Introduction

Corfu’s inextricable relation with Venice dates back to the

Golden Bulla of 1386, with which Corfu of cially
requested its annexation to the Venetian stato da mar.
The dynastic crises of European rulers, their interplay in
the region, the collapse of the Byzantine empire, and the
rising Turkish threat urged the islanders to seek
protection from the supreme maritime power of the time:
the Serenissima Republic of Venice. On May 28, 1386,
the Venetian ag with the lion, symbol of the Apostle
Mark, was raised on the Old Fortress, and Corfu’s
citizens stayed with it 411 years, 11 months and 11 days,
until Napoleon dissolved the Republic in 1797.

The constant Ottoman expansion collided with the

interests of Venice, resulting to seven wars for the
defense of its territory, its citizens and its way of life,
making Corfu of paramount importance to the city of the
lagoon. The clash is epitomized in the landmark battle of
Lepanto in 1571, which builds the central focus of the
eBook’s storytelling. Corfu becomes Venice’s key to the
Adriatic Sea and the defense of Corfu was constantly
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 upgraded by Venice’s famous engineers from the creating Corfu’s unique character visible today. The
earlier use of medieval forti cations to the eBook “411 Years, 11 Months and 11 Days” follows
transformation into the 18th century. the historical and cultural itinerary of Corfu as the
“Daughter of Venice”, supporting the mother with
Napoleon resolved the Republic of Venice in 1797,
blood and sacri ces against the Ottoman expansion
taking possession of the Ionian islands. Shortly after
from the Renaissance to the Modern Era until the
the European powers established a semi-
uni cation of Corfu with Greece in 1864, through the
autonomous state, the Settinsular Republic
testimonies of the protagonists. Ten stories
(1807-1814), which was succeeded by the British
developed around ten monuments in the Unesco-
rule (1815-1863), until nally the Ionian islands united
listed Old City of Corfu narrate the stories, disclose
with Greece in 1864.
the passions and present the people and their
Venice, a unique Renaissance state, created a struggles, dressed up in music, colors and emotions.
wonder, achieved through the skills of its peoples
and the mastery of the seas. Corfu is the place
where the legacy of Venice has put outside its terra
ferma, an indelible mark in culture and architecture,
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 Old Fortress

In 1386 the Cor otes have voluntarily requested the Senate in

Venicen to protect their island to the Republic from the
constant threat of the Turks. Corfù became the key to the
defense of the Adriatic and a crucial node for trade during the
Venetian domination on the island (1386-1797).

The Old Fortress covers the promontory which initially

contained the old town of Corfù emerged during Byzantine
times. It has been turned into an island by Venice’s famous
engineers.
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Fifteen days in hell, 1537

Eyewitnes
Nicandro Nucchio, 1547

How can I recall without tears these events that fell upon
you my sweet fatherland? God forbid I wished I had
never witnessed them.

A Sultan in rag
Sultan Suleiman Han, Military Council, 1536

Do you know my Pashas how

this greedy race, the
Venetians, call a little island in
the west waters? La boca del
gulfo! And why? Because this
island lies at the mouth of the
Adriatic Sea and is the key to
their defense. But in the same
fashion as I have taken Rodos
from the despicable Knights of
the Hospital, I will take Corfù
from the city of the lagoon!
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 The embassy I have sent to those robber merchants was

declined! Their Doge, Gritti, has dared to defy us and
scorn the alliance I close with Francis, king of the French
against Carlo, the King of Germany, Austria and Spain,
who thinks of himself to be the Emperor of Europe! This
insult can be answered only by the sword! But the time
has come that he will be broken by Sultan Suleyman Han
of the House of the Osman!

That is why I am pouring all this money to support these

revolting Christians, who
call themselves
Protestants: to weaken all
the in dels and make
them turn against each
other. And if they resist
and don’t convert, then
the holy sword of our faith
will cut their life thread.
These greedy merchants,
who are assisting Carlo
prepare for war behind
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our back, will not be allowed to commerce to their bene t

at the east lanes of my Empire! Thus, I order you to
harass the ships of the Venetians so that they return re,
and then off we are to install the crescent on the walls of
Corfù! My orders are: if the locals resist, execute the
males and send the women and the children to the slave
markets. The more booty we have, the happier the
janissaries.

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 An unholy agreemen
Andrea Gritti, Doge della Serenissima Repubblica, 1537

Francesco, the King of Francia, had nothing else in his

mind but how to act against his eternal rival, Imperatore
Carlo, in whose lands, the sun never sets. For this
reason, he negotiated last year a commercial alliance
and eternal peace with Solimano, Rè de Turchi! This
agreement, a scandal for the whole Christendom,
allowed Solimano to move against Italy, and Corfù lies on
his way.

Lufti Pasha and Hayreddin Barbarossa were plundering

Illyria, when Solimano joined them with 7.000 men. His
eet arrived in Corfù, without ravaging as there is a
peace treaty signed with us. Imperatore Carlo is not in a
position to help, thus gave the order to the admiral
Andrea Doria to disable the vessels of the barbarians
from acting. Doria did not face the eet of the Turks, but
keeps ambushing it and attacks only if he traces an
isolated part of the eet cleverly staying within his
territorial waters.
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 Useless mouth
Luigi da Riva, Proveditore Generale, 4th of September, 1537

Solimano set up his tent on the opposite shore on the

land and with 50 galleys he transported another 25000
Turks. The rst thing this barbarian did was to destroy the
countryside and plunder those parts that could not be
defended, mercilessly killing the locals. On August 31
they started siege preparations, setting up three artillery
barracks with eight, ve and eleven cannons, which
began ring on the walls. I prayed to the Almighty God
for help, for if the siege was lost, what would be the
future of the other cities of the Serenissima?

We have suf ciency in everything but food, and if the

siege is not lifted soon, in the end we will be forced to
surrender. To avoid doing so, with broken heart and tears
we urged ourselves to make this unspeakable decision to
send all the useless mouths outside the walls. It is
unbearable to see the elderly who fought for the
Republic, the women and children abandoned between
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 the lines of the Turks and our walls, once running and
once sitting on the ground motionless. And it is a miracle
indeed that the Cor otes inside the walls are not
intimidated by the cries of their families, which pierce our
souls and touch our honor. And when the old men
showed the scars, they had on their bodies from past
battles in the service of the Serenissima, all the other
Christians inside the walls, wanted to die so as not to
survive such a spectacle.

Nevertheless, they are determined to abide by the

orders, sacri cing their families to save Christendom. The
persecuted, nding no protection from us, seek refuge in
the pits, while the defenders are doubly beaten,
bombarded by both the enemy’s bombs and the cries of
their relatives. I can’t tell which blows were more deadly,
the rst kill the bodies, the second the souls. To these
evils are added the storms that sowed destruction and
death to those abandoned by us who were already being
tested by hunger. And, seeing them, suffer so, we
accompanied the storm with our tears.
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 20 thousand slave
Nicandro Nucchio, Eyewitness of the Siege of Corfu, 1537

The siege came to an end after fteen days. The

Venetian army and eet under Pesaro and Doria and the
bravery of the Cor otes forced Solimano to retreat, but he
did more damage when he left. More than 20,000 souls
were taken slaves. His troops killed those, who they did
not think would be of any use to them or would not
survive the journey to the slave markets. But not only
men had to pay a price, the cattle too. They carried those
animals they could feed and killed all the other mixing the
corpses of dying men and horses, cows, dogs, donkeys
and carrions together. When they nally embarked their
ships and left, the besieged who came out of their
fortresses and hides, found nothing but decaying

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 corpses all around them, burnt houses, poisoned wells,

destroyed churches, molested cemeteries and tombs
with human remains unearthed, as the barbarians
searched the tombs for valuables. The countryside was
so devastated that only a deformed skeleton remained of
its beautiful body. The elds and plains promised nothing
but hunger. The trees were useless trunks without
owers and the fruit trees, if they had no fruit to offer,
became food for the re. The noblest buildings were a
pile of broken stones, wood and marble. The villages had
no longer houses, the neighborhoods became animal
shelters. In addition to the old men, women and children
who had died outside the walls, many nobles died inside,
so that the Council had no counselors. Thus, ended the
siege of Corfù which lasted fteen days and the people
of Corfù should be proud of that, because they had no
traitors among them as it was the case in Rodi, which
was lost to the Turks by betrayal.
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Annunziata

Annunziata was built in 1394 and developed into one of the

most important religious centers of the Latin Church in Corfù.
On October 7, 1571 one of the greatest Christian victories
took place in Lepanto. The remains of the Latin soldiers who
were killed in battle were interred in Annunziata. Miguel de
Cervantes y Saavedra, who fought in Lepanto, recovered from
his wounds in the cells of Annunziata. On the 13th of
September 1943, the German Luftwaffe bombed and burned
the historic center of Corfù. Only the Bell Tower of Annunziata
stands today as the memorial of the Lepanto Battle in Corfù.
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Didascalia
 The End of the Terror,
7th of October 1571

Don Miguel de Cervantes y Saavedra, Corfù, 1572

The glorious battle, we won in Lepanto nally put an end

to the myth of the invincible Turks. We won because we
were allied and not divided and because we fought with
self-sacri ce.

