ARTICLE IN PRESS

Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604

www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Frontally confined versus frontally emergent submarine landslides:

A 3D seismic characterisation
Jose Frey-Martı́nez, Joe Cartwright, David James
3DLab. School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary Sciences, Cardiff University, P.O. Box 914, Cardiff CF10 3YE, UK
Received 26 September 2005; received in revised form 19 April 2006; accepted 22 April 2006

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data from the continental margin offshore Israel (Eastern Mediterranean) have been used to analyse
the compressional structures within the toe regions of two major buried submarine landslides: the ISC and the T20. Both landslides are
developed within a Plio-Pleistocene slope succession composed predominately of claystones, limestones and siltstones. The high spatial
resolution provided by the seismic data has allowed a detailed analysis of the geometries and deformational structures within the toe
regions of the two landslides, and this has been used to develop a mechanical model for their development. Importantly, it has been
recognised that submarine landslides may be divided into two main types according to their form of frontal emplacement: frontally
confined and frontally emergent. In the former, the landslide undergoes a restricted downslope translation and does not overrun the
undeformed downslope strata. In the latter, much larger downslope translation occurs because the landslide is able to ramp up from its
original basal shear surface and translate in an unconfined manner over the seafloor. We propose that these two types of submarine
landslides are end members of a continuum of gravity-driven slope failure processes, which extends from landslides where the headscarp
is completely evacuated, to landslides where the material remains entirely within the headscarp. The differentiation of these two end
members is of critical importance as their respective mechanisms of formation, downslope propagation and emplacement are
significantly different, and hence need to be taken into consideration when analysing their respective kinematics.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Submarine landslides; Toe regions; 3D seismic data; Slide mechanics

1. Introduction downslope compressional domain (toe region) remain a

In submarine landslides, downslope translation of
unconsolidated fine-grained sediments along a basal shear
surface leads to the development of domains of extension
(upslope) and compression (downslope) (e.g. Lewis, 1971;
Farrell and Eaton, 1987; Martinsen, 1989; Moore et al.,
1989; Martinsen and Bakken, 1990; Booth and O’Leary,
1991; O’Leary, 1993). This has also been demonstrated in
theoretical models (e.g. Farrell, 1984) and scaled physical
experiments (e.g. Crans et al., 1980). While the processes
responsible for the development of deformational struc-
tures in the upslope extensional domain (headscarp) are
rather well understood, the mechanisms occurring in the
Corresponding author. Present address: Repsol-YPF, Paseo de la
Castellana, 278-280, Madrid 28046. Spain. Tel.: +44 34(0) 913 485 198.
E-mail address: jmfreym@repsolypf.com (J. Frey-Martı́nez).
matter of debate. This is mainly due to the lack of three-
dimensional (3D) data, which has been a persistent
obstacle to an in depth understanding of the detailed
morphology and areal extent of compressional structures.
Even in areas with substantial exposure of landslide
deposits such as County Clare in Ireland (e.g. Martinsen
and Bakken, 1990; Strachan, 2002), field-based approaches
to the analysis of deformational geometries in the toe
regions are limited in their 3D capacity. As a result, many
questions regarding the mechanisms for the initiation and
propagation of compressional strain regimes in sliding
masses, and the controls on sediment deformation and
resulting geometries remain unresolved.
Compressional toe regions in submarine landslides are
commonly dominated by thrust and fold systems (e.g.
Lewis, 1971; Varnes, 1978; Martinsen, 1989; Frey-Martinez
et al., 2005). These structures are critical as kinematic

0264-8172/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2006.04.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
586 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
indicators since they allow the direction and magnitude of
translation of the sliding mass to be constrained (e.g.
Strachan, 2002). In addition, the architecture of such
compressional structures is diagnostic of the mode of
emplacement of the sliding mass and can be used to
determine palaeoslope directions (e.g. Martinsen, 1989;
Bradley and Hanson, 1998). The question of how such
structures initiate and propagate is thus critical for
understanding the dynamics of motion and arrest of
submarine landslides. Farrell (1984) developed a model to
explain the deformational toe structures in which he viewed
compressional features as forming due to the arrest of the
translating mass. He suggested that a landslide would halt
at its downslope margin first, thereby generating a
compressional strain wave that propagates from the front
to the rear of the translating mass i.e. resulting in a
backstepping kinematic sequence. A modification of the
Farrell model was recently proposed by Martel (2004), in
which the toe thrusts can be viewed as the contractile
portion of a dislocation loop. However, in this case, the
sequence of contractional structures developed in the toe
should migrate forwards with time as the dislocation on the
basal shear plane expands downslope as well as upslope.
This type of model and its variants were developed for
landslides in which the sliding mass ramps out the basal
shear surface onto the seabed and is free to travel
considerable distances over the undeformed slope position
(e.g. Rettger, 1935; Gill and Kuenen, 1958; Morgenstern,
1967; Piper et al., 1999) (Fig. 1a). In this context,
landsliding involves the upslope depletion, downslope
translation and base-of-slope accumulation of a sedimen-
tary mass that abandons its initial failure region to form a
positive topographic feature on the seafloor.
Accumulation
Free Toe region
translation
Runout
(a)
Potential Toe region
“horse”
(b) Basal shear surface
Fig. 1. Schematic depiction of the two main types of submarine landslides according to their frontal emplacement: (a) Frontally emergent landslide. Note
that the material ramps out the basal shear surface onto the seabed and is free to travel considerable distances over the undeformed slope position. (b)
Frontally confined landslide. The mass is buttressed against the frontal ramp and does not abandon the original basal shear surface.
A number of recent studies have shown that in contrast
to the models described above, submarine landslides can
develop a geometrical style where the toe region of the
landslide is buttressed in a downslope position against
undisturbed strata that are stratigraphically equivalent to
the landslide mass. This type of landslide has a relatively
limited displacement and does not have a significant pos-
itive topographic expression (e.g. Trincardi and Argnami,
1990; Huvenne et al., 2002; Lastras et al., 2004; Frey-
Martinez et al., 2005) (Fig. 1b). In our view, the two
contrasting styles of submarine landslides are sufficiently
distinctive and significant to warrant a classification into
two types, and we define these here as frontally emergent
(Fig. 1a) and frontally confined (Fig. 1b), and use these
terms throughout this paper.
The mechanisms for the formation of compressional
structures in frontally confined submarine landslides are
poorly understood, particularly from a kinematic view-
point, because there have been few studies to date that have
identified this type of structure. Two of the most important
questions is the mechanism controlling frontal confinement
i.e. why should certain submarine landslides become
confined and others not, and what effect this has on the
internal deformation of the sliding mass? The main aim of
this paper, therefore, is to try to address these questions by
describing the characteristics of the two contrasting types
of submarine landslides. Specifically, we use 3D seismic
data to outline the development of large-scale compres-
sional structures in the toe regions of two slump deposits
from the post-Messinian succession offshore Israel, one
corresponding to each of the two classes of landslide as
defined above. In this paper, slumps are defined after Stow
(1986) as a laterally displaced sediment mass bounded by
Headscarp
Depletion
Basal shear surface
Headscarp
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604 587

a basal shear surface and with evident contortion and

34°
rotation of the contained strata. The continental margin of 30° 35°
ANATOLIAN PLATE
Israel is highly unstable with many slope failures through- 1000 32° 32°
out the late Neogene succession (Garfunkel, 1984; Frey- 2000 Fig.5

Martinez et al., 2005). The region has an excellent coverage

of 2D and 3D seismic data, and thus allows detailed 35° 35° Fig.4
mapping of both large and small scale landslides in their Gaza city

ARABIAN PLATE
entirety. Mediterranean
Israel
Sea
The first case study corresponds to the Israel Slump 2000
sin
Ba 0 km 40
00 nt Egypt
Complex (ISC), a very large, frontally confined set of slope 20
Leva

