.
MERITS:
▪ Dictators show a singleness of purpose resulting in efficiency and quick decisions.
▪ Cost of administration is low.
▪ Dictatorship implies one party, one leader and one programme.
▪ National unity and solidarity is the contribution of dictatorship.
DE-MERTIS:
▪ Dictatorship is based on force and fear.
▪ People have no rights.
▪ Dictators use their energy to realize their selfish aims.
▪ The interest of the people are not be taken into consideration.
▪ Dictators are for bringing about revolutionary changes.
▪ Strict supervision and control over human thought.
▪ Public and private life of individuals submitted to dictators
DICTATORS OF 20TH CENTURY.
▪ Fidel Castro
 ▪ Adolf Hitler
▪ Mao Tse Tung (also Zedong).
▪ Benito Mussolini
DEMOCRACY:
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS DEMOCARCY?
It is derived from Greek word ‘demos’ or ‘people’; in which supreme is vested in the people.
“Democracy is government of the people, by the people and for the people” (A LINCOIN)
RELATION BETWEEN DEMOCRACY AND FREEDOM.
Interrelated and interdependent
CHARACTERISTICS OF DEMOCRACY.
▪ Democracy is more than just a set of specific government institutions.
▪ Democracies rest upon fundamental principles, not uniform practices.
▪ Power and civic responsibility lies with the citizen, directly or through elected representatives.
▪ Principle of majority rule and individual rights.
▪ Democratic decentralization.
▪ Protection of basic human rights, freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection under law; and
the opportunity to organize and participate fully in political,economic,and cultural life of society.
▪ Regular free and fair elections.
▪ Not only rights, but also responsibilities for the citizens to participate in the political system.
▪ Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation and compromise.
“Intolerance is itself a form of violence and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit”
(Mahatma Gandhi)
TWO FORMS OF DEMOCARCY.
Direct & indirect.
MAJORITY RULE NAD MINORITY RIGHTS.
Minority rights are protected.
PLURALISM AND DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY.
Social, economic, and political pluralism
RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES.
Citizens are aware of both rights and duties.
RULE OF LAW.
Equality before law and same laws for all.
CONSTITUTIONALISM.
Government derives its power from constitution.
THREE PILLARS OF GOVERNMENT.
Executive,legislature and the judiciary and their prescribed role.
FREE AND INDEPENDENT MEDIA.
A condition for the success of democracy.
FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS.

POLITICAL PARTIES, INTEREST GROUPS, NGOs.

CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS.

THE CULTURE OF DEMOCARCY.

DEVICES OF DIRECT DEMOCRACY.
▪ Initiative
▪ Referendum
▪ Recall
MERITS OF DEMOCRACY:
▪ The participation of the individual members in the government facilitates their sympathy and co –operation to
the success of the government.
▪ It is an effective form to educate the public about political, economic and social affairs.
▪ Helpful to promote patriotism among people and prevents occurrence of violent revolutions.
 ▪ helps to make progress and development and enables changes in a peaceful manner.
▪ It ensures to the people freedom of speech, conscience, assembly and action.
▪ It guarantees liberty and equality, which are necessary for human development.
DEMERITS OF DEMOCRACY :
▪ It sometimes leads to establish the majority view over the minority view.
▪ Party leaders and political office holders in control the citizens and the members of the party.
▪ It does not encourage individuals to give their opinions.
▪ Is an expensive form of govt as elections have to be conducted periodically to various office.
▪ It is difficult to prevent corruption and malpractices.
▪ It is also known as government by amateurs and lead to domination of masses.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF DEMOCRACY IN PAKISTAN.
▪ Frequent Coup-de-tat's.
▪ Dynastic Feudal politics along the lines of factions/clans in some areas.
▪ Mass Illiteracy
▪ Bogus and Corrupt voting system