Those who, by the Grace of God survived, have a sacred

duty to glorify its name by narrating the events. Despite
all the atrocities Sultano Selimo in icted on the Christian
lands, he did not realize his dream. But let me narrate all
the events from the start:

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 Clash of Value

The Balanc
Benedetto Ramberti, Libri tre delle cose de' Turchi, 1534

Our society stands for the perfect balance between

liberty and order and for the harmonization of competing
interests: Pane in piazza e giustizia in palazzo. Their
society is nothing but a huge military slave camp in
which all distinctions of birth are abolished in a common
servitude. The pashas and the Sultano himself are not
really secure, since they are threatened by palace
intrigues and the inbred jealousies of the tyrant's court.

Obedienc
Domenico Trevisan, Envoy of the Serenissima Repùblica di Vinegia
in Constantinopoli, 1554

The Sultano rules less by love than by fear; no one has

tasted the fruit of freedom, no one has even heard its
name. No one has rights as we do in our city, and an
event like the strike of the oarsmen in 1512, which I
personally witnessed on my way to Cairo, is merely
unthinkable in the lands of the tyrant.

 The Richest Gift

Antonio Barbarigo, Envoy of the Serenissima in Constantinopoli,
1558

There are no truly free men in the domains of the Sultano;

the whole population surrenders its property and its
children at his pleasure. Nevertheless, we are honored
more than any other foreigners, perhaps because we
bring the richest gifts.

Three condition
Daniele Barbarigo, Bailo of the Serenissima in Constantinopoli, 1567

All the subjects of the Gran-Signor, owe life and property

to his majesty, bear him the greatest obedience they can,
thinking of nothing but to serve him; but the subjects of
the Christians, know that much respect is owed to
themselves. This Gran-Signor is most powerful because
he has many countries under his control, and great
obedience from the populace; and because he has
enough money. These three things alone would suf ce in
my opinion to make him invincible.

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 Levied boy
Marcantonio Barbaro, Bailo in Costantinopoli, 1567

Your Excellence, as it is my duty to inform you about the

movements of the Grand Turk, I humbly remind you also
on his motives: each new caliph of the Islamic empire is
expected to expand the existing Muslim territories, in
order to ful ll Islam's mission and gain for the leader the
necessary popularity and legitimacy. So, it is scheduled
that in the pleasant springtime, an entire Muslim eet
under Ali Pasha shall destroy Christian dominance in the
Mediterranean Sea, all the way up to our Republic. This
will leave us very little time for war preparations because
in contrast to us who use free men to recruit the galleys
and the land forces, while the principal riches of the
Turks are the slaves. These are the boys levied in the
devshirme and taken from the subjugated Christian
families; those young men who serve unhappily chained
to the oars and others who serve in diverse other
fatiguing labors. These slave forces give the enemy a

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The Messag
Selim, Ottoman Sultan, Emperor of the Turks, Lord of Lords, King of
Kings, Shadow of God, Lord of the Earthly Paradise and of
Jerusalem, to the Signory of Venice, 28 May 1570

We demand of you Cyprus, which you shall give Us

willingly or unwillingly or per force; and do not irritate our
horrible sword, for We shall wage most cruel war against
you everywhere; nor let you trust in your treasure, for We
shall cause it suddenly to run away from you like a
torrent; beware to irritate Us.
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 Sacra Liga Antiturc

Michele Surian, Venetian Ambassador to the Curia, 25th of May 1571

The Christian states woke up, put aside their differences

for a while, and on the initiative of Pope Pius formed the
Sacra Liga Antiturca on May 25, 1571. Spain, Venice,
Genoa, the Papal States, Savoy, Malta and other smaller
cities on the Italian peninsula are now allies in faith. It is
decided to set up a eet and send it to defend the
eastern Mediterranean. The navy, will be led by the
young Spanish prince Don Juan of Austria, brother of
King Philipp.

The Keys of Famagust

Pietro Valderio, Viscount of the City of Famagusta, 5th of August
1571

On the 5th of August His Excellence Capitano Bragadin

sent word to Mustafa Pasha to present him with the keys
of Famagusta. He set off the same evening accompanied
by governor Astore Baglioni and a company of soldiers.
They were received with every courtesy, but then, without
a reason, Mustafa Pasha began hurling accusations, that
His Excellence had murdered Turkish prisoners: “Do you
think that I do not know that you have murdered them all?
Tell me, you hound, why did you hold the fortress when
you had the chance not to do so? Why did you not
surrender a month ago, why did you make me lose
80,000 of the best men?”

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 And all of a sudden, he sprang and cut off His

Excellence’s right ear, ordering the cut off of the other
and the nose. Then, he ordered his guards to execute all
the Christians, whose heads piled up outside his tent.
Capitano Bragadin was held for a fortnight imprisoned,
while his wounds were festering and he was already
seriously ill. Then he was dragged round the walls, with
sacks of earth and stones on his back; next, tied into a
chair, he was hoisted to the yardarm of the Turkish
agship and exposed to the mock of the sailors.

Finally, he was taken to the place of execution in the main

square, tied naked to a column and ayed alive. After the
grim task was completed, his head was cut off, his body
quartered, and his skin, stuffed with straw and cotton and
mounted on a cow, was paraded through the streets.
Thus, the city of Famagusta, the last refuge in Cipro was
lost on the 5th of August 1571, thanks to the fact that we
were left abandoned, and if the quarrels continue,
Christendom will fall.

The Scribe of the Grand Vizie

Ahmet Efendi, Scribe of the Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, 23rd
of August 1571

An army of 100,000 opened the siege, against a force of

15,000 behind the walls. Under their general a small
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force held out for week after week, despite receiving

more than 180,000 incoming cannonballs. But they ran
so short of food that in the end we heard they were
eating cats and dogs and horses, until they consumed
them all. On August 1, they nally accepted the
surrender terms, which guaranteed safe passage of their
men, and safety to all citizens of the walled city.

Their general imprudently walked with the full scarlet

regalia of his of ce out from the walls and down to the
tent of our victorious commander, behaving, not like a
defeated general but as a victor! He walked in state,
preceded by trumpeters. A crimson parasol was carried
above his head as the symbol of his of ce. With him went
the other commanders and a personal guard—about 300
men in all. They left their arms and entered the tent of
our Grand Vizier.

An exchange started about the guarantees of

safekeeping for the return of our ships from Crete, still in
Venetian hand. Our Grand Vizier demanded a hostage
from among their nobles, to ensure that the ships be
returned to us. But, despite being defeated, their general
cursed angrily, “You shan’t have a noble, you shan’t even
have a dog!” With much patience our Grand Vizier asked
where the pious Muslims were. “Those Muslim captives
were not under my control,” he said. “The native lords
killed them on the day of the surrender.”
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 “Then,” said our Grand Vizier, “you have broken the

treaty”. The bleeding heads of his guard piled up just
outside the tent of our Grand Vizier, who ordered the
in del's ears and nose be chopped off, and forced the
man to go down on all fours wearing a dog's collar
around his neck, to the horror of the onlookers. He was
reminded that he offended on May 25 our Grand Vizier
sending a written insult: “I shall make you walk before my
horse and clear away on your back the earth you have
lled our ditch with.” For this offense the in del was made
to carry bags of earth to the walls of the forti cation, and
to kiss the earth our Grand Vizier walked on. As he grew
fainter from the loss of blood from his head, he was tied
to a chair, put in a rope harness and hoisted up to the
highest mast in the eet, so that all survivors of the city
might see his humiliation. Then his chair was dropped in
free fall into the water and brought out again.

Finally, he was led in ropes to the town square and

stripped. At a stone column, his hands were tied
outstretched over his head, and an executioner stepped
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 forward with sharp knives to carefully remove his skin,

keeping it whole. Before the carver had reached his
waist, he died. Then his body was divided in four pieces,
which we paraded through the city, with castanets ad
trumpets, and nally hung them in the Towers at the
Diamante, the Arsenal, the cavalier at the Limassol gate
and the bulwarks of Andruzzi. His full skin was then
stuffed with straw, once again raised up to the highest
mast, and sailed around to various ports as a trophy of
victory.

500 zecchini d’or

Nestor Martinengo, soldier at the siege of Famagusta, 6th of
December 1571

The Grand Vizier entered Famagusta on the 7th of

August, the second day after the slaughter. I was hidden
in Cypriotes houses for ve days. When the risk became
too great, I presented myself to the Turks, who sold me
into slavery for 500 golden coins. After 42 days being a
slave, French merchants bought me free. Knowing the

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 evil ways of the Turks, I hired a boat from a Greek
sherman, with two oars and a bit of a sail made from two
shirts and managed to get to Tripoli on the Syrian coast.
Again, I lay hidden in Christian houses, until I boarded a
small French ship setting out on its return voyage. The
ship touched on Cipro at Capo delle Gatte, where I
landed and talked to some peasants, who told me that
the Turks already ruined the island and now the Cypriotes
realized how bene cial was the Venetian rule, praying
that we might return.
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 This means we ght
Sebastiano Venier, Capitano Generale da Mar della Serenissima,
2nd of October 1571

On 2 October 1571 at Gomenizza, Gian Andrea Doria,

admiral of the Generalissimo of the Sacra Liga, Don Juan
d’Austria, came to inspect the Venetian eet! Although
reluctant and resentful I accepted him to do so. But this
is not all. In the afternoon a quarrel arose between
Andrea Calergi, sopracomito of one of my galleys and
Muzio Alticozzi, who was in the service of the Spaniards.
I sent of cers to settle the dispute, but Muzio and his
men red and wounded my three of cers, causing the
death of two. And then I had them hanged.

