COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD Sahiwal Campus

THERMODYNAMICS LAB

ASSIGNMENT #3

SUBMITTED TO:
MUHAMMAD NAWAZ
SUBMITTED BY:
GROUP #. 5(ENGINE)
Faisal Gulzar FA19-BME-033
Sayam Javed FA19-BME-041
M. Danish FA19-BME-045
Ahtesham Ali Abid FA19-BME-063
Hassan Nawaz FA19-BME-071
Zeeshan Ashraf FA19-BME-101
Engine
A machine for converting thermal energy into mechanical energy or power to
produce force and motion.

Fig: Diagram of Engine

Introduction
The word engine derives from Old French engine, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the
word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering
rams, were called siege engines, and knowledge of how to construct them was often treated
as a military secret. The word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical
devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines—the steam
engine being a notable example. However, the original steam engines, such as those
by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines but pumps. In this manner, a fire engine in
its original form was merely a water pump, with the engine being transported to the fire by
horses.
In modern usage, the term engine typically describes devices, like steam engines and internal
combustion engines, that burn or otherwise consume fuel to perform mechanical work by
exerting a torque or linear force (usually in the form of thrust). Devices converting heat
energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines. Examples of engines which
exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well
as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets.
When the internal combustion engine was invented, the term motor was initially used to
distinguish it from the steam engine—which was in wide use at the time, powering
locomotives and other vehicles such as steam rollers. The term motor derives from the Latin
verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that
imparts motion.
Motor and engine are interchangeable in standard English. In some engineering jargons, the
two words have different meanings, in which engine is a device that burns or otherwise
consumes fuel, changing its chemical composition, and a motor is a device driven
by electricity, air, or hydraulic pressure, which does not change the chemical composition of
its energy source. However, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume
fuel.
A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or
changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by an internal
combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such
devices derive their power from the engine. Another way of looking at it is that a motor
receives power from an external source, and then converts it into mechanical energy, while an
engine creates power from pressure derived directly from the explosive force of combustion
or other chemical reaction, or secondarily from the action of some such force on other
substances such as air, water, or steam.
Construction
Parts of Engine and working:
 Engine block. The block is the main part of the engine. An engine block is the
structure which contains the cylinders, and other parts, of an internal combustion
engine. In an early automotive engine, the engine block consisted of just the cylinder
block, to which a separate crankcase was attached. Modern engine blocks typically
have the crankcase integrated with the cylinder block as a single component. Engine
blocks often also include elements such as coolant passages and oil galleries.
 Pistons. Pistons pump up and down as the spark plugs fire and the pistons compress
the air/fuel mix. A piston is a component of reciprocating engines,
reciprocating pumps, gas compressors, hydraulic cylinders and pneumatic cylinders,
among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by
a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer
force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston
rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred
from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting
the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering
and uncovering ports in the cylinder.
 Cylinder head. The cylinder head is attached to the top of the block in order to seal
the area to prevent the loss of gases. In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder
head (often informally abbreviated to just head) sits above the cylinders on top of
the cylinder block.[1] It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the combustion
chamber. This joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most engines, the head also provides
space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, and that allow
the exhaust to escape. The head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark plugs,
and fuel injectors.
 Crankshaft: A crankshaft is a shaft driven by a crank mechanism, consisting of a series of
cranks and crankpins to which the connecting rods of an engine are attached. It is a
mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational
motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts the rotational motion
into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion between two motions, the crankshaft
has "crank throws" or "crankpins" additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that
of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach It is
typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke
cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce
the torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders
farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
  Camshaft: A camshaft is a rotating object— usually made of metal— that contains
pointed cams, which converts rotational motion to reciprocal motion. Camshafts are
used in internal combustion engines (to operate the intake and exhaust
valves) mechanically controlled ignition systems and early electric motor speed
controllers. Camshafts in automobiles are made from steel or cast iron, and are a key
factor in determining the RPM range of an engine's power band.
 Valves: Engine valves are mechanical components used in internal combustion
engines to allow or restrict the flow of fluid or gas to and from the combustion
chambers or cylinders during engine operation.
 Oil pan: Subsequently, it needs a component to store the oil and continuously reuse
it. That is the main function of the engine oil pan. Besides a storage component, oil
pan will also collect some of the residue picks by engine oil while passing through
the engine. Oil pan also served as a bottom cover of engines