Transform
failures that are closely linked in time and space and form an 1000 LEGEND:

tem
array extending almost continuously along the continental Cone Major thrust

sys
Nile

margin of Israel. The second case study is of the T20 Slump,

c
Ar
Major fault

Sea
n
a medium-size frontally emergent landslide located in the ria
Sy
N

Dead
southern part of the margin. The compressional structures in 3D seismic data
30°
both cases consist of complex arrangements of thrust and AFRICAN PLATE Land
fold systems that are approximately parallel and extend for

tens of kilometres in the dip direction. Nevertheless, detailed
3D analysis reveals a series of diagnostic variations between
the compressional features of the two landslides that suggest
significantly different formational mechanisms and allow
these two end member classes to be differentiated. The paper
concludes with a geomechanical model for the formation of
the compressional toe regions of frontally confined submarine
landslides.
2. Geological setting
The slope failures presented in this paper occur within
the Pliocene to Pleistocene sediments of the Yafo Forma-
tion, on the Israeli continental margin. The geological
context and a post-Messinian lithostratigraphy of the
Israeli margin are shown in Figs. 2a and 3, respectively.
The Yafo Formation was deposited during a period of
increased clastic input into a rapidly increasing accom-
modation space (Buchbinder and Zilberman, 1997). The
increase in clastic sedimentation resulted from a major
Pliocene transgression that inundated the Upper Miocene
shelf following the Messinian Salinity Crisis (Buchbinder
and Zilberman, 1997). During the Pliocene transgression,
normal marine deposition of Nile-derived fine-grained
siliciclastics combined with secondary basinward sedimen-
tation from the Israeli continental margin to build up a
thick sedimentary wedge, with up to 80 km of north-east
progradation and a total thickness of c. 1200–2500 m over
the Messinian intervals (Mavqiim Formation; Figs. 3
and 4). During the Late Pliocene, subsidence along the
margin increased as a result of the large volumes of
sediment been deposited in the area (Tibor and Ben-
Avraham, 1992). Simultaneously, several episodes of large-
scale slope instability and gravitational tectonics alternated
with periods of hemipelagic deposition (e.g. Almagor,
1980, 1984, 1986; Garfunkel, 1984; Garfunkel and Alma-
gor, 1985, 1987; Frey-Martinez et al., 2005). This situation
persisted until the Late Pleistocene, when global eustatic
sea-level oscillations and local vertical tectonic movements
resulted in repeated advances and retreats of the shoreline.
Nile
0 km 150
(a) 30° (b) Well location
Fig. 2. (a) Geological sketch of part of the Eastern Mediterranean
showing the main structural elements. The box marks the approximate
position of the study area. Modified from Garfunkel (1998). (b) Location
map for the study area showing the 3D seismic database in the study area
and the location of the key exploration wells. Solid lines indicate the
position of seismic profiles (Figs. 4 and 5).
The resultant overall post-Messinian Israeli continental
margin is characterised by a strongly aggradational
configuration, with sigmoidal clinoforms linking the shelf
to slope areas. The clinoforms are considerably deformed
by large to medium-scale landslide deposits and shore-
parallel growth faults that terminate at the Messinian
sequences (Fig. 4). The sediments of the Yafo Formation
consist of thick submarine fans and turbiditic sands of the
Yafo Sand Member (Early Pliocene) that pass upward to
thinly interbedded clay-rich marls, sandstones and clay-
stones (Middle Pliocene–Pleistocene; Fig. 3).
3. Data and methodology
3D seismic data from two surveys offshore Israel (Levant
and Med Ashdod) represent the main source of informa-
tion for this study (Fig. 2b). Borehole logs (g-ray, sonic,
velocity, resistivity and checkshots) and unpublished
stratigraphic reports were also available from eight
hydrocarbon exploration wells located in the study area
(Fig. 2b). The total coverage of the 3D seismic data sets
amounts to 2500 km2, extending from shelf to deepwater.
Both seismic surveys were acquired with an in-line trace
interval of 6.25 m and a line spacing of 25 m. The final data
for these two surveys were defined on a 12.5  12.5 m grid
with 6400 bin cells/km2 after processing. The data are near
zero phase with SEG normal polarity, meaning that an
increase in acoustic impedance is represented by a positive
amplitude. The dominant frequency of the seismic data
varies with depth, but it is approximately 50 Hz at the levels
of interest (2250–1250 ms TWT). The data are post-stack
time-migrated and the data quality is regarded as excellent.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
588 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604

such as flattened coherence slices and seismic amplitude

Time Seismic
(Ma) Period Epoch Formation Lithology units
extractions.
Sea Floor
0
4. Seismic stratigraphic framework
Holocene HERFER
T-10 In this paper, we use the three seismic-stratigraphic units
defined by Frey-Martinez et al. (2005) for the post-
Quaternary

Messinian succession of the Israeli continental margin

Pleistocene

U
(numbered T30, T20 and T10, Fig. 3). The general
architecture of the three units is illustrated by a regional
T-20
seismic profile orientated approximately parallel to the
strike of the basin (Fig. 5). These data calibrated with the
1.8 wells located in the study area provide important evidence
for the basinal distribution and timing of occurrence of the
YAFO submarine landslides presented here.
M
A regional conspicuous erosional unconformity surface
marks the base of the post-Messinian succession in the
Pliocene

study area. Regional mapping has established that this

T-30
surface corresponds to Reflector M, a basinwide marker
caused by subaerial exposure during the Messinian Salinity
L Crisis (Ryan et al., 1971). Unit T30 is the lowermost
Neogoene

YAFO SAND
seismic-stratigraphic unit within the post-Messinian suc-
MEMBER
cession. It consists of a c. 750 m thick package of high
frequency, continuous and high amplitude seismic reflec-
MAVQIIM
Miocene