Don Juan, high commander of the Sacra Liga and

brother of king Philipp of Spain, who considered my act,
usurpation of his authority instead of an act for discipline,
felt that it was less of an accomplishment to defeat the
Turks than to control himself against me! His counselors
advised him to hang me on a yardarm, but the sage
advice of the Pope’s admiral, Marcantonio Colonna,
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 prevailed. So, when we nally sighted the Turkish eet,

Don Juan came to the stern of my galley and said: “This
means we ght?” and I replied: “One can do no less!” At
this point thousands of soldiers and mariners realized all
too well that at long last the inevitable hour has come.

No more talkin
Don Alvaro de Bazan y Santa Cruz, Commander of the Reserve
Division of the Sacra Liga in Lepanto

By the end of September 1571, we were eager to meet

the enemy before the winter turned the seas choppy and
un t for battle. Finally, we heard that an enormous Muslim
eet was sailing near to land toward the Gulf of Lepanto.
“No more talking”, told Don Juan to all the leading
admirals. “Now, battle!” In plain sight was his capital
ship, La Real, its banners of leadership visible to all.

Six Galeasses
Agostino Barbarigo, Vice-Capitano Generale da Mar della
Serenissima, 7th of October 1571

The huge green battle ag of Allah, his name

embroidered on it in Arabic some 29,800 times, marked
out the tall capital ship Sultana commanded by Ali
Pasha. The Turks master the art of ramming and
boarding onto the enemy decks and conduct hand-to-
hand combat well. But Don Juan had a nasty surprise for
Ali Pasha. Six new, taller, sturdier ships built in our
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 Arsenale, packed with cannons and heavily laden with

lead placed themselves a mile forward of the Christian
line. No one had ever seen such ships before. They look
at on top, like the merchant ships. They lack the
necessary weapon for vicious ramming. For the purpose
of the galleasses, as they are called, is not to ram
oncoming ships but to blast them with cannons. They
sank the Muslim galleys with a single burst.

Carnage
Marino Contarini, Capitano da Mar, 7th of October 1571

When Agostino Barbarigo, my uncle and naval

commander of the Serenissima Repubblica, lifted the
visor of his helmet to give an order, an arrow entered his
right eye piercing his brain. Then Mahomet Scirocco
captured his agship the Capitana Lanterna destroying
the left wing.

I immediately boarded the Capitana with all my people,

and fought onboard the ercest combat of all on that
memorable day. All was madness, fury, carnage and
terror, until the Turks were expelled from the Capitana
and Mahomet Scirocco was beheaded and thrown into
the water. At the last, the two capital ships La Real and
Sultana clashed head-on, and Don Juan led the nal
boarding party which in its ferocity drove Ali Pasha to the
aft poop, where he soon fell with a bullet in his eye. His
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head was cut off and borne aloft on a pike to be mounted
on the bow of the La Real.

The sea around was lled with cloaks, caps, bodies,

wreckage of battle, and large splotches of blood. In four
hours, the battle was over. With the death of their leaders,
the Turks ed leaving the remnants of their eet in our
hands and we freed 10,000 Christian galley slaves, most
of them of Greek origin. We think that more than 40,000
men must have died, and thousands more were
wounded, more than in any other battle I have heard of.
God willing that never again a Muslim eet poses a threat
to Europe!

What we have nally learn

Marcantonio Colonna, High Commander of the Fleet of the Holy
Seat, 8th of October1571

With the help of the Almighty God and your blessing,

Your Holiness, we have defeated the enemy near the
Curzolari Islands, which the Greeks call Echinades. The
Turks had 260 exclusively rowing ships with 47,000 men
on board, while our allied eet also had sailing ships,
which nobody has seen before. There were no longer
Venetians, Genoese, Neapolitans, or Spanish in this
battle: we were Christians, whose zeal was fueled by the
images of fallen Cyprus and the fate of the Marcantonio
Bragadin in the hands of the antichrist. With three well-
aimed shots, we plunged the rst enemy galley into the
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 great grief of Ali Pasha, who began to pull his beard,
feeling the end approaching. From their proud eet only
50 ships were rescued, and we think about 20.000 of his
soldiers to be dead, including Ali Pasha, whose ag and
head decorate now La Real of Don Juan.

We lost 8.000 soldiers, the Greeks made half of the dead,

because they were engaged as free oarsmen, of cers
and galley captains on our ships and as chained slaves
on the Turkish ships. The Greek forces came from Corfù,
Zante, and Candia. There is also a large number of
Greeks also serving in the Spanish and the Italian eet.
Corfù sent us 4 galleys, while Cirigo, Cephalonia and
Zante assisted with other ships. Candia gave us 22
galleys and another 6 were supplied by owners of Greek
descent because for them, a victory of our holy faith
would be a glimmer of hope for freedom from the Turkish
yoke. Candia has provided the Holy Alliance with 7,000
soldiers and 9,000 rowers, men of particular valor.
Generalissimo Don Juan said that they made the most
militant part of the Venetian eet. Alas, more than 15.000
Greeks forcibly recruited in the territories of the Sultan
rowed on the enemy’s galleys. But several explosions
broke their chains and they revolted against the Turks,
helping us a great deal. In Lepanto we have nally
learned, Your Holiness, that the Turks are people like us.

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 Vittoria, vittoria!
Paolo Veronese, 1572

In Venèsia, lamentations for the fall of Cipro were

replaced with cheers of “Vittoria! Vittoria!” We were proud
of Lepanto and like Don Juan d’ Austria, we believe the
Madonna helped our victory. Papa Pio in Roma declared
the day of the battle, October 7, henceforth to be
celebrated as the Feast of Madonna Vittoriosa. I decided
to paint the Battle of Lepanto. Above the warring eets,
which are almost an afterthought in this composition, are
the heavens in which the patron saints of the states that
joined the Crusade are seen imploring the Madonna to
assist the valiant Christians below. All over Italy, paintings
were commissioned to honor the epic battle. Tiziano,
Tintoretto, myself and El Greco in Toledo painted with
great enthusiasm and faith.

L’ Aquila di Corfù
Anna Picerni, Calafationes, 1571

When our nobility swore allegiance to the Signoria in

1386, we took the obligation to equip and man three
galleys. So, this spring, when the Signoria prepared for
war, the noble Cor otes offered four ships: Christo di
Corfù, whose captain Misser Condocolli managed to

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capture the ship of the Pasha di Rodi, San Michiele and
the Angelo di Corfù under Cochini and Carchiopulo. This
May, in the presence of a notary my brother, Teodoro
Picerni, agreed to replace another sailor, Antoni Mavro in
the galley Aquila di Corfù of the nobile Pietro Boua.

I was told that the Aquila was captured while it rushed to

cover a gap that threatened the centre of the Christian
line. Misser Pietro Boua was skinned alive by the
renegade Luzzali Pasha, of whom is said that is of Italian
origin! I cannot think of a greater treason than ghting
for the antichrist. And so now, where all Christendom is
celebrating this unexpected and great victory, here I am
soaking in tears for my brother, for there is certainty that I
will not see him again and I will not bury his remains. And
I don’t dare to think about his dreadful end together with
the other sailors of the galley.
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 Silver Anchors and Satin Sail

Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, Grand Vizier of Sultan Selim Han, 28th of
October 1571

We did not seriously expect an enemy attack as the

Christians lacked the courage to meet us. Our eet
reached the coast of Lepanto in September and raided
the Venetian-held regions. However, many of the men
deserted and never returned to their ships, which were
left unmanned. The majority of the rowers were chained
Greek slaves, who moved as clumsily as possible
making dif cult to navigate, but sank with the ships. The
winter approached and the army disintegrated. The
admiral Ali Pasha had no knowledge of maritime affairs,
let alone naval warfare. The allied Christian eet attacked
us from the sea side and sent to the bottom of the sea
our agship. Some 194 ships were either sunk or
captured by the in dels. Only Uluç Ali Pasha managed to
save a small squadron of galleys.

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 Now, a battle can be won or lost according to Allah’s will.

But in 5 months our Arsenal completed the construction
of the navy, bringing all the material and labor from the
provinces who were made to pay extra taxes for this
cause. Our state is so powerful, that if it wishes, it can
cast anchors from silver, make rigging from silk and cut
sails from satin. I told to their envoy: “Our courage has
not faded away after the Battle of Lepanto. We ceded
from you Cyprus where you had a kingdom, thus we cut
off one of your arms. You defeated our eet which meant
nothing more than shaving our beard. A missing arm
cannot be replaced but a shaved beard grows thicker.”

The Cells of Annunziat

Don Miguel de Cervantes y Saavedra, Corfù, 1572

On October 7, 1571, there was unrest in the Gulf of

Lepanto. Thousands of ships were preparing for battle.
Soon one of the biggest naval battles in world history
would take place. And I was there serving as an of cer
on the Italian galley La Marquesa. On that day I was
cooking in fever, suffering from malaria constantly seeing
hallucinations. I was wrapped in scrambled blankets
while the rats circled around me. When I heard the crew
scream and realized that the battle had begun, I tossed

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 the covers over me and climbed onto the deck, waving.