Fig: Parts of Engine

Working of Engine
 In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion
of the fuel occurs within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy from
the combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The
expanding combustion gases push the piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately,
through a system of gears in the powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.
There are two kinds of internal combustion engines currently in production: the spark ignition
gasoline engine and the compression ignition diesel engine. Most of these are four-stroke
cycle engines, meaning four piston strokes are needed to complete a cycle. The cycle includes
four distinct processes: intake, compression, combustion and power stroke, and exhaust.
Spark ignition gasoline and compression ignition diesel engines differ in how they supply and
ignite the fuel.  In a spark ignition engine, the fuel is mixed with air and then inducted into
the cylinder during the intake process. After the piston compresses the fuel-air mixture, the
spark ignites it, causing combustion. The expansion of the combustion gases pushes the
piston during the power stroke. In a diesel engine, only air is inducted into the engine and
then compressed. Diesel engines then spray the fuel into the hot compressed air at a suitable,
measured rate, causing it to ignite.

Fig: Working of Engine

Types
An engine can be put into a category according to two criteria: the form of energy it accepts
in order to create motion, and the type of motion it outputs.
Combustion engine
Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel
(generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an
internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases,
which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine,
such as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates
mechanical work
External combustion engine
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal
working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or
a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine
produces motion and usable work.[21] The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused (closed
cycle), or (less commonly) dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).
"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines of similar
(or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources
such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion; but are
not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.
The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam engine or an
organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine cycle. The fluid can be of any
composition; gas is by far the most common, although even single-phase liquid is sometimes
used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid changes phases between liquid and gas.
Environmental effects:
The operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air quality and ambient sound
levels. There has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive
power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-
combustion engine refinements. Though a few limited-production battery-powered electric
vehicles have appeared, they have not proved competitive owing to costs and operating
characteristics. In the 21st century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with
automobile owners. However, the gasoline engine and the Diesel engine, with their new
emission-control devices to improve emission performance, have not yet been significantly
challenged. A number of manufacturers have introduced hybrid engines, mainly involving a
small gasoline engine coupled with an electric motor and with a large battery bank, but these
too have yet to make much of an inroad into the market shares of gasoline and Diesel
engines.
Air quality
Exhaust gas from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by
volume), water vapor 10 to 12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to
2%, oxygen 0.2 to 2%, carbon monoxide: 0.1 to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and
partial oxidation products (e.g. aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen monoxide 0.01 to
0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds such
as fuel additives and lubricants, also halogen and metallic compounds, and other particles.
Carbon monoxide is highly toxic, and can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, so it is
important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a confined space. Catalytic converters can
reduce toxic emissions, but not completely eliminate them. Also, resulting greenhouse gas
emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines in the modern
industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect – a primary concern
regarding global warming.
Noise Pollution

A engines are the major source of noise and can exceed 140 decibels

(dB) during takeoff. While airborne, the main sources of noise are the engines and the high
speed turbulence over the fuselage. There are health consequences of elevated sound levels.  .
Harmful Gases Emissions

carbon monoxide (CO): This is a colorless, odorless gas that causes serious, possibly fatal,
health problems. Motor vehicles emit massive amounts of carbon monoxide; however, its half
life is very short causing it to break down quickly and not remain in the atmosphere in this
form.

hydrocarbons (HC): Emitted because of incomplete gasoline combustion, these combine

with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunshine to form ozone (O 3) which has adverse health
effects.

nitrogen oxides (NOx): These compounds pose problems mostly in the form of nitrogen
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2). The compound combines with hydrocarbons and
other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of ultraviolet sunlight to produce
photochemical smog, mainly ozone (O3), which has adverse health effects.

lead (Pb): These emissions originate from the combustion of leaded gasoline. Alkyl lead
compounds are used as fuel additives in larger vehicles to control engine knocking. Enough
lead in the atmosphere can cause lead poisoning and other health concerns.