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES.
CAPITALISM.
WHAT IS CAPITALISM? It is an economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPITALISM.
▪ Private ownership.
▪ Maximization of profits.
▪ Free market economy—a market framework that regulates this activity.
▪ The appropriation of profits by the owners of capital.
▪ The provision of wage labor, which is created by converting labor power into a commodity.
▪ Business firms are privately owned, and compete with each other.
▪ Commercialization of agricultural and industrial production.
▪ Development of new economic groups and expanding across the globe.
▪ Capital accumulation by the capitalists as an obligatory activity.
▪ Capitalism is an economic system that requires constant investment and constant economic growth.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CAPITALISM.
ADVANTAGES.
▪ Reduction in cost of production due to efficient control
▪ Efficient control of production process
▪ Improved quality of goods
▪ Consumer’s choice is given full weight
▪ Varieties of products
DISADVANTAGES.
▪ Inequality in the distribution of national wealth
▪ Fluctuations in the level of employment
▪ Class conflicts
▪ Waste of talents
▪ Heavy expenses on publicity result into increase in cost and price of the commodity.
2).COMMUNISM.
WHAT IS COMMUNISM?
▪ Communism is an economic system where means of production are controlled and managed by a Central State Authority.
▪ Communism is the extreme form of Socialism.
▪ State provides all social services such as educational, recreational and hospital facilities.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNISM.
▪ The abolition of the private ownership of means of production.
▪ Collective Ownership of Means of Production.
 ▪ Central Planning.
▪ Elimination of Unfair Gaps in Incomes.
MERITS AND DEMERITS.
MERITS OF COMMUNISM.
▪ Careful life
▪ Full employment of manpower
▪ Rapid development and economic growth
▪ Equitable distribution of wealth
DEMERITS OF COMMUNISM.
▪ Personal freedom is lost
▪ Workers are treated as machines
▪ Materialistic approaches to life problems
▪ Central State Authority holds all means of production.
3).SOCIALISM.
WHAT IS SOCIALISM?
▪ Socialism is a political ideology.
▪ "An economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and co-operative
management of the economy".
TENETS OF SOCIALISM.
▪ Community.
▪ The Benefits of Co-Operation.
▪ Class Analysis of Society.
▪ Internationalism.
▪ Anti-Capitalism.
▪ Liberty as Fulfillment.
▪ Humans as Creative Producers.
▪ People are Sovereign.
▪ Social Ownership of the Means of Production.
▪ Wage Slavery.
▪ Anti-Colonialism.
▪ Anti-Religious.

SOCIALIST STATE.
⮚ Socialist regards the state as a positive good, therefore socialist want maximum state action.
⮚ Under socialist state there would be a common ownership of the means of production and exchange and wage
would be according to needs. some socialists advocate equal distribution,others equitable distribution .
MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIALIST STATE.
⮚ Eliminates capitalism : Socialism seeks to cure all the evils of the capitalism such as injustice,inequality,class
war etc by abolishing it.
⮚ Opposes competition: Instead wants to replace competition by cooperation.
⮚ Economic equality for all:
⮚ Opposes private property.
⮚ Social/public/common control of means of production…….nationalisation.
⮚ Emphasis on society rather than individual. Thus prioritize common good over individual good.
⮚ Rewards the worker on the basis of ability and need.
“From each according to his ability to each according to his needs”
⮚ Methods of change: peaceful and gradual.
MERITS OR ADVANTAGES OF SOCIALIST STATE.
⮚ It puts society above the individual.
⮚ It rightly depicted the evils of capitalism i.e. inequalities, class war.
⮚ Wants to destroy the institution of private property.
⮚ Secures better conditions for worker.
⮚ Favors gradual and peaceful means of change.
DEMERITS.
⮚ It leads to authoritarianism as it puts too many powers in the hands of government.
⮚ It kills individual initiative and enterprise bcz it doesn’t allow private property.
 ⮚ Too much burden on state to control all industries, means of production and distribution will result in nepotism,
inefficiency, red tapism, corruption.
⮚ It ignores and neglects completely the interests of the consumers. It does not provide to the consumer any
choice in respect of consumption.
⮚ Less progress made by countries like china and Russia.
CONCLUSION.
“None can deny the fact that the movement of socialist state has brought numerous reforms. The rise of
wages,reduction in the hours of Work,improvement of working conditions”