The galley captain saw me and ordered me to return to
the barn, but I replied: It is better for me to die serving
God and the King than to go down. Thus, capitano, I ask
you to put me in the most dangerous place and there I
will die ghting.

At rst, the two eets spotted each other on the horizon

as single masts. Then they were visible in small
numbers, and only as the two eets approached for
combat could 200,000 sailors, marines, and janissaries
catch a glimpse of one another. This was the most noble
and memorable event ever seen. The naval battle ended
with the triumph of the allied forces. I received two bullets
in the chest and another in my left arm, which is now
paralyzed. But my joy in ghting the enemies of our faith
was such that I did not sense the pain of the injuries. It
turned out that the Turks were not invincible. Later I was
transported to Corfù and I was treated in the small
hospital maintained by Catholic monks. In the cells of
Annunziata, I, Don Miguel de Cervantes y Saavedra,
proud soldier of the Holy League, recovered in the winter
of 1572 from my wounds obtained during the sea battle
of Lepanto.
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 Spianata

Spianata is the main square of the city and the meeting place
of the inhabitants and visitors of Corfù. It stretches over an
84,000 square meter area between the Old Fortress and the
historic center, making it the largest square in the Balkans and
the seventh largest in the list of the world's largest squares. Its
name derives from the Italian ‘spianare’ meaning ‘ atten’ and
that was because it was created in the 16th-17th century
when Venice demolished the buildings around the fortress to
increase visibility and achieve a large shooting range for the
defenders.
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Razed Ground, 1537

Mastro Michiel da San Michiel

Corfù, 153

A free area is absolutely necessary for any modern

defense. Everything around the fortress has to be leveled
so that the defenders have direct control over the
surrounding area and impede the enemy advance
towards the fortress. I suggest to release 60 passa, feet,
beyond the moat and level the buildings in this area. But
let me narrate the story from the start:

The Letter of Simone Leò

Corfù, 3 Giugno, 1535

Serenissimo Principe, among other issues linked to the

defense on the island of Corfù, what worries me is the
issue of the surroundings around and in front of the
Fortezza. It is an area of about 1/3 of the settlement, that
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 we need to clear and level to the ground. El Bazaro, the

market, is a densely populated area in front of the
forti ed city, full of houses and shops making a center of
trade and gathering. However, the military needs force
me to suggest the creation of uncovered zones in front of
the Fortezza for better defense in the event of attack.

We have to curb the unruly nature and completely

change the city’s landscape into levelled ground, a
Spianata, which will enable a large ring range for the
defenders. Your Serene Highness will understand my
worry, if I explain that there is a hill in front of this area
which needs to be leveled immediately because the
enemy can climb up there and target its cannons against
the Fortezza. Thus, Your Serene Highness, I humbly
request you to order that the necessary expenses be
covered and that the works start without any delay.

Yours faithfully, Simone Leòn, Proveditore Generale a

Corf
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The Response of the Senat

Consiglio dei Dieci, Venigia, 1537

I have expected a positive response to my request, as I

know that only the safety of Corfù, will protect our
seafaring interests. It is no secret to me that Senate is
already accumulating and sti ing advice, knowledge,
and plans, because unlike the Turks, who have the
capacity to mobilize masses and exploit huge nancial
resources, we must follow a war of intelligence.

Since the horrible siege in 1537 Corfù has been at the

heart of our military constructions. We must adapt the
defence to the advances in warfare and the new science
of ballistic like Mastro Niccolò Tartaglia has introduced,
who is a genius in the science of numbers and
mathematics. Finally, on October 8, 1537, the Senate
has answered to my request as follows:

"We have declined the persistent requests we have

received from the residents through their embassies to
reduce demolition, because the security of Corfù is our
utmost concern.

We immediately send our mastro Michiel da San Michiel,

along with 500 diggers with their tools, with 5 foremen,
that is, one for every one hundred and 50 stonecutters
paid by us, with the mandate to extend Spianata as far
as possible and lower the Kastrade hill as far as you can.

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 No longer are buildings in Spianata allowed and we

send timber as a gift to the people of Corfù to build
outside of Spianata. The ditch of the land must be spread
from the sides, there where the bastions will be laid, and
build the bastions and other forti cations in accordance
with your orders, and fortify Versiata as much as
possible.

We immediately send the aforementioned engineer

mastro Michiel da San Michiel with 6,000 ducats to begin
leveling, constructing props and other necessary things.
We inform you that the new work will be funded with the
money that the city of Vicenza pays to our Serenissima
Repubblica each month”.

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Forced Labo
Zorzi Castrioti, citizen of Corfù, 1576

When the news was announced in Corfù, the people

were shocked! The Senate has ordered the demolition of
the houses to strengthen our defense. The new Fortress,
the Signoria of Venigia has in mind, needs building
materials and a large dead zone between the Old
Fortress and the city which would help our defense
better. We speak about two thousand and ve hundred
houses and my house is one of them! It means that all of
a sudden, my family will become homeless and my small
workshop, I am a shoe maker, must be transferred close
to Spelea, to El Bazaro, not a very safe neighborhood, I
am afraid. Of course, we don’t want to live with the
constant fear of the Turks, as we hear what happens to
our enslaved compatriots in Epirus and elsewhere, but
how am I going to feed six people?
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 The people in Corfù understands that the Signori del
Senato are very preoccupied for their commercial
interests, which are harassed by the Barbary pirates and
the Turks. If Venigia ourishes, we all pro t and I will
make more shoes for the sailors and the merchants who
come and go to our islands and the sopracomiti, who
govern our galleys. We truly understand that the Senate
nds necessary to complete the forti cation of the city,
which has already been expanded beyond the Fortezza.
This year they plan the construction of a new fortress on
the hill of San Marco that shall extend south with walls
and bastions reaching to the sea of Garitsa, and our city
shall lie within walls; all the popolo knows now about this
plan.

It is not that we have forgotten the invasion of Solimano,

Rè dei Turchi, in 1537. Almost 40 years have passed, but
the pain is indelible. During this siege Proveditore da
Riva, made the old men, the women and the children to
leave the fortress, so that only the Guard stays inside, as
there was not enough food for all. Our fathers, our
mothers, our relatives, our young wives and the infants,
they all lost their lives in the Turkish trenches. I stayed
inside to ght against the barbarians, while our closest
relatives parted with cries and curses. Years have
passed to rebuild our lives as when these barbarians left,
everything but the Fortezza was in ashes, the wells
poisoned, the trees cut, the house demolished, burned
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or plundered, the earth scorched and the people
enslaved. 20.00 young Cor otes were taken to the slave
markets of the Barbary.

The victory was bitter and our island deserted: we did

not have a soul to speak, let alone a woman to marry.
This is why I started my family so late. And now that I
have four children, I am an old man! Sixty-two years
carries my back, how shall I now live in the open air? My
oldest son is 20 years of age and hard working in the
merchant galleys under the Excelentissimo capitano from
Corfù, signor Matteo Vergi, but my three daughters and
my poor wife cannot live in the open air!

It seems that these Excellentissimi Signori, the engineers

who were sent earlier to Corfù, mastro Michel da San
Michiel and his nephew maestro Gian-Girolamo, have not
expanded the Spianata enough and now maestro Vitelli
wishes to make more room and even dig a huge
basement. The Signoria wishes to build a new Fortezza
with bastions and hornworks.

This is the reason why our houses, warehouses and

shops as well as the square and the Loggia where we,
the residents, use to meet, shall be demolished. There is
no secret as who will invest the efforts: grueling work is
required from all of us, and as I said not only, we will not
be recompensated for our losses, but we will have to
donate 150,000 wages for the new Fortezza and the

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defensive plans! This is what we have been told. But at

least they will add to the Versiada, the open-air space of
the Fortezza, a millet store as it will be very useful during
the siege. But for now, it seems that we will have to nd
another lodging and I really don’t know how to do this.

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 The Interrogation
Francesco Diedo, Inquisitore della Serenissima Repubblica di
Venesia a Corfù, 1588

Spies are necessary to safeguard la Serenissima

Repubblica against all kinds of conspirators. We are not
the only ones, who employ spies. All others have spies
as well. But we are the best. Because our proud state,
the Stato da Mar, needs this kind of service to prevent all
male cent attacks in the Mediterranean Sea and
discourage the expansion of the enemies. After the loss
of Cipro in 1571, Corfù became la boca del gulfo, the
ultimate key to our defense, at the mouth of the Adriatic
Sea, where from we are constantly thwarting the Turkish
menace. We know, that here in Corfù are constantly
present informants from the kingdom of Spain and the
spies of the Sultan. The persons keep changing, but
their mission remains the same.

During the construction of the Fortezza Nuova the Turks

tried to send as many spies as they could to report to
them on all matters, and especially on the matters of the
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defense. They are disguised as Christians monks, as

defected janissaries, as merchant captains, as servants
and pilgrims, many tricks are known to them. Who is the
mastermind behind each case can be clari ed only after
interrogation. I remember once case where disguised
Muslims, despite the torture insisted on their initial
testimonies and justi ed their coming to Corfù because
they converted to Christianity. As if that lie could be
believed! But those associated with them revealed much
more in order to distance themselves from the accused
and this is how we framed them all.