23.8
ZIQIM
Slump Halite
Claystone Anhydrite
Sandstone
Fig. 3. Generalised chrono-stratigraphic and lithological scheme of the
post-Messinian continental margin of Israel. The lithological column is
based on unpublished well reports.
When calculating the resolution, an average seismic
velocity of 2000 m/s has been assumed within the level of
interest. This velocity is derived from the checkshot
measurements made in the Gaza Marine-1 well. Vertical
(l/4) and lateral (l) resolutions are estimated to be about
10 and 40 m, respectively.
The methodology used in this paper is based on
interpretation of 3D seismic data calibrated with the
available well data. This allows the identification and
correlation of the main internal deformational structures
within the landslides over several thousand square kilo-
metres at a resolution of a few tens of metres. It also
constrains the investigation of the kinematic indicators
within the landslides since it allows the examination of
transport directions and the relative timing of deformation.
The interpretation of intra-landslide deformational struc-
tures on seismic profiles is extremely complex, principally
because of their highly disrupted and discontinuous
3D configuration. This problem was overcome by itera-
tion between selected seismic profiles and attribute maps
tions with a strongly aggradational configuration (Fig. 5).
Based on petrophysical log data and completion reports,
Unit T30 is principally composed of deep-marine fine-
grained clastic sediments (i.e. sandstones, limestones and
claystones). Unit T20 consists of a c. 1000 m thick interval
of continuous, moderate to high amplitude seismic reflec-
tions that define a major aggradational slope wedge with
dominantly sigmoidal clinoform geometries (Fig. 5).
Shallow to deep-marine claystones and limestones that
locally alternate with sandstones, siltstones and marls form
the bulk of this unit. Unit T10 is the uppermost 100–200 m
of the post-Messinian section. It mainly consists of fine-
grained clastic sediments deposited in an aggrading
sigmoidal clinoform configuration (Fig. 5).
5. The Israel slump complex
5.1. General characteristics
The ISC was first described by Frey-Martinez et al.
(2005) as a large-scale confined and buried slump complex
located within Unit T30 and extending over much of the
present day slope region of the Israeli continental margin
(Fig. 6). The ISC is Late Pliocene in age, covers an area of
4800 km2 and has a volume of up to c. 1000 km3 making it
one of the largest submarine landslides described to date.
Its mean thickness is c. 200 m, rising to a maximum of c.
300 m in its downslope parts. Frey-Martinez et al. (2005)
interpreted the ISC as being derived from a highly
restricted downslope displacement with a gross transport
direction towards the WNW.
The headscarp of the ISC is located between 2 and 20 km
offshore Israel. In plan view, it is mapped as an irregular
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. Regional dip-oriented seismic profile through the continental margin of Israel (see Fig. 1 for location). This seismic profile illustrates the post-
Cretaceous configuration of the study area. Note the presence of an extensive unconformity and thick deposits of evaporates resulting from the Messinian
Salinity Crisis. Listric shore-parallel growth faults are related to gravity-driven deformation of the Pliocene–Holocene sedimentary column. From Frey-
Martinez et al. (2005).
boundary; with three main salients suggesting that it
consists of, at least, three major landslide masses (Fig. 6).
On dip-oriented profiles, the headscarp is recognised as a
stratal termination between the chaotic seismic facies
within the landslide mass and the undisturbed seismic
reflections of the laterally equivalent units deposited
upslope (Fig. 7a). The headscarp forms a concave upwards
plane that originally connected the basal shear surface with
a level of undeformed slope section interpreted as the
original seabed. Its upper tip is up to 300 m above the level
of the basal shear surface and has a dip ranging from c. 21
in the southern parts of the ISC to c. 151 in the north. Near
the headscarp, the top of the ISC is only slightly depressed
with respect to the undeformed region of the slope,
suggesting a very limited depletion of sediment within
these parts of the landslide complex (Fig. 7a). Tilted
downslope rotational blocks of plane-parallel reflections
that are separated by extensional structures (e.g. listric
normal faults) are observed (Fig. 7a). They are interpreted
as rotated blocks where the original stratigraphy is
considerably preserved.
The toe of the ISC is positioned between 100 and 140 km
offshore (Fig. 6). On dip-oriented profiles, it is very well
constrained by an abrupt change from the highly disturbed
seismic facies within the landslide mass to the outer
continuous reflections at the base of the slope (Fig. 7b).
589
250
950
1650
TWT (ms)
2350
3050
0 km 10
3750
250
950
TWT (ms)
1650
2350
3050
0 km 10
3750
Importantly, although the landslide mass thickens towards
the toe region, its upper boundary does not bulge up
appreciably above the regional undeformed slope datum.
This suggests that the ISC did not create a major positive
topographic feature over the coeval seafloor. Most
significantly, the landslide mass is buttressed against the
undisturbed slope strata in a downslope direction (Fig. 7b),
and evidence of translated material overlying these strata is
only observed on a local basis. The lateral margins of the
ISC are generally seen on strike-oriented seismic profiles as
abrupt and steep (c. 251) limits between the highly chaotic
seismic facies within the landslide mass and the outer
undeformed strata (Fig. 8). These limits commonly lie
below the level of the undeformed slope section, confirming
that the bulk of the landslide deposit is entrenched within
the surrounding strata.
The basal shear surface can be continuously traced with
a high degree of confidence, and exhibits remarkable lateral
variations in seismic amplitudes and geometries (Figs. 7
and 8). Over large areas, it forms a continuous and flat-
lying strong negative seismic amplitude reflection that is
conformable with the underlying strata. Locally, however,
it ramps up and down the stratigraphy to create a series of
staircase-like geometries, where it is possible to observe
clear reflection terminations (Fig. 8). The geometric
complexity of the basal shear surface increases where it
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590 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604

SSE Or-South-1S NNW

No data
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500

TWT (ms)
1750
2000
2250
2500
2750
3000
3250
3500
0 km 15

(a)

SSE Or-South-1S NNW

No data 250
Seabed
500
Slump 750
Slump
deposit
deposit
1000
Slump
UnitT10 deposit 1250
Slump
UnitT20 deposit 1500

TWT (ms)
Slump 1750
deposit
2000
UnitT30
2250
Slump
deposit 2500
Yafo Sand Member 2750
Messinian
evaporites 3000
3250
Paleocene- Oligocene-
Eocene Miocene 3500
? 0 km 15

Eocene canyons
(el-Afiq and Arish)

(b)

Fig. 5. Seismic section (a) crossing the central parts of the Levant 3D area (see Fig. 1b for location) and (b) interpretation showing the stratigraphic
context of the slump deposits in the study area. From Frey-Martinez et al. (2005).

exploits a series of seismic horizons that exhibit kilometre-
wavelength undulations and have a marked upslope
accreting configuration (Fig. 9). These horizons are herein
interpreted as contourite drift deposits by comparison with
similar structures described by Faugères et al. (1999) and
Knutz and Cartwright (2004). In the areas where the ISC
overlies the contourite deposits, the basal shear surface has
a markedly undulating geometry: it increases significantly
in dip and becomes considerably entrenched by cutting
down to the deepest stratigraphic level observed anywhere
along the entire extent of the basal shear zone. This is an
important observation whose implications in terms of
landslide processes will be discussed in detail later. The
precise lithological contrast across the basal shear zone is
unknown due to lack of accurate petrophysical calibration
at this stratigraphic level, and due to the lateral variability
in the stratigraphic datum occupied by the basal shear
zone.
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J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
Syrian
34°
Lateral
Toe margin
region
Levant Basin
Toe ISC
region Headscarp
Fig. 7a
32° Fig. 7b Fig. 10
Med Ashdod 3D
Fig. 11
Israel
Levant 3D
Lateral Headscarp
margin
Fig. 8
Gaza city
Syrian Headscarp 0 km
arc 34°
Fig. 6. Map of the ISC showing its areal extension. The dashed line
(parallel to the coastline) marks the general of the Syrian Arc system.
Arrows indicate the gross transport direction of the slump mass. Seismic
sections (indicated with thick dashed lines) are used to illustrate the
regional seismic appearance of the ISC (Figs. 7 and 8). From Frey-
Martinez et al. (2005).
5.2. Internal seismic character of the toe region
The internal seismic reflection character of the toe region
of the ISC is dominated by chaotic and transparent facies
that allow the landslide to be distinguished from the
background undeformed hemipelagic units (Figs. 7b–9).
Nevertheless, there is sufficient coherence of individual
moderately continuous reflections within the landslide
mass to allow correlation of internal features, particularly
in the area of 3D seismic coverage. The majority of
reflections correspond to parallel-bedded and sub-horizon-
tal to slightly tilted events that are mainly concordant with
the basal shear surface and the top of the landslide deposit
(S in Figs. 7b–9). Near the frontal parts of the toe region,
the reflections are more easily traceable than towards the
centre and rear: in some places they correspond to weak
troughs, in others they are almost absent. The seismic
character of these reflections and the undisturbed strata
outside the landslide mass is closely comparable, suggest-
ing, perhaps, a direct correlation of stratigraphic units.
This is particularly evident in areas where the ISC affects
contourite drift deposits (Fig. 9). Such correlation suggests
that the continuous reflections within the ISC correspond
to portions of sediment that have been deformed and
591
transported within the landslide but still preserve their
arc primary stratification.
An important group of semi-continuous stratal reflec-
tions can be traced over a large area within the toe region
of the ISC where it is covered by the Levant 3D seismic
survey (Fig. 6). These reflections are invariably tilted
(o201) and show clear evidence of localised deformation
(Fig. 7b). They are particularly evident in zones of rapid
change of gradient of the basal shear surface (Fig. 10).
When viewed in detail, the tilted and deformed reflections
are ubiquitously offset along surfaces that dip more steeply
in an upslope direction than the stratal reflections
themselves. These discontinuities can be traced throughout
the full vertical extent of the landslide mass, ramping up
32° from the basal shear surface and steepening upwards to
assume a listric morphology (e.g. Y in Fig. 10). The stratal
reflections exhibit small-scale folded geometries adjacent to
the steeply dipping discontinuities (e.g. X in Fig. 10) that
can be traced consistently along strike and cannot therefore
be artefactual.
N Limited mapping was undertaken in the area of best
imaging of intra-landslide reflectivity to define a series of
seismic markers (A–E; Fig. 10a). From the systematic
40 offset pattern of these five markers and the associated folds
observed adjacent to the steeply dipping discontinuities, it
is interpreted that these discontinuity surfaces are small
thrust faults, with maximum reverse throws of the order of
60 m. These thrusts almost ubiquitously dip landward (i.e.
in an upslope direction), verge seawards (downslope), and
detach on the basal shear surface. The larger displacement
thrust faults cut through the entire landslide mass, but
smaller faults terminate within the landslide itself
(Fig. 10b). The folded hangingwall geometries are reminis-
cent of thrust propagation folds (e.g. Suppe and Medwe-
deff, 1990) and we therefore interpret them accordingly.
The thrust faults are arranged in an en echelon manner,
and therefore resemble the geometry of imbricate fans in
different types of fold-and-thrust belts (e.g. Croot, 1987;
Dahlen, 1990; Huuse and Lykke-Andersen, 2000). The
upper tips of numerous thrust structures occur at the upper
boundary of the landslide mass, and the array of thrusts
does not define a critical wedge (e.g. Restrepo-Pace et al.,
2004; Turrini and Rennison, 2004). Rather, the imbricate
fan in this case is simply a tabular body which is
pervasively deformed by a set of closely and regularly
spaced thrusts of approximately equal dimension and
maximum displacement. No single thrust emerges above
the general regional datum defined by the top of the
landslide mass.
From the geometries observed, it is not possible to give a
definitive indication of the direction of the sequence of
thrust propagation within the toe region of the ISC (i.e.
foreland, hinterland or out-of-sequence). We have ob-
served no clear growth packages that could be confidently
assigned to a syntectonic phase of deposition (cf. Hardy
et al., 1996), and hence we cannot infer any potential
diachroneity in the timing of thrusting, nor of its absolute
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
592 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604