Waste Motor Oil

If used motor oil and the contaminants it contains are disposed of inappropriately and
released into the environment, they can harm humans, plants, animals, fish and shell fish.In
water, oil is a visible pollutant, floating as a scum on the surface. This oil scum can stop
sunlight and oxygen from getting into the water, affecting fish and water plants. It can kill
fish, frogs and other animals that breathe from the water's surface. Low temperature burning
of used oil can create airborne pollutants that can get into people's lungs and have adverse
health effects.

Solution:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) come out as harmful
products during incomplete combustion from internal combustion (IC) engines. As
these substances affect human health, regulatory bodies impose increasingly stringent
restrictions on the level of emissions coming out from IC engines. This trend suggests
the urgent need for the investigation of all aspects relevant to emissions. It is required
to modify existing engine technologies and to develop a better after-treatment system
to achieve the upcoming emission norms. Diesel engines are generally preferred over
gasoline engines due to their undisputed benefit of fuel economy and higher torque
output. However, diesel engines produce higher emissions, particularly NO x and PM.
Aftertreatment systems are costly and occupy more space, hence, in-cylinder solutions
are preferred in reducing emissions. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology has
been utilized previously to reduce NOx. Though it is quite successful for small
engines, problem persists with large bore engines and with high rate of EGR. EGR
 helps in reducing NOx, but increases particulate emissions and fuel consumption.
Many in-cylinder solutions such as lower compression ratios, modified injection
characteristics, improved air intake system etc. are required along with EGR to
accomplish the future emission norms. Modern combustion techniques such as low
temperature combustion (LTC), homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI),
premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) etc. would be helpful for reducing the
exhaust emissions and improving the engine performance. However, controlling of
autoignition timing and achieving wider operating range are the major challenges with
these techniques.
 Noise pollution of engine can be reduced by using good silencers use good lubricants
that can reduce friction between parts of engine moreover use four stroke engine
which is greater efficient and lesser in noise production.. One important aspect that
has negative ramifications on the perception of the quality is the generated noise,
which mainly contributes to the disturbing noise level of urban regions. Therefore, an
important goal in current research is the attenuation of the noise level of car engines.
The paper at hand presents two main approaches, an active and a passive one, to
reduce the noise radiation of combustion engines, which is the main noise source of
automobiles. In the active approach thin piezoelectric wafers are attached to the
structure as sensors and actuators. With an appropriate controller the structural
vibrations are reduced, which result in an attenuation of the sound pressure in the
environment. The passive approach utilizes a full engine encapsulation, which is also
designed to reduce the sound radiation of the engine. By encapsulating the motor the
oil temperature can be increased such resulting in decreased fuel consumptions .View
less.
 Catalytic converters use reduction and oxidation (redox) reactions to reduce harmful
emissions. They use a reduction catalyst composed of platinum and rhodium. It
helps reduce nitrogen oxides (NO x) by removing nitrogen atoms from nitrogen oxide
molecules (NO and NO 2). This lets the free oxygen form oxygen gas (O 2). Then, the
nitrogen atoms attached to the catalyst react with each other. This reaction creates
nitrogen gas (N2).

Future goals for Engine

Ever tighter emissions rules are increasing the pressure on automakers to abandon the fossil
fuel-powered internal combustion engine (ICE) in favour of low and zero emission
alternatives. Future model ranges will include a growing proportion of electrified
powertrains, from hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) to pure
battery electric vehicles (BEVs).Yet, while hybrids and BEVs make up a growing proportion
of automakers’ longer-term sales strategies, all hybrid and plug-in hybrid powertrains will
contain an ICE of some kind.

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