In 1567 a certain Mustafa, the ‘companion’ of a

Dominican monk, revealed that the monk was indeed a
spy and that he (Mustafa), was not involved in anything
and that he only came to Corfù as a stop his way to
Constantinopoli! But he could not prove anything on the
“spy activities” of the monk. Mustafa seemed to me
rather a double agent than an innocent soul. Another
young man, who escorted a janissary, said also that he
was not involved in anything, but that he was simply
following the orders of his superior. Despite the fact that
we did not manage to intercept any written or other
communication between the suspects and their
mandators, trace other informants and members of the
spy network, or to verify communication with military men
in Corfù, all of those suspects died under torture. We
simply cannot not leave threats to our safety unattended.
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Thanks to our Bailo in Constantinopoli, the head of our

spy network, we are always well informed and cross
check each information with him. During the construction
of the Fortezza Nuova he managed to nd out about the
military man who were ready to sell their loyalty to the
money of the Sultano. There was a case of a capitano
from Cipro, Pierantonio Brachimi was his name, where
treachery was not proven, but can we risk and let the
suspects go away? His case led the Senate to send a
clear order to the Proveditore in Corfù: only Italian
soldiers should be placed in the sensitive posts in
military camps. I couldn’t agree more!

Faith brea
Andrea Gritti, Envoy of the Serenissima Repubblica in
Constantinopoli, 1593

The Turks do most dishonest things, and failing to keep

their word, they break faith, for which the other monarchs
are accustomed to have great reverence and respect.
You can imagine, Serenissimo Principe, that the
investment in the forti cations and other activities for
warfare as strong alliances is the only way that can keep
us safe.

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 New Fortress

The Venetian forti cations were built to protect its lands

subjects and the way of life have proved their worth with the
assailants crushed on its walls. After the Turks were pushed
back from the gates of Vienna in 1683, Venice had to rally
once again in 1716, when the Turks envisaged the take of
Corfù, fearing that not to assault the island would be
interpreted as weakness. The siege lasted from the 5th of July
to August 22 bombarding the New Fortress with combined
sea and land battles. 1700 men and an unknown number of
civilians fell, while the enemy lost 15.000 men. The victory in
Serbia on August 5, played an important role in ending the
siege and the Turks lost the opportunity to spread to Europe
once and for all.
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 The Daughter of Venice,

A special agreement was reached in Tilsit on July 9,

1807, between Prince Neuchatel and Prince de Lobanoff,
regarding the evacuation of the Greek islands. The
Russian Admiral Senyavin, following the orders of his
government, handed over the islands to Napoleon, but
with great dissatisfaction.

Highly Con dentia

Count von der Schulenburg: Please tell me, Proveditore,

does the people know, that the danger is imminent and
that we must prepare for siege? Are the spirits high?
Because the victories, this you know best, are not won
with cannons, but with the brave hearts of those who
defend their land and honor.

Proveditore Loredan: Your Excellence, the enemy of our

Republic has always been the Turk. We have been
constantly preparing for war in Corfù. Ever since the loss

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 of Cipro and Candia, almost half a century is gone: 21

years lasted the siege of Candia and exhausted, men,
spirit and resources. And does your Excellence know
why? Because the Sultano recruits his soldiers from the
subjugated nations, ‘devshirme’ is called the blood toll
he imposes on the enslaved Christians. On his ships he
uses chained galley slaves and not free men. This is the
difference between savages and the Serenissima
Repubblica: we ght for our just causes and values and
we recompensate the men who sit at the galley banks
and row.

This is how we emerged victorious in Lepanto. We trust

our soldiers and captains with our Repubblica and they
trust us with their freedom. Now, Your Excellence, knows
of course that the Turk cannot compete with us in the
naval and maritime skills. The reason that they still exist
are the huge populations of expendable soldiers they
use in battle. Today they threaten the very heart of our
Republic turning their voracious appetite towards Corfù.
Despite our imposing eet, we lag behind the army in
numbers. For this reason, we must concentrate the
defense on the defensive positions, which in case of
attack would have an immediate and quick help from the
eet.

Your Excellence, Corfù was always of crucial importance

for us. It is not about a colony, as some may think. Of
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 those colonies we have many. Corfù is a very Venetian
city. It is the golden key to the gulf of Venesia and the
world commerce. With its strongholds, forts and theaters,
with its eet and brave people, the noble men, the
merchant men and the men of letters, this island is linked
to the Serenissima in every way. Corfù, your Excellence,
is the daughter of Venice.
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 The Diary of Marcantonio Loreda

Marcantonio Loredan, Provveditore Generale della Serenissima
Repubblica di San Marco a Corfù, 23rd of August 1716

Count Schulenburg arrived in Corfù on 15 February 1716

and immediately gave instructions on how to strengthen
the defense mobilizing everyone and every resource at
hand. His ef cient commanders Jaeger, Hoppen, Sala
and Stratigo supported him in this task and this has
impacted the morale of locals and the guard.

La Madonna di Cassop

On July the 5th the Turkish eet, consisting of 62 ships

under the command of Janun Hogià Pasha appeared in
the strait of Corfù ready to disembark 33,000 men.
Meanwhile, Count Schulenburg learns that a convoy
arrives in Corfù from Venice with supplies but without a
naval escort and orders Pisani to go to meet her and
protect her. As soon as the population of the city saw the
galleys heading west, they panicked because they

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thought that we would leave Corfù to its fate. In the

afternoon of Wednesday, July 8, a day dedicated to the
Madonna, cannons were heard in the Strait of Cassopo.

It was the naval squadron of Capitano Andrea Corner,

which sailed through the northern strait and, according to
custom, he greeted the church of the Madonna with
cannons. This enabled Turks to move against us despite
the thick fog. The two eets engaged in a two-hour naval
battle. Corner managed to break the enemy lines and
reach Corfù, now taking control of the sea. This action
gave courage to the guard and to many Cor otes who
rushed to help at their own expense. Despite the
success, Count Schulenburg, who is of Protestant faith,
was utterly displeased with Corner, as he could not
understand why Corner has saluted the Madonna di
Cassopo.

The Landin

On July 6 and 7 the inspection of the land forces yielded

300 Germans, 293 Venetians, 726 Dalmatians and 293
Greeks. The rest of the army was not able to take part in
the battle due to disease and other reasons. So, Count
Schulenburg ordered them to collect whatever material
they could nd, irons, wood, stones, etc. to use against

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 the invaders in their attempt to cross the walls. He also

ordered all boats in the port to be sunk.

The next day the Turks, who also had French and
Neapolitans between their lines, disembarked on Vido
6,000 soldiers, 4,000 janissaries, and 3,000 cavalries.
They set up their camp and prepared for siege. The
Turkish army leads Grand Vizier Mustafa and the Navy
Commander is Janun Hogià, who hate each other as we
hear. Seeing the great inequality in numbers between the
two sides, Count Schulenburg tried to create battalions
from the local population by putting them together with
the rest of the Greeks.

Today Andrea Corner, the commander of the sailing

ships, broke the naval blockade in the Strait of Cassopo
and now we can throw all the weight on the land front.

Sacra Liga Antiturc

On the 18th of July the convoy from Venice arrived in

Corfù with supplies and an army. On the same day,
reinforcements arrived from 4 Maltese ships. On the
23rd, 4 papal galleys, 2 Genoese, 3 Tuscany and 5
Spanish galleys and Portuguese ships arrived showing
that Venice's call for a common defense of Christianity is
effective. We have not seen such mobilization since the

 glorious days of the Sacra Liga Antiturca at the Lepanto

Battle in 1571. This force managed to prevent the Turks
from approaching the northeast of the fortress and kept
the road constantly open for the uninterrupted supplies
from the sea for the besieged.

The cannon shell

On the 1st of August Janun Hogià decides to take action

against the hills of San Salvatore and Abramo by sending
his best troops. The battle lasted 3 days and, in the end,
the Germans retreated and the hills were lost. The next
day the Turks took Manduki and now they are lling it with
army, banners and ags. They sent us an embassy with a
white ag, demanding unconditional surrender promising
guarantees for our lives, but what the value of a Turkish
promise is, we all know. General Da Mosto responded
that he will send them the keys to the city tied to the
cannon shells!

Tower of Babe

On the 6th of August the Turks launched a general

attack on the forti cations. Count Schulenburg organized
1500 men that arrived with the allied ships, making sure
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 they are commanded by of cers who speak the same
language. Finally, good news: Principe Eugenio di
Savoia destroyed a 200.000 army of the Sultano at
Petrovaradin in Serbia! Every man’s heart battling at the
front, the galleys and the ships rejoiced!

Without a single sho

The next day 3,000 janissaries attacked with stairs and

swords at a point against the walls of Scarpon defended
by about 400 Germans who retreated without ring a
single shot! The Turks climbed onto the walls and soon
50 ags were ying on the top. Fortezza Nuova was left
with only 60 ghters! From all forts not in immediate
danger, aids rushed to Fortezza Nuova.