NW SE
Seabed 250

500

750

1000
Extensional Headscarp

TWT (ms)
structures Onlap Pliocene-
Rotational
block Quaternary 1250
Top

1500
ISC
1750

Chaotic
Plane-parallel facies Undisturbed 2000
reflections Basal shear strata
surface
0 km 6 Messinian 2250
erosional surface

(a)

NW SE
Seabed

1250

1500

Onlap Compressional

TWT (ms)
structures
Slump Top Pliocene- 1750
deposit Toe
Quaternary

ISC
2000

Compressional Basal shear

Frontal
Slump structures surface
ramp
deposit 2250

0 km 6

(b)

Fig. 7. Longitudinal seismic profiles through the ISC: (a) 2D seismic profile in the upslope parts of the ISC (see Fig. 6 for location). The headscarp forms a
steeply dipping interface forming the updip boundary between the chaotic seismic facies within the slump body and the continuous reflections of the upper
slope. (b) 3D seismic profile through the toe region of the ISC (see Fig. 6 for location). The toe region appears as the downslope boundary between the
chaotic seismic facies of the ISC and the continuous reflections of the base of slope. Note the presence of a clear frontal ramp and the slump mass being
buttressed against the downslope strata. The slump deposit beyond the toe of the ISC is an older feature. From Frey-Martinez et al. (2005).

duration. However, based on the previous analogy with downslope by the sequential propagation of its frontal
imbricate fans, it is suggested that the most likely direction parts into the foreland. This interpretation is supported by
is a foreland propagating sequence. In this case, it would the observation that all the thrusts deform the upper
imply that the frontal region of the ISC translated boundary of the landslide to a smooth upper datum, with
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604 593

SSW Top NNE

Fig.9
S

Top 1750
Lateral S

TWT (ms)
margin
ISC Ramp ISC
In situ Basal
block shear surface
2000
S

Basal M Reflector
shear surface
0 km 5
2250

Fig. 8. 3D seismic profile across the ISC (see Fig. 6 for location). Note the intensively deformed internal parts of the slump body. A lateral flank forms a
steeply dipping ramp separating chaotic from continuous seismic facies. Note the presence of blocks of undisturbed seismic reflections within the slump
body and of ramps indenting its basal shear surface. From Frey-Martinez et al. (2005).

Fig.8
SW NE
Top

S S
ISC
S
S Contourite
drift deposits
Basal
shear surface M Reflector

0 km 5

Fig. 9. Seismic profile in the dip direction along the ISC (see Fig. 8 for location). The profile is parallel to the interpreted main direction of movement.
Note the presence of resolvable seismic reflectors within the slump mass (marked S). These reflections are interpreted as slightly disturbed strata
transported within the slump body. In this area, the basal shear surface follows the strata of the underlying contourite drift deposits.

no enhancement of any individual thrust displacement
carrying earlier thrusts in a piggy back style, as is typical of
hinterland or out of sequence thrusting (Rastrepo-Pace
et al., 2004).
A final and important observation from the seismic
profiles across the toe region of the ISC is the presence of
blocks of continuous reflections that remain as totally
undeformed ‘islands’ and are surrounded by the highly de-
formed landslide mass (Fig. 8). The blocks are clearly
coupled to the undeformed sedimentary succession below
and are separated from the surrounding landslide body by
steep outward dipping flanks (c. 20–251; Fig. 8). These
features were interpreted by Frey-Martinez et al. (2005) as
isolated cores of intact sediment that have not experienced
failure, and from this, it was argued that the presence of
such blocks were indicative of a low magnitude of
downslope translation.
The limited lateral correlation of the stratal reflections
within the toe region means that the optimum method for
defining the detailed internal structure of the toe region of
the ISC is by slice-based attributes, where the slice
geometry is derived from a seismic volume flattened on a
smoothed base of landslide surface. A representative
flattened horizontal coherence slice is illustrated in
Fig. 11a, and shows the utility of the coherence attribute
in defining complex structure in this context. The
interpretational approach consisted of defining the limits
between the different coherence ‘facies’, and correlating
them with vertical profiles. The frontal parts of the toe
region are dominated by low coherence facies coinciding
with intensively deformed sediments that have no original
stratification preserved in the seismic character. Linear
discontinuities on the coherence slice correspond closely to
the thrust faults as interpreted on the vertical seismic
profiles (e.g. C in Fig. 11a). Nearly 80 of these linear
discontinuities have been recognised in the imaged portions
of the toe region of the ISC, where they can be traced
typically over c. 20 km along strike in two main directions,
N–S and SE–NW. The first form rectilinear features in the
core of the toe region; the second create concentric arcs
running parallel to the frontal parts of the landslide. All the
linear elements are convex basinwards. A NW–SE trending
linear zone separating the two domains of thrusts is also
observed (D in Fig. 11a). This alignment is interpreted as
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
594 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604

NW SE
X
X X
X
Top

X X
Fig.11a X

Y
Y

Y Basal shear
surface
0 km 2

(A)

NW SE
1750
T-10 T-5
Top

A A

B B

C C

D D

E Basal shear
surface E
0 km 2

(B)

Fig. 10. (A) Seismic profile in the dip direction along a segment of the ISC (see Fig. 6 for location). The internal parts of the slump deposit are composed
of upslope dipping tilted seismic reflections. These reflections are offset and locally create developed listric geometries (marked Y). (B) Interpretation
showing five markers that have been here used to correlate across the ISC. Thrust structures ramping from the basal shear surface up to the top of the
slump deposit and minor extensional structures (i.e. faults) are interpreted.