4).MARXISM OR SCIETIFIC SOCIALISM

BACKGROUND.
▪ Following the establishment of factories and the capitalistic mode of production during the 17th-18th centuries
west, the conditions of the workers deteriorated.
▪ Karl Marx and Frederich Engels
▪ Those who contributed to the Marxian philosophy after Marx and Engels include, among others, V.I. Lenin
(Russia), and Mao Zedong (China).
WHAT IS MARXISM?
▪ Marxism is the political philosophy of the working class as liberalism is the political philosophy of the capitalist
class.
▪ It is a theory of social change.
MARXISM IS BASED ON CERTAIN ASSUMPTIONS.
▪ There is always a cause -effect relationship in what we see around.
▪ The real development is always the material development (i.e., the economic development).
▪ The material (i.e. economic) factor is the dominant factor in both individual life and social life.
▪ Human being is born at a particular stage of social / material development.
▪ Marx had said, human beings are born in history, but they make history.
▪ Social classes, especially the opposing classes, through their struggle and following the process of revolution,
move in the forward direction.
▪ Revolutions mean total and wholesome changes.
▪ The state, being the result of a class society, is a class institution
▪ Withering away of the state.
▪ Thus, Marxism advocates communism as the highest form of society.
MARXISM REVOLVES AROUND FOOLLOWING THEORATICAL PROPOSITIONS.
▪ Dialectical materialism is the sum-total of the general principles which explain as to why and how social
changes take place.
▪ Relations of Productions constitute the basis of the society at any given point of time.
▪ Productive Forces constitute those elements which originate from the relations of production.
▪ The Marxian theory states that all development takes place through struggle between opposites and because
of factors which are economic.
▪ New Mode of Production is the result of the struggle.
▪ Historical Materialism is also called the economic/materialistic/ interpretation of history.
▪ Theory of Surplus Value is another characteristic of Marxism.
▪ Marxism advocates revolution.
▪ Dictatorship of the proletariat means the rule of the working class.
▪ The socialist society that follows the capitalist society after its abolition is a classless society.
RELEVANCE OF MARXISM.
Marxism, both as a philosophy and also as a practice, has attained a position unparalleled in social and political thought.
Yet there are shortcomings.
▪ Changes do not occur simply because of the clashes between the opposing classes.
▪ The Marxian formulations, in practice, have been really disappointing.
 ▪ The fall of the communism In the Soviet Union and the eastern Europe
▪ China has introduced numerous liberalization measures in its economy and polity.
▪ The relevance of Marxism as an alternative ideology before the world is no more unquestioned.
FASCISM.
INTRODUCTION.
“a governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and
criticism, regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasizing an  aggressive nationalism and often
racism”
ORIGIN.
Italian dictator Benito Mussolini coined the term in 1919, referring to the Roman symbol for “power through unity”
PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS OF FASCISM.
▪ The work of Friedrich Nietzsche influenced fascists
FASCISM MEANS TOTALITARIANISM.
Fascist ideology is totalitarian, which means a political system that controls every aspect of life
CHARACTERISTICS OF FASCISM.
Dr.Lawrence after examining the fascist regimes around the world has found following characteristics of
fascism.
▪ Powerful and Continuing Nationalism.
▪ Disdain for the Recognition of Human Rights.
▪ Identification of Enemies/Scapegoats as a Unifying Cause.
▪ Supremacy of the Military.
▪ Rampant Sexism.
▪ Religion and Government are intertwined.
▪ Controlled Mass media
▪ Obsession with National Security
▪ Corporate Power is Protected
▪ Labor Power is Suppressed
▪ Disdain for Intellectuals and the Arts
▪ Obsession with Crime and Punishment.
▪ Rampant Cronyism and Corruption
▪ Fraudulent Elections
EXAMPLES OF FASCIST STATES.
⮚ Italy under batino Mussolini
⮚ Spain under Franco
⮚ Portugal under Salazar
⮚ Germany under Hitler – the most extreme

POLITICAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM.

INTRODUCTION.
▪ Religion and politics are one and the same in Islam. They are intertwined.
▪ It teaches us how to run a state, from a government, elect councilors and members of parliament, make
treaties and conduct business and commerce.
MAIN PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL SYSTEM.
The Islamic Political System is based on the folloing main principles:
1. Sovereignty of Allah.
2. Khilafah of Mankind (Vicegerency of man).
3. Legislation by Shura (Consultation).
"To take decisions by consultation and participation" (3:159, 42:38).
There is no scope for despotism in Islam. The Qur’an and the Sunnah will be the basis of legislation in Islam.
4. Accountability of government.
▪ It makes the ruler and the government responsible firstly to Allah and then to the people.
 ▪ The ruler and the government are elected by the people to exercise ‘powers on their behalf.
▪ both the ruler and the ruled are the Khalifah of Allah and the ruler shall have to work for the welfare of the
people according to the Qur’an and Sunnah.
5. Independence of judiciary.
▪ In the Islamic political system, the Judiciary is independent of the Executive.
▪ The head of the state or any government minister could be called to the court if necessary.
6. Equality before law.
The Islamic political system ensures equality for all citizens before the law.
CONCLUSION.
▪ The duty of an Islamic state is to establish Salah and Zakah; promote the right and forbid the wrong (22:44).
▪ The state is responsible for the welfare of all its citizens - Muslims and non-Muslims alike. It must guarantee the
basic necessities of life.