A bloody battle followed as we launched a counterattack

to retake what was lost. I heard rumors of an incident in
which Venetians, Germans and Dalmatians, led by a
Franciscan monk armed with a cross, managed to
reverse the situation. In the end, many Turks were killed
and we managed to retake the walls and seize 36 Turkish
ags. We suffered 300 dead and wounded, while they
lost 3.000 men.
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 Stormy Lunch Brea

On August 20, the enemy appeared to be preparing the

cannons. But at noon a strong storm broke out with rain,
lightning and wind that destroyed the tents and
warehouses. The water rose so high in the main moat
that it took us the construction of a bridge to
communicate with the outside. We suffered heavy
damage, as the water not only penetrated the mines
which we dug, but also destroyed our ammunition.

When the storm broke out, Count Schulenburg was

having lunch. He hastily rushed to the outside, fearing
that the enemy would take advantage of the situation. He
immediately ordered the distribution of weapons for close
combat and ri es with a trigger that could be used in the
rain. Two hours before dawn, everyone was ready and
waiting. But very soon it became clear that the enemy
was in a very dif cult position as many drowned in the
ooded trenches and their gunpowder is wet. The Turks
tried one last runaway attack on Porta Raimonda but
were repulsed.

The Miracl

The next day artillery re continues between the two

camps, but strange movements are observed in the
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 Turkish camp: Halleluia! They embarked in a hurry

leaving behind supplies and heavy military equipment.
But I must tell you, that the material damage in icted on
the wonderful city from the bombing is incalculable.
Numerous buildings are leveled, and the casualties
among the civilians are enormous. Nevertheless, we
celebrated the victory in the church of the San
Spiridione, whose miraculous intervention saved the city.
Count Schulenburg was given a lifelong pension and a
gift of a diamond-studded sword, and all who
distinguished themselves during the siege were
rewarded.

The Letter of the unknown soldie

In the next morning I went to the camp, where the Turks

left everything behind them. 6 cannon batteries and 46
smaller cannons of highest quality were left there. I really
cannot tell, how they carried them on those hills, so
heavy they were. 12 fat mortars and a great quantity of
bombs and grenades and cannon balls, bullets for
muskets and wonderful bags made of camel leather were
abandoned at the camp, everything in a much higher
quality compared to what we had in our disposal. I also
saw 300 cows and buttermilk cartwheels and a vast
amount of biscuit.

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 It was evident that they left in great despair and that the
hand of God had dictated their breakaway, because with
the provisions they brought with them in food and
weapons it would have been very dif cult to make them
disappear. But the storm on the 20th of August destroyed
the trenches and the gunpowder. The victory in Serbia
has greatly contributed to their escape from the
battle eld.

A Turkish captive said that in the night they saw 60.000

men mounted on horses with swords and armed to the
teeth with guns and torches and they were frightened,
especially by one who led the men. And there has been
a great tumult among the Turks and that the head of their
general, the Serasker, has fallen from his shoulders. This
must have been a miracle performed by San Spiridione,
the protector of the city.

A slave who escaped from one of their vessels, told us

that they lifted the siege, because they received an order
to reembark. And so, they did in a great hurry. With the
siege lifted, the Turks turned to the mouth of the gulf,
practically driven to the sea by their own hurry to leave,
and many of them drowned, while trying to embark. By
the grace of the Almighty Corfù is liberated.
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 Teatro San Giacomo

The Theater of San Giacomo is not just the place where opera
was rst performed in the Balkans and the Eastern
Mediterranean; it is the temple where the musical initiation of
Corfù took place, a place where the melodies of the West
merged with those of the East. It is the cradle of the Ionian
Music Culture without ever stopping its operation, even in the
most dif cult moments of life.
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 Loggia dei Nobili, 1663

Andrea Marmora, Della Historia Di Corfù, 1672

The Cor ot nobility sensed the lack of a proper and

digni ed place in the city for its own social engagements
and leisure. The decision to establish and build the
loggia for the noble men in Corfù was taken on the 27th
of October 1663 and was
rati ed by the Proveditore
Generale da Mar Antonio
da Mosto after he has
obtained the permission
of the Doge in Venesia. It
was decided to raise a
magni cent building in
the most central part of
the city.

However, the City Council of Corfù could not provide the

necessary capital as most of the expenses went to the
defense of the island and the wars with the Turks. The
works began in 1663, but the construction was delayed
because the site where the building was to be erected
contained properties, for which the owners had to be
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 compensated either by exchanging houses or plots

elsewhere or with money.

Nobile Teatro di San Giacom

Andrea Corner, Proveditore Generale da Mar, 1720

There is no doubt that our city with its sixteen theatrical

stages has no match in Europe! The Venetian of cers are
used to enjoy operas and concerts. After the fall of
Candia in 1669, the whole administration of the East and
the numerous crews of the eet of the Serenissima have
relocated to Corfù. Thus, I took the initiative to turn the
Loggia dei Nobili into a theater for the pleasure of the
eet of cers, entrusting the management of the building
to the military.

We had every reason for this decision, especially after

the salvation of the city from the Turks in 1716, where I
had the honour to defend our Republic as commander of
the eet. The theater was named ‘Nobile Teatro di San
Giacomo’ because it lies next to the Duomo dedicated to
San Giacomo.
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 The missil
Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, Governor of Greece, Nauplion, 1830

San Giacomo Theater almost burned to ashes during the

Russo-Turkish siege in 1799 when a projectile from an
unexploded enemy cannon fell at the feet of a young
Cor ote, who happened to be next to the theater at the
time. The young man by the name of Stamatis Voulgaris,
pulled the wick with bravery and managed to neutralize
the projectile.

He literally saved the theater and a French military

company which at that time was passing by carrying
heavy weapons and ammunition. The French, honoring
his heroism, placed him in the guard and when they left
the young Stamatis went with them. In Paris he studied
urban planning, with great achievements in engineering
and painting, and became the rst urban planner of
liberated Greece.

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 The Performanc
Giacomo Casanova, Impresario at the Teatro di San Giacomo in
Corfù, 1745

Until 1733 only dramas and comedies were played in

San Giacomo. But this year Carlo Grassi proposed a
melodrama which was accepted by the administration. It
is evident that the lyric theater has become second
nature not only to Corfù but also to all the Ionian Islands,
and seems to play a decisive role in their culture. Many
call it a “noble way to entertainment”. Grassi has invited
me last year to become the impresario of San Giacomo in
Corfù. And here I am running a theater, which bears my
name: I can’t tell you what a pleasure this is!

Born in Corf
Stefano and Girolamo Pojago, musicians at the Teatro di San
Giacomo, 1815

 Corfù is currently the place to ensure a great career for

the musicians. You can nd here professors of music,
conductors, musicians from all over Italy. This is how our
father came from Milano to Corfù and we were born here.
We followed his footsteps and became instrumentalists
and music educators: Girolamo is teaching the violin
and I the harpsichord and music theory.

I am also the maestro al cembalo of the theatre, organist

at the Catholic Cathedral of Corfù and proud composer
of the interludes for the opera Gli amanti confusi, which
was presented in San Giacomo in 1791. Music is in our
veins!

Until the day I di

Giuseppe Castignace, composer music teacher, 1855

I was born in Naples, the cradle of music. I was very

lucky to have studied in the San Sebastiano
Conservatory under the guidance of maestro Fenaroli.
Before coming to Corfù I have already composed eight
operas. The one that I particularly like, the Contadina
bizzara, was applauded in 1810 in the Teatro Nuovo in
Napoli and in the Conservatory of San Sebastiano. La
metamorfosi di Pulcinella has been an even greater

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 success in the same theatre. But when I sighted Corfù

for the rst time in my life in 1817, I knew that I would be
staying here until the day I die.

Thankfully my experience was highly appreciated and I

was hired as maestro e direttore della musica of San
Giacomo, a position that I held until 1850. The audience
of San Giacomo has already applauded many popular
operas: Rigoletto, Traviata, Nabuco, La Forza del
Destino, Otello, Lucia di Lammermoor, Il Barbiere in
Sevilla, Norma, and very soon operas by Greek
composers were on the rise. Ahh, time passes by so
quickly and here I am succeeded by Felice Lambelet,
who was at the Teatro alla Scala di Milano before he
came to San Giacomo.

As I am growing older, I enjoy my beloved Corfù as much

as I can, but I have not stopped to engage myself with
private music lessons. I love to support young musicians
that they seek further musical education in Napoli, the
cradle of music. But I have not regretted for one single
moment my decision to stay in Corfù. Indeed, until the
day I die!
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 Three soprano
Prima Donna Assoluta Signora Anna de Paolis Pelizia, 1823

Very long ago, it was forbidden for the women to enter

the theatre and watch the performances! Later they were
only allowed to attend the performances in a specially
designed gallery or to watch performances wearing
masks to ensure their incognito, as if they were doing
something wrong! Our profession requires much
travelling for employment and it is dif cult for women to
combine work and family. Still, in recent years more
women are performing in the stages of Europe. I am one
of them, having sung at San Giacomo every year from
1814 until 1821.