a zone of internal shearing within the landslide, akin to a
lateral ramp in classical thrust belts. Finally, several areas
of coherent facies are identified in Fig. 11a. These
correspond to the previously mentioned isolated cores of
undisturbed sediment (i.e. contourite deposits). A sche-
matic illustration of all these interpretations is illustrated in
Fig. 11b.
The main transport direction of the ISC has been
inferred from mapping features as described above on
flattened horizontal coherence slices across its toe region
(e.g. Fig. 11a). It is assumed that the most probable
direction of translation is approximately perpendicular to
the strike of the thrust fault planes (Ramsey and Lisle,
2000). A dominant westerly transport direction is inter-
preted in the central parts of the toe region (Fig. 11b). This
direction accords well with the inferred maximum palaeo-
slope derived from sequence stratigraphic interpretation of
clinoform geometry, and suggests a simple compressional
regime in these parts of the landslide complex. Towards the
frontal parts of the toe region, however, the orientation of
thrust faults suggests a more complex situation with two
dominant transport directions: NW–SE in the south and
SW–NE in the north (Fig. 11b), suggesting that these parts
moved at least partially independently at some stage. The
blocks of undeformed contourites seen within the landslide
mass appear to be linked to changes in the internal pattern
of thrusting. This might be an indication that they formed
local points of high shear resistance along the basal shear
zone, and led to internal realignment of the shortening
direction. A systematic observation along the frontal
region of the toe is that the strike pattern of the outermost
thrust faults mimics the planform geometry of the
perimeter of the frontal parts of the landslide.
5.2.1. Dimensions of the thrust structures
A series of parameters have been measured for the thrust
structures within the toe region of the ISC, including
height, tip to tip separations, lengths, fault plane dip and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604 595

Undisturbed
Outline sediment
of ISC

Area 1 Lateral
A
A margin
T-10 T-10

Fig. 10 In situ
block
T-5 T-5

In situ
C block

D D
C
Lateral
margin

N N
Undisturbed
sediment
Outline
0 km 10 of ISC 0 km 10
Frontal ramp

(A) (B)
Main thrust in Fig.10 Thrust structure In situ block

Direction of transport D Dislocation plane Intensively deformed material

Fig. 11. (A) Structurally flattened horizontal coherence slice across part of the toe region of the ISC (see Fig. 6 for location). Note the presence of arc-like
concentric structures (marked C). These are interpreted as thrust fault planes. There are coherent parts within the slump deposit interpreted as ‘‘in situ’’
blocks. A dislocation plane (marked D) is also interpreted: (A) marks a seismic artifact; (B) interpretation. The black arrows indicate the inferred
directions of the slump. T-5 and T-10 correspond to two thrust planes analysed in detailed in this paper.

displacement. A sub-area where at least 15 thrusts are well
imaged (Area 1 in Fig. 11) was selected for detailed
analysis. The measurements were made on depth-converted
seismic profiles perpendicular to the strike of the thrusts
using a depth conversion model based on an interval
velocity of 2000 m/s derived from the Gaza Marine-1 well.
The measurements are presented in Table 1. Two
displacement–distance graphs (after Williams and Chap-
man, 1983) produced for two representative thrust
structures (T-5 and T-10) are also presented.
The thrust structures within Area 1 have heights ranging
between 167 and 236 m (average 194 m), tip to tip
separations of 400–600 m and lengths perpendicular to
the strike varying from c. 550 m to c. 1200 m (Table 1).
Typical angles of the thrust planes (as measured from a
flattened lower boundary) are between 91 and 221. It is
interesting to note that there is an inverse relationship
between the length and the angle of the thrust structures.
This relationship is, at least partly, an expression of the
gradient of the basal shear surface because thrusts
overlying points of rapid lateral variation in the basal
shear surface exhibit higher angles and lower fault plane
lengths than those occurring in flat lying areas.
Displacement variation on the thrust faults could be
constrained reasonably well in this sub-area because of the
highly reflective nature of the landslide mass (Fig. 10).
Displacement variation is of significant importance when
considering the overall kinematics of the landslide mass.
Importantly, we find that the majority of thrust structures
have a maximum value of displacement at the basal shear
surface, with a gradual decrease towards the top of the
thrust plane (see displacement-distance graphs for T-5 and
the T-10 in Fig. 12). No evidence of thrust faults nucleating
above their sole thrust is observed i.e. no maxima of
displacement have been documented from within the
landslide mass. The observed displacement patterns,
together with the deformation associated with the thrust
planes, implies that the thrust structures propagated from
the basal shear surface towards the top of the landslide.
From the presence of minor folding at the tips of the thrust
planes we infer that, as the displacement decreases
upwards, the thrust offset is progressively replaced by
ductile deformation (the ductile bead of Elliott, 1976).
The displacement of individual thrust structures varies
along strike in a comparable manner to that observed for
tectonic thrusts (Williams and Chapman, 1983; Ellis and
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596 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604

Table 1
Measurements at fifteen thrust structures within the toe region of the ISC

Thrust Height (m) Length (m) Plane angle (deg) Maximum displacement (m)

1 236 653 20 25
2 215 757 22 41
3 228 553 16 62
4 218 869 14 57
5 167 900 10 67
6 194 912 12 58
7 176 653 15 62
8 187 939 11 44
9 170 1154 9 55
10 188 1010 10 41
11 190 1187 9 34
12 184 1200 9 23
13 184 1027 10 36
14 189 1011 11 21
15 192 1087 10 25

Thrust T- 5 along strike as displacement accrues (Ellis and Dunlap,

80
1988).
70
Displacement (m)

60 The total shortening within the toe region is difficult to

50 quantify, because of the limited lateral correlatability of
40 internal stratigraphic markers. We estimated the short-
30 ening within the toe region of the ISC by assigning an
20 average value of the horizontal component of displacement
10 to all the thrusts that could be detected by systematic
0 offsets of even partial stratigraphic marker sets.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
A maximum number of 80 thrusts were interpreted on a
Distance (m)
single line traverse across the toe region, thus yielding an
overall shortening of the order of 4 km or 10%. This value
Thrust T-10
45 of shortening balances quite closely the thickening of the
40 landslide deposit observed in the toe region (Fig. 7b),
Displacement (m)

35
30
suggesting that the estimate of shortening, although
25 admittedly crude, is a reasonable first-order approxima-
20 tion. This attempt at volume balance is far too imprecise,
15 however, to attempt to constrain the loss of pore fluid, for
10
5
example, or lateral compaction strains within the thrust
0 blocks, but it does show that such an approach should
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 clearly be possible with 3D seismic data where internal
Distance (m) stratigraphy is well preserved. The upper limit of 4 km of
shortening is an important measure of the maximum
Fig. 12. Displacement vs distance of the T-5 and T-10 sentative thrust
structures within the toe region of the ISC. The displacement has been
translation along the basal shear surface necessary to
measured from the tip of the thrust planes. Both displacement and explain the contractional strain in the toe region, and sets a
distance are in metres. valuable constraint for the kinematics of the entire land-
slide.
Dunlap, 1988). Fig. 13 shows a series of measurements
along the strike of the T-5 thrust structure. The measure- 6. The T20 slump
ments have been undertaken at marker C across five
seismic profiles perpendicular to the strike of the thrust. 6.1. General characteristics
The displacement varies from c. 10 m to c. 70 m (Fig. 13). It
has a maximum in the central portion of the thrust The T20 Slump was selected for detailed interpretation
structure and decreases gradually towards its flanks. This because it is the second biggest submarine landslide within
characteristic has been consistently observed in many other the southern Levant continental margin and one of the best
thrust structures across the toe region of the ISC, and is imaged examples offshore Israel. It is a single, large-scale
taken to imply a standard propagation model based on frontally emergent landslide within Unit T20 (Early to
nucleation in the central region, with lateral propagation Late Pleistocene in age) and is located c. 60 km from the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604 597

present-day coastline. The landslide deposit trends NW

and extends from the shelf-break to the base of slope areas
12 m with slope gradients between 21 and 0.51, respectively. It
affects c. 60 km2 (mean length 10 km, mean width 6 km;
Fig. 14) and is covered within two 3D seismic surveys. Its
maximum thickness varies from c. 50 m in the upslope
areas to c. 250 m distally. The total volume of the T20
32 m Slump is estimated at about 6 km3 based on an approx-
imate mean thickness of 100 m, and is calibrated by three
T-5 exploration wells that show it to be composed of soft and
plastic, deep-marine claystones and limestones.
A time thickness map (Fig. 14) illustrates the planform
geometry of the T20 Slump. On this map, the slump
67 m deposit exhibits a lobe-like geometry with an aspect ratio
significantly elongated downslope. 3D seismic mapping of
the headscarp is complicated by later deformation by
30 m growth fault systems. Nevertheless, it can be mapped as a
crescentic planform feature that opens towards the NNW
and extends for c. 8 km in a NE–SW direction (Fig. 14).
This headscarp is a single, integral morphostructural
element, suggesting that the T20 Slump consists of one
10 m main landslide unit. On dip-oriented seismic sections, it is
0 km 6 interpreted as a concave upwards surface with its upper tip
up to c. 200 m above the basal shear surface and a mean
gradient of c. 21 (Fig. 15). Near the headscarp, the top of
Fig. 13. Representation of the displacement along the T-5 thrust the landslide is considerably depressed with respect to the
structure. The maximum displacement occurs in the centre of the structure
suggesting higher levels of translation the central parts of the slump mass
undeformed slope datum and is downlapped by post-
than in the flanks (see text for discussion). landslide deposits (Fig. 15). This configuration indicates