Prima Donna Assoluta Signora Ezzebina Ercolani, 1848

San Giacomo has become a "musical stage" where the

value of each young artist was tested. The title
“Applauditi a Corfù” became a passport for the artist who
aspired to appear in major Italian theaters. For three
years I have performed in San Giacomo as Lucrezia in
Lucrezia Borgia, Desdemona in Rossini’s Otello, Eleonora
in Donizetti’s Torquato di Tasso and Elisa in Fioravanti’s Il

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ritorno di Columella. My best reward was what was said

of me afterwards in other European cities: “Ezzebina
Ercolani, applaudita a Corfù”.

Prima Donna Assoluta Signora Elena d’ Angri, 1880

Yes, San Giacomo is a very well-known theater in Europe.

And if I only tell you that Carolina Sabatier Ungher, visited
and performed in Corfù, indicates the importance of this
theater. Sometimes things get complicated for women
singers, and some consider it a social scandal to appear
on stage! When I received the invitation to appear in
Corfù in 1848, I was already “Of cial Singer of the
Imperial Court of Vienna", but I was so excited to return to
the land where I saw the light. Without hesitation I offered
a performance at San Giacomo and the proceeds went
to the poor.

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The Ionian School of Musi

Niccolò Chalichiopoulo-Mantzari, composer of the Greek National
Anthem, 1861

When Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli, director of the famous

Music School of Napoli invited me to accept the direction
of the School after his death and become his successor,
saying that I, Niccolò
Chalichiopoulo
Mantzari, was in a
position to teach every
musician in Napoli, I
was ashamed to decline
the offer! You see, I love
Napoli and I will always
carry it in my heart, my
education, my music is
Napoli. But you see I
had a mission: to
educate the youth of
Corfù in music. Music in

 Corfù is not taught in public schools and only the rich

and noble can afford the hiring of a music teacher. The
study of advanced music is considered as non-valuable
excess. And my mission is to subvert this prejudice!

But let us take the thread from the beginning: I was

fortunate enough to have been born in Corfù to a wealthy
family registered in the Libro d’Oro since four hundred
years. My father was a reputable lawyer with degrees
from Italy and was a knight. However, I am proudest of
my paternal ancestor, the sopracomito, who fought with
his galley against the Turks in the heroic battle of
Lepanto in 1571. May his spirit live on! My mother,
Regina Turini, a poet and musician, came from an
aristocratic family of Zara. I inherited the title of the knight
and was fortunate enough to have lived my childhood in
an environment that promoted talents.

My passion with music started as early as eight years

old. My rst teachers, the Pojago brothers and Stefano
Moretti, musicians at the San Giacomo Theater laid the
foundations for me. With 15 years of age I met Cavaliere
Barbati who opened a new window for my education.
Later I got married to my only love, Marianna, the only
daughter of Conte Antonio Mercantante Giustiniani. Our
ve children are the fruits of this love.

I truly believe that in order to have a proper musical

background in the society, one should educate people
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musically. So, in 1820 I started delivering music lessons

free of charge and founded the “Ionian School of Music”.
In 1841 I became the artistic director of the
“Philharmonic Society of Corfù”, a cooperation that gave
to me and to many other people much joy. Having said
that, I was thrilled to set in music the verses Hymn to
Liberty of the great poet Conte Solomo from Zante, when
Corfù united with Greece in 1864.
 San Spiridione
The church of the patron saint of Corfu, St. Spyridon, was built
in 1589, in the form of an Ionian Basilica, by the Bulgari family
of Corfu. The interior of the temple is rich in decoration, with a
particularly impressive marble iconostasis created in 1867.
The icons are by Cor ote painter S. Prosalentis. The roof of
the temple, divided into 17 sections with gold frames, is
painted by the Cor ote P. Doxaras in 1727. As they fell victim
to moisture, they were later replaced by N. Aspiotis. The bell
tower resembles to the bell tower of San Giorgio dei Greci in
Venice.

Among the many dedications that Saint Spyridon has

received, there are three large chandeliers from the Senate of
Venice in 1716, to honor the Saint in the year of the victory
against the Turks. 4 litanies take place annually: on Easter
Saturday when the Saint saved Corfu from starvation in 1553;
on Palm Sunday and on the 1st of November in memory of the
salvation of the inhabitants from the plague in 1629 and 1673
respectively; on the 11th of August in memory of the day the
Turks ended unexpectedly the siege of Corfu and ed.

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The Letters of
Marshall Schulenburg, 1716
My dearest Daniel-Bodo

It helps me a lot to keep a diary for the events happening

at the front and also writing to you gives me strength to
deal with this war, a war to defend all the Christians
against the ravaging greed of the Turks. As you know
two years ago under the pretext of some violations of
Turkish law by Venetian merchants, Sultan Ahmet
declared war on the Republic of Venice. In the
meantime, the Turks reconquered the Peloponnese,
occupied Cirigo and Santa Maura, reaching as far as
Botrinto and from
there they were
menacing
Dalmatia.

The Venetians
have appealed for
help, recalling the
commitments the
Kaiser made in the
Holy Alliance of

 1683, namely he will stand on the side of the ally. Indeed,

this April Austria renewed the treaty with Venice and
declared war on its side against the Ottomans. I heard
that in July a huge Turkish army of 200,000 men marched
to Petrovaradin in Serbia. Prince Eugene of Savoy was
ready to confront them, but he had at his disposal only
70,000 soldiers. The news arrived quickly in Corfu, along
with a reinforcement of 1500 men. This is all I know for
now. I will send you my news at the earliest opportunity.
May the Lord stand by us at this dif cult hour.

La Madonna di Palestrin
My dear brother

While we were being in the middle of the Turkish assault

a story that came from Venice gave us hope: in
Palestrina, a small island in the lagoon of Venice, on the
eve of the battle of Petrovaradin, next to a small church,
Mother Mary appeared to a boy, saying that if the
Venetians desired victory, they should perform services
for the souls of the dead. Knowledge of the incident
spread like re and several pious women approached
the church to pray and from the keyhole they saw the
image of the Virgin Mary inside, opening and closing her
eyes.

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 The news arrived to the Senate in Venice, and a mass

was immediately ordered on the 5th of August, just
before the two armies clashed. The Senate had already
called all the faithful to the church of San Marco, to be
blessed by the victorious icon of Mary Nikopoieia, which
was carried by the Eastern Roman Emperors in the
battle eld and was sent to San Marco after Venice
conquered Constantinople in 1204.

On the same day a 5-hour battle took place in

Petrovaradin where the Turks lost about 30.000 men. The
news of the arrived in Corfu after some days, when we
were in the midst of the Turkish assault, and it felt as if
the divine providence was showing the way. The joy of
each one was immeasurable, despite being under heavy
artillery across all fronts. May the Lord give us the
strength we need to overcome this ordeal.

Matthias, 7th of August 1716

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 San Spiridion

Dear Bodo

The Turkish forces are led by Mustafa Pasha and Janum

Hotzià. As you know I lead the land forces, the sea front
is covered by Andrea Corner, Lodovico Flangini,
Marcantonio Diedi, Andrea Pisani and Marco Loredan.
Last night all the soldiers and the people of Corfu took
refuge praying to their
sleepless guardian, San
Spiridione. But I will not
give up hope that the Saint
of Corfu will protect
Christendom and his island,
because we know that if
Corfu fell, the Turks would
reach again as far as
Venice and Vienna.

My dear Bodo, I must

confess that never a military
man has been in such a
situation as I am now

 because of countless circumstances. It has been going

on for seven weeks now, I can no longer stand it. From
the thirteen battalions of my regiment on the day of the
general assault 109 men were killed and wounded. The
forces are made of different nationalities like mixed
merchandise, the weapons are not worth and it will be
soon clari ed, if God wills, that we live. The day before
yesterday, I was miraculously saved more than twenty
times, that so many people were killed and injured
around me.

On the 9th of August a strong storm started– very

unusual for the summer. Quickly the enemy trenches
were ooded, many Turks drowned and the troops were
greatly disturbed. Our soldiers reported that San
Spiridione dressed as a monk with a celestial army,
holding the cross in his right hand and a sword in his left
hand chased the enemy with anger and that the Turks
boarded their ships and abandoned the siege. My
dearest brother, these few words are to con rm to you
that while I was waiting this morning for the second and
most furious attack of the siege, the enemy ed and left
me all his artillery.

On the 21st of August when our ordeal was over and the
Turkish siege was lifted, I have started to rebuild the
walls and regroup our forces. Let us thank the Almighty
God and let us rejoice together. God has pleased to
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 deliver us by his miracle from an imminent danger, from
which there was no hope of escaping, given the poor
condition of the city. All people in Corfu with emotion and
great reverence went to the church of San Spiridione
where they chanted thanksgiving prayers.

Matthias, very grateful to the Lord for his grace upon us,
12th of August 171

 Three silver chandelier

My beloved brother Bodo

Andrea Pisani, Capitano Generale da Mar has decreed

a new litany to honor the Saint and expressing his
gratitude for miraculous intervention of San Spiridione
during the siege. Pisani decreed that the relics of San
Spiridione will be accompanied
"by the clergy, the public
of cials and the authorities of
this city, after the greatest
procession of the people on the
11th of August each year”.