Thickness
7
Fig.1

T-20 Slump (ms)

Lateral 0-50
margin
Fig 50-100
.16 Outline
T-20 Slump 100-150

150-200
Or-1
100-150

150-200
Area of Or South-1
deposition

Nir-1
Lateral
N margin Fig
.15
Fig
.18
M
ed Headscarp
as
h
3D
Ar 0 km 2
ea
Levant 3D Area

Fig. 14. Isochron of the T20 slump deposit. The thickness of the slump mass increases significantly towards the toe region. The dashed lines and box
(Figs. 15–18, respectively) indicate the position of seismic profiles and amplitude extractions used to illustrate the internal part of the slump mass.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
598 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
that the upslope parts of the T20 Slump are thinned
relative to the pre-landslide slope template, and forms the
basis for inferring the depletion of large amounts of
sediment from these areas. Another interesting observation
from Fig. 15 is the presence of a clear contact between the
extensional and compressional zones within the landslide
mass.
The toe region of the T20 Slump can be clearly mapped
on 3D seismic data as an area of prominent thickening of
the landslide deposit (Fig. 15). Here, the landslide mass is
thicker in the centre and thins gradually towards its
outermost parts. Importantly, it is not buttressed against
the downslope strata as is the case with the ISC, but it
ramps up and over the undeformed slope position for up to
10 km forming an interval of highly deformed and chaotic
seismic facies (Figs. 16 and 17). The toe region forms a
positive topographic feature with respect to the unde-
formed slope datum (Fig. 16), indicating that it formed
over the palaeo-seafloor. Its lateral margins do not
correspond to abrupt and vertical limits as those seen for
the ISC, but to extensive areas where the landslide mass
thins progressively and is concordant with the underlying
and overlying strata (Fig. 17). This configuration supports
the argument that the T20 Slump was able to ramp up the
basal shear surface and move downslope freely over the
seabed.
The basal shear surface of the T20 Slump corresponds to
a distinct and continuous horizon that is generally sub-
horizontal and concordant with the underlying strata. This
configuration changes near the headscarp, where the basal
surface cuts up section and exhibits a listric geometry
(Fig. 15), and in the frontal parts of the toe region, where it
NW
Top
T20 slump
Fig. 15. Seismic profile across the headscarp area of the T20 Slump. The slump mass appears significantly depressed in relation to the surrounding strata.
There is clear evidence of downlap of the overlying sediment. The internal parts of the slump mass are dominated by deformation extensional and
compressional structures (separated by the dotted line).
SW
Seabed
Top
0 km 1 Basal shear
surface
Fig. 16. Seismic profile across the toe region of the T20 Slump in the dip direction. The slump mass overrides the coeval seafloor and thins significantly
towards its distal parts. The internal parts of the slump deposit are dominated by thrust structures that dip upslope.
forms a minor ramp (Fig. 16). On seismic profiles, the basal
shear surface appears as a negative high-amplitude reflec-
tion that follows the same bedding plane below most of the
landslide deposit. No evidence of large-scale topographic
ramps and zones of entrenchment similar to those of the
ISC is observed. The maximum level of entrenchment of
the basal shear surface of the T20 Slump relative to the
undeformed slope section is c. 50 m in the core of the toe
region. Together with its generally concordant nature and
minor evidence of erosion, this low entrenchment strongly
suggests that the frontal parts of the T20 Slump overrode
its ramp, and formed a positive feature on the coeval
seafloor. Such an interpretation of the landslide geometry
reinforces the previous argument for a free downslope
movement for the T20 Slump and differs appreciably from
that of the ISC.
6.2. Internal seismic character of the toe region
The seismic character within the toe region of the T20
Slump is most clearly expressed in the maximum seismic
amplitude response of its deformed interior (Fig. 18a).
From this attribute display, it is evident that the core of the
toe region is dominated by high amplitudes, whereas the
outermost parts have low to medium seismic responses. A
series of SW–NE trending lineations are visible within the
zone of high amplitudes. The contact between the two
areas (A in Fig. 18a) forms a well-defined boundary that is
parallel to the frontal perimeter of the landslide. Towards
the frontal parts of the toe region, the high amplitudes
form a series of concentric features (C in Fig. 18a) running
almost parallel to the perimeter of the landslide. A series of
SE
Downlap 750
Head scarp
TWT
(ms)
Basal shear
1000
surface 0 km 2
Or South-1 NE
Fig.17
Top
T20 Slump Basal shear
surface
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604 599

SW NE
Top
Lateral margin

C Lateral margin

Basal shear
0 Km 1 surface T20 Slump

Fig. 17. Seismic profile across the toe region of the T20 Slump in the strike direction. The lateral flanks are approximately concordant with the overlying
and underlying strata and thin gradually towards their distal parts.

N N
D
D
Outrunner Outrunner
block block
C Outline of
toe region
C
Frontal
ramp
A A
C
C Lateral
ramp

Fig
.16
D
D
A
Outline of
toe region D
D
A
Outrunner
.17

0 km 2 0 km 2 Lateral
block ramp
Fig

Fig. 18. (a) Maximum seismic amplitude extraction within the toe region of the T20 Slump. In the core of the slump mass, there are high seismic
amplitudes which correspond to thrust structures. Towards the lateral and frontal parts, the high amplitudes diminish. In the frontal parts, there are
concentric arc-like structures, which correspond to thrust planes. Dislocation planes (marked D) are also interpreted. (b) Schematic depiction of the
interpretation.

lineaments trending principally in a NW–SE direction are
also observed (D in Fig. 18a). These lineaments can be
traced continuously for up to 3 km and appear to fragment
the core of the landslide mass into a series of discrete,
elongated blocks.
The high amplitude region seen in Fig. 18a is calibrated
by seismic profiles (Fig. 16) as a series of inclined and
continuous reflections that dip landwards, decrease in size
basinwards and produce clear topographic expressions on
the top of the landslide deposit. Towards the outermost
parts of the toe region, the reflections diminish or fade out
(Fig. 16). This zone coincides with the low to moderate
amplitudes observed in Fig. 18a. The SW–NE striking
linear elements in the frontal parts of the toe region are
correlated to laterally discontinuous stratal reflections that
are offset by more steeply inclined discontinuity surfaces of
sub-parallel reflections detached from the basal shear
surface. By analogy with the internal parts of the toe
region of the ISC, we interpret these discontinuities as
thrust structures and we propose that they diminish in size
towards the outermost parts of the toe region as the
sediment spreads over the seafloor by gravity. This
interpretation is consistent with the observations that the
toe region of the T20 Slump is not buttressed against the
slope strata downslope of the toe region, and that the
thickness of the landslide decreases gradually towards its
outermost parts.
In the distal limits of the toe region, there are a series of
block-like and isolated high seismic amplitudes. We
speculatively interpret these reflections as blocks of
disturbed sediment that have been transported within the
landslide. The core and outermost parts of the toe region
are separated on the flanks by minor linear discontinuities
in the amplitude pattern. From their relationship to the
thrusts, these discontinuities are interpreted as lateral
ramps and in a crude sense are oriented parallel to the
lateral perimeter of the landslide core (labelled A in
Fig. 18a). This interpretation of the internal structure is
summarised in Fig. 18b.
From the interpretation presented in Fig. 18b, we
consider that the core of the toe region of the T20 Slump
propagated downslope with a dominant NW transport
direction (Fig. 18b) i.e. in the direction of the maximum
palaeoslope gradient. This is consistent with the develop-
ment of simple gravitational compressional stress regime
within the toe of the landslide. Towards the lateral flanks,
the fan-like planform of the landslide body (cf. Fig. 14)
indicates a more complex situation with a set of local
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
600 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
transport directions that vary from NNW (northern flank
of the toe region) to SSW (southern flank) (Fig. 18b). This
variation is considered here as indicative of a change in the
kinematics between the core and outermost parts of the toe
region due to the tendency of the landslide mass to spread
laterally under the influence of gravity. Similar patterns
have been observed in classic studies of slab slides in snow
fields (Lajoie, 1972). From the presence of NW–SE
trending lateral internal shear zones or lateral ramps,
we infer that these structures served to accommodate
different rates of downslope displacement across the width
of the landslide, possibly because of frictional coupling at
the lateral margins (cf. Lajoie, 1972). Finally, the presence
of translated blocks in the frontal parts of the toe
region may be indicative of higher net downslope transla-
tion within these parts of the landslide. This contrasts
significantly with the observations previously made for
the ISC.
6.2.1. Dimensions of the thrust structures
The thrust faults within the toe region of the T20 Slump
extend over an area of c. 30 km2 spanning approximately
80% of the toe region (Fig. 18a). In plan view, individual
thrusts can be traced for over c. 1 km in the strike direction
and are regularly spaced. Their height varies from 75 to
125 m (average 85 m), tip to tip distances are 100–150 m
and lengths perpendicular to the strike direction range
between c. 200 m and c. 1 km. Typical thrust planes dip in
the range 10–251 and the maximum thrust displacement
ranges from 20 to 30 m. We estimated an amount of
shortening of c. 1.25 km accommodated by 41 thrust faults
along a WNW–ESE oriented traverse.
7. Discussion
The most important observations from seismic inter-
pretation of the two compressional toe regions analysed in
the previous sections are summarised as follows as the basis
for the discussion below:
 The compressional toe region of the ISC is laterally and
frontally confined and is delimited by abrupt and steep
(dipping c. 25–501) ramps which separate the toe region
from the stratigraphically equivalent and undeformed
slope section.
 The toe region of the ISC is marked by a subdued
positive topography, and is dominated by a thrust and
fold belt, where thrusts cut upwards across the entire
landslide thickness, ramping upwards from the basal
shear surface. The thrusts link along strike in segmented
arrays that follow a dominantly N–S direction over an
area of c. 2500 km2.
 The toe region of the T20 Slump forms a striking
positive topographic relief above the original seabed. It
is flanked by two minor lateral margins where the
landslide mass thins gradually outwards and is con-
cordant with the underlying and overlying strata.
 The core of the toe region of the T20 Slump is
dominated by imbricated thrusts that are linked via a
continuous basal shear surface. Its outermost parts
appear to be dominated by deposits of chaotic material
and translated blocks.
From the preceding observations, it is evident that the
critical and diagnostic differences between the two com-
pressional toe regions described in this paper concern the
geometry of the frontal region, and whether the frontal
zone is buttressed (frontally confined) or unconfined and
spread out over the pre-landslide downslope seabed
(frontally emergent). This difference in emplacement
between the two landslides raises the question of whether
conventional models for submarine landsliding (e.g.
Farrell, 1984) apply in the case of frontally confined
landslides.
Over the last three decades, many previous investigators
have described the mechanisms of frontally emergent
submarine landslides (e.g. Lewis, 1971; Farrell, 1984;
Jansen et al., 1987; Martinsen, 1989; Moore et al., 1989;
Martinsen and Bakken, 1990; Bøe et al., 2000). As a result,
it is now well established that landslides emerge over the
seabed when they gain sufficient inertial energy to abandon
their basal shear surfaces. In contrast, only a few studies
have described what we would class as frontally confined
submarine landslides (e.g. Trincardi and Argnami, 1990;
Huvenne et al., 2002; Lastras et al., 2004). These workers
have all recognised that in frontally confined landslides,
downslope translation is small to moderate with no
significant outflow over the ramp, and this relatively
restricted translation is the product of their buttressed
configuration.
Trincardi and Argnami (1990) used 2D seismic data to
map a submarine landslide (the Gela Slide) within the Plio-
Quaternary foredeep of Sicily and described its internal
parts as maintaining plane-parallel and laterally contin-
uous reflection patterns without evidence of significant
internal deformation. In the slide toe, however, they
observed coherent seismic reflections with folds and thrusts
verging in the direction of transport. Trincardi and
Argnami (1990) attributed the frontal confinement of the
Gela Slide to the presence of a ‘basinwide morpho-
structural’ obstacle, and argued that confinement occurs
where a positive topographic feature provides the necessary
resisting forces to prevent further translation. In this
scenario, the sliding material halts abruptly and deforms
due to a compressional strain wave that propagates from
the area of impact with the topographic obstacle.
Huvenne et al. (2002) employed a combination of 2D
and 3D seismic data to analyse a frontally confined
submarine landslide in the western Porcupine Basin (off-
shore SW Ireland). They observed that this landslide ‘does
not exhibit the traditional picture of a fully developed slump
or slide’ but corresponds to a ‘failure that never broke
through or overthrusted the downslope sediments’. This
description is strikingly analogous to that of the ISC,

J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
described in this paper. Huvenne et al. (2002) proposed a
combination of abrupt release of the pore pressure along
the failure plane and low slope angles to explain the
striking architecture and mode of emplacement of this
landslide.
Lastras et al. (2004) used high-resolution swath bathy-
metry and very high-resolution seismic data to investigate
the geometry and internal structures of four slides on the
seafloor of the Balearic margin (offshore Spain). They
recognised a series of chaotic seismic facies at the slide toes,
which they interpreted as a lesser degree of sediment
disruption compared with the upper parts of the slides.
They also demonstrated that thickening in the toe regions
did not correspond to significant topographic expressions
and concluded that ‘modest material transfer is accompa-
nied by the downslope propagation of the deformation front
that extensively remoulds the slope sediment without
necessarily translating it very far downslope’.
Frontally confined submarine landslides affine to the ISC
have thus been identified in a number of different
continental margins worldwide. The mechanisms invoked
by previous workers to account for the confined geo-
metry of this type of landslide are, however, not easily
applicable to the ISC. There is no obvious morphological
or structural obstacle downslope of the ISC to provide
the topographic confinement envisaged by Trincardi
and Argnami (1990) in their analysis of the Gela Slide.
Equally, the suggestion from Huvenne et al. (2002) that
release of overpressure is responsible in combination
with low gradient of the basal shear surface is also not
tenable in the context of the ISC because the basal shear
surface has a similar gradient (relative to palaeoslope) as
many other landslides on the Israeli margin that can be
classified as being frontally emergent. It is thus difficult to
reconcile the specific context of the ISC with mechanisms
advocated by Trincardi and Argnami (1990) and by
Huvenne et al. (2002).
Top
Basal shear
surface
Fig. 19. Schematic depiction of the mechanism for downslope translation of frontally confined submarine landslides. The material does not override the
frontal parts but translates downslope by deforming and integrating the foreland in the frontal parts of the slump. In his scenario, each truth structure
corresponds to a single event of downslope translation.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
601
Faced with this lack of explanation from previous
studies, we consider a simple mechanical explanation based
on a theoretical model for thin-skinned growth faulting
developed by Mandl and Crans (1981). This analogy was
prompted by the recognition that we have only observed
frontally confined submarine landslides where their relative
thickness is considerable. Our 3D seismic mapping shows
that the depth to the basal shear surface from the level of
the pre-deformational slope template of the ISC is large by
global standards (4400 m; Fig. 9) and much larger than
the T20 Slump thickness (o50 m; Fig. 17) and the majority
of submarine landslides described in the literature (e.g.
Locat and Lee, 2002). The depth to the basal detachment
effectively defines the cross-sectional aspect ratio of the
slab of sediment affected by failure, and it seems reason-
able to infer that a thick landslide (high thickness to
downslope width ratio) may act very differently from a thin
feature (small thickness to downslope width ratio).
Frontally emergent and frontally confined landslides are
similar in many respects, and critically, in that they both
have well-developed frontal thrust and fold structures in
the toe region. They only differ in the response of the toe to
movement along the basal shear plane. Frontally confined
landslides can be regarded almost as failed frontally
emergent landslides, in the sense that instead of the
landslide body ramping upwards and moving outwards
over the downslope sequence, it remains buttressed at a
lower structural datum (Fig. 19). As a landslide moves,
potential energy is lost, and this loss must be balanced
against the gain in potential energy required locally as the
mass moves up and out over its ramp. A ‘failed’ landslide
can therefore be thought of as one that has not been able to
balance the loss of potential energy against the gain
required to overcome the barrier represented by the frontal
ramp.
Based on this simple mechanical model, and using the
theoretical framework established by Mandl and Crans
Slump mass Thrust plane
Foreland
Frontal
Thrust plane
ramp
Frontal Basal shear
propagation surface
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
602 J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
(1981), we suggest that all landslides must go through a
frontally confined stage where the initial frontal ramp is the
de facto frontal margin of the landslide at an early stage in
its evolution (Fig. 19). With increased slip on the basal
shear plane, the landslide can either remain ‘locked’ within
the original stratigraphic template of the sediment package
overlying the basal shear plane, or it can progress to a
frontally emergent landslide by moving over and out of the
confinement of the ramp. If it fails to evolve into the
frontally emergent type of landslide, it remains locked at
the lower level, and any continued slip is accommodated
downslope by additional contractional straining within the
toe region, manifesting itself as the impressive frontal
thrust and fold belts seen, for example, on the seismic data.
Transition from frontal confinement to frontal emergence
can occur at any stage provided that the energetic
conditions are favourable. Thick landslides are more likely
to remain locked in the frontally confined state simply
because their centre of gravity is lower relative to the
seabed slope datum (Mandl and Crans, 1981), and hence
greater energy is required to emerge at the frontal ramp.
Having presented an albeit speculative argument that the
major controlling factor governing the development of
frontally confined landslides is the depth to detachment
(landslide thickness), a final and important question to be
addressed is the possible control for the depth to
detachment of submarine landslides. Martinsen (1994)
proposed that the position of a basal shear surface is
mainly determined by the pressure gradient in the
sediment. According to Martinsen (1994) ‘‘where the pore
pressure approaches or balances the normal stress induced by
the weight of the overburden, the shear strength is sufficiently
reduced to allow slippage along a basal shear surface, given a
sufficiently high shear stress’’. The increase in pore pressure
may result from the presence of permeability barriers: such
commonly occur at clay-rich intervals.
The most striking observation of the basal shear surface
of the ISC is that it becomes significantly entrenched where
it exploits contourite drift deposits from the Early Pliocene
(Fig. 9). This coincidence strongly suggests that there is a
genetic link between the depositional (grain) fabric of the
contourite deposits and the position of the basal shear
surface. Lithological calibration at the Gaza Marine-1
exploration well has revealed that the contourite deposits
underlying the ISC are mainly composed of fine-grained
clastic sediments. It is therefore reasonable to infer that
permeability barriers could have developed along the clay-
rich intervals within the contourite deposits. This could
have resulted in the creation of distinct stratigraphic levels
that were prone to overpressuring and hence act as basal
shear surfaces. From these arguments, we propose that the
depth to detachment of the ISC was mainly controlled by
the lithologic properties of the underlying contourite
deposits. Speculatively, the basal shear surface of the ISC
may correspond to a stratigraphic level with a relatively
impermeable mixed composition of fines and organic
matter. Validation of this assumption, however, requires
the use of more detailed well log data at this stratigraphic
level.
In this paper, we have demonstrated that frontally
confined submarine landslides occur on a basin-wide scale,
and that their mechanisms of formation are significantly
different from those of frontally emergent features. The
results presented here should be of broad interest, because
the conditions for frontally confinement of submarine
landslides are not unusual and similar geological contexts
in which they could arise are widely developed in other
continental margins (e.g. North and South Atlantic,
Western Mediterranean Sea). Many of the slope instability
processes in these other regions are attributed to ‘‘in situ’’
landsliding and it is an intriguing prospect that a significant
proportion of the submarine landslides ascribed to these
processes could also be potentially explained by frontal
confinement. A further conclusion from this work is the
possible importance of contourite drift deposits in control-
ling the occurrence and mechanisms of translation and
emplacement of slope failures. Submarine landslides
affecting contourite drift deposits are not uncommon.
They have been observed in other deepwater environments
such as the Faroe-Shetland Basin (e.g. Bryn et al., 2003;
Knutz and Cartwright, 2004; Laberg et al., 2003; Lindberg
et al., 2004) or the NW European continental margin (e.g.
Storegga Slide; Bryn et al., 2003; Trænadjupet Slide;
Laberg et al., 2003; Nyk Slide; Lindberg et al., 2004) and
this demonstrates the necessity for a more in depth and
global analysis of their association in terms of triggering
mechanisms and kinematics.
8. Conclusions
 3D seismic interpretation on the Israeli continental
margin has demonstrated the existence of two types of
submarine landslides according: frontally confined and
emergent. We propose these two typologies to be end
members of a continuum of gravity-driven slope failure
processes extending, respectively, from landslides where
the material remains totally within the headscarp, to
landslides where the headscarp is entirely evacuated.
 Frontally confined submarine landslides have their
compressional toe regions buttressed by the ramp
separating their fill from their foreland. They do not
show a prominent bathymetric expression compared to
their total thickening and imply a relatively modest
downslope transfer of sediment.
 Frontally emergent submarine landslides have their
compressional toe regions above the coeval downslope
undisturbed strata, having overridden their ramps. They
show major bathymetric expressions and involve the
downslope transport of significant volumes of material.
 The internal parts of both frontally confined and
emergent submarine landslides show highly disrupted
to chaotic seismic facies (i.e. imbricate thrust systems
have been observed in both types of submarine land-
slides). However, frontally confined submarine landslides
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Frey-Martı´nez et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 23 (2006) 585–604
reveal evidence of more preserved internal stratification
(e.g. sub-horizontal reflections and blocks of intact
strata).
 Frontally confined submarine landslides are interpreted
to translate downslope by bulldozing the foreland.
Downslope translation stops when the stress developed
by the landslide mass becomes lower than the strength
of the foreland.
 Frontally emergent submarine landslides translate down-
slope by overthrusting the downslope undisturbed
strata. They may travel freely over the undeformed
slope position possibly evolving into debris flows and
turbidity currents.
 Analysis of the geometries of frontally confined and
emergent submarine landslides suggests that their frontal
emplacement depends on the position of their centre of
gravity. This is in turn a function of the depth to
detachment of the submarine landslide, their length and
the tip of the slope. Based on this argument, it is
proposed here that (under equivalent conditions) frontal
confinement is more likely to occur if a landslide
translates over a deeply entrenched basal shear surface
relative to its length.
 Sedimentological variability in the foundation of sub-
marine landslides, in this case, the presence of contourite
drift deposits can play a critical role in their entrench-
ment and hence lead to their frontal confinement.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to BG-Group for permission to
use and publish the data. In particular, Ben Hall and Steve
Maddox are thanked for providing data. Thanks are due to
Schlumberger Ltd. for use of GeoQuest Seismic Inter-
pretation Software. Insightful and constructive reviews by
Doug Masson and Charles Harris helped to improve an
earlier version of the manuscript. The paper also benefited
from the valuable comments from Mads Huuse, Simon
Beavington-Penney, Claudia Bertoni and two anonymous
reviewers.
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