To publicly express its gratitude

to the protector of the city, the
Senate in Venice, offered three
large silver chandeliers that
bear an inscription of their
gratitude and adorn now the

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 interior of the holy church of San Spiridione. I have seen

them and I must admit that they are an excellent creation
of Venetian silversmithing.

Matthias, Venice, 18th of December 1717

Once and for al

Dear Bodo

Two years have already passed from our victories in

Corfu and Petrovaradin. The treaty in Passarowitz will
provide for the permanent withdrawal of the Turks from
Europe: Austria incorporated northern Serbia as far as
Belgrade, Bosnia and western Wallachia. Venice ceded
to Turkey Peloponnese, but kept the Dalmatian coast,
Parga, Preveza, Vonitsa and the Ionian Islands. Thus, the
expansion of the Turks to the west and the inde nite
consequences of such a development were nally
prevented once and for all and the blood spilled in
battles and sieges against the barbarians was not for
nothing.

Matthias, Palazzo Loredan, Venice, 27th of August 1718

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 Liston

Liston is the name of a pedestrian street and district in the

western edge of Spianata in Corfù. Its design is the work of
French engineer Matthieu de Lesseps, father of the Suez
Canal builder, according to the standards of the famous rue
de Rivoli in Paris. The design and to some extent the
supervision of the construction was by the Cor ote military
engineer Giovanni Battista Parmesan. When it was rst
constructed only the noblemen, were allowed to enter and
walk along the street and under the arches and a special list,
the Libro D’ Oro, ensured this area was kept elite. On the
contrary, the people could only pass by and look in awe at the
nobles.
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Changing hands,1807

A special agreement was reached in Tilsit on July 9,

1807, between Prince Neuchatel and Prince de Lobanoff,
regarding the evacuation of the Greek islands. The
Russian Admiral Senyavin, following the orders of his
government, handed over the islands to Napoleon, but
with great dissatisfaction.

Without any unres

Louis César Gabriel Berthier de Berluy, 1807, Commandeur de
Corfù, Général de l'armée française, Corfù

As soon as I set foot in Corfù, I raised La Tricolore in the

fortress and declared the islands French possessions
and the inhabitant subjects of our Empereur. On
September 9, I issued an order de ning the new
organization of the islands. This decree promised a
French constitution. I have introduced the new calendar,
the French language on the school and proclaimed
Orthodoxy as the of cial religion. Thus, without causing
any unrest, the Ionian Islands became part of the French
Empire, escaping the danger to leave them to the
Russians and the Austrians, let alone the Turks!
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 The Imperial Orde

Napoleon, Empereur des Français
Letter to the King of Naples, February 8, 1808

"I did not instruct General Berthier to declare Corfù part

of the Empire and since I was silent, he should have
been silent as well. Show him our dissatisfaction. Order
him to be more cautious and prudent. However, you must
consider Corfù to be more important than Sicily. The
issue of Sicily is xed but that of Corfù is not. Remember
that in the current situation in Europe, the biggest
misfortune that could happen to me is the loss of Corfù.
But what angers me the most, is Berthier’s scandalous
affair with a married lady whom he installed in his
mansion as hostess in charge of his dinners inviting the
island's aristocracy. I cannot tolerate this, despite my
intentions to create an imperial court without strict
morals. Thus, he needs to be replaced. The order is
secret and I will give you 15 days to inform César
Berthier before replacing him with Donjelot. “

Élégance Français
Giovanni Battista Parmesan, Engineer at the Public Technical
Service of the Ionian State, 1818

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 Corfù has not known the Turkish yoke. However, it is

constantly under the control of European powers. First
came the Venetians, then the French and now the British.
When the French came, they paid special attention to the
organization and operation of public services. Today the
city owes much to the French elegance. Spianata, the
marvelous meeting place of the Cor otes, was not
designed as a piazza. It is the result of the military
forti cations of Venice to protect the city from the Turks.
Initially, it was used as the market of the medieval city
and later as a place for of cial ceremonies.

In 1576, extensive demolition of buildings located in front

of the Old Fortress in order to improve the defensive
capacity of the city. Thus, Spianata is created - an empty
space, which in 1630 takes its nal shape, with an area
of about 1/3 of the city. The French divided Spianata into
two separate squares, the Lower and the Upper Square.
On the west side of the Lower Square is the impressive
Liston residential complex. Its construction was carried
out during the period 1807 - 1814. The design was
undertaken by the French architect Lesseps, modeled on
the famous Rue de Rivoli in Paris. And I am proud to say
that I have been charged to supervise this wonderful
work!
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 St George an
Michael’s Palac

The Palace of St. Michael and St George was built by the

architect G. Whitmore in the years 1819-1824. It is the most
important monument of the British administration and one of
the rst neoclassical buildings in Greece, in the style of
Georgian architecture. Before the uni cation with Greece the
Palace housed the Senate as well as the Ionian Parliament.
Afterwards it was used as a royal summer residence, today it
houses the Museum of Asian Art and the Municipal Art
Gallery.
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Uncontested rule, 1821

Mr. Joseph Hume addresses the British Parliament on the

conduct of sir Thomas Maitland, commissioner of His
Majesty, King George IV, on the 07th of June 1821.

Change of cours
Mr. Joseph Hume, London, 7th of June 1821

On our arrival to the Ionian islands in 1816, the people

considered us deliverers, and looked forward to a
change from a state of turbulence and faction to a state
of peace and prosperity under our protection. For a
certain period, the
islanders remained
contented with their
lot; but at present, I
am sorry to say, the
case was altered, and
the British character
was held there in less
estimation than it
formerly had been.

The Lord High Commissioner sir Thomas Maitland

dispersed the senators, who had been sent from the
other islands to assemble in Corfu and soon enough
anything like liberty of the press was not permitted. Only
one press is allowed to exist, and that is in Corfù, under
the eye and direction of government; so that the
commonest advertisement could not be printed without
being sent there; in all no one dares speak his mind,
because every expression, however idle, might be
reported and punished.

The protégé
Mr. Joseph Hume, London, 7th of June 1821

An act of parliament was passed by sir Thomas,

nicknamed “king Thomas” by the islanders, in the month
of May, 1820, for the appointment of an administrator-
general to superintend the property of the church; and
the person appointed to administer the of ce is colonel
Robertson, a captain of marines, who already holds,
under the lord high commissioner, more appointments
than any other individual; he is collector-general of
customs and public revenue of the Ionian islands;
director of the salt works; exclusive purveyor of grain for
the supply of the population of Corfu; master of the mint;
administrator-general of the civil institutions, hospitals,

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foundlings, of the Monte de Pieta, director-general of the
public roads, bridges, storehouses, markets, etc.;
commander of the Flotilla and in charge of the dock
yards in the Ionian islands; captain of the coast and
ports.
The Tower of Babe
George Whitmore, Colonel of the Royal Engineers, Corfù, 1819

I was born in Britain on May 12, 1775. At the age of 18, I

joined the Royal Engineers. In 1816 I was sent to Corfu,
where I settled with my family, with the mission to build
the residence of the Lord High Commissioner Sir Thomas
Maitland known as the Palace of St George and Michael.
I assigned a capable engineer, Mr. Giovani Battista
Parmesan, with the control of the materials and the
signing of the receipts, because, I feared nancial
irregularities from Colonel Robertson, a Maitland man.

In fact, I have already reported to the Senate that

Robertson channeled materials destined for the
construction of the Palace to other projects, such as the
Cave Market, which were paid twice by the Ionian State!
Robertson carried out public technical works using
mainly Sicilian and Maltese builders, supplied materials
to the State, collected taxes and carried out managerially
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 reprehensible activities with Maitland's knowledge. I had

to be extremely careful not to fall into any kind of trap,
that these dark circles may think for me.

After much effort the foundation stone of the palace was

laid on April 23, 1819, the day celebrated by St George,
one of the few common holidays among all Christians.

Lady Nin
William Wheeler, Soldier of the Guard, Corfù, 23rd of April 1824

The day began with a royal salute and the raising of the
Flag of the Independent Ionian State. It's a nice ag. It
has in the center the Royal Banner of England and
around the seven colors of the Ionian Islands. The place
for the general meeting was the Spianata. At night
everything was lit up, the palace seemed to be on re, a
big dance was given there. I was in the honor guard and
so I stood at night in the center of the celebrations. The
dance continued until 5 in the morning, when we
accompanied Baron Theotoky, the President of the
Senate, to his house. Next year, the Lord High
Commissioner Sir Thomas Maitland was succeeded by
Sir Frederick Adam who married a Cor ote noble woman,
Lady Nina Palatianou. She is now the queen of the

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Ionian Islands and all consider it their honor to receive a

smile from "Her Majesty". Her type is interesting, but it
should be placed in the second row of beauty. She is
dark, her features are normal, her eyes are black like
frames. But the mustache on the upper lip would better
adorn a hussar.

 The Bal
George Nugent-Grenville, Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian
Islands, January 1833

Ann Lucy and myself were absolutely thrilled to received,

King Otto of Greece at the Palace of St. George and
Michael in Corfu, who was on his way to Greece, nally
liberated from the despicable Turkish yoke. After the
meal, His Majesty was pleased to shake hands with Ann
Lucy and entered with
her, followed by his
Court and the Regency,
into the Dance Room.
Not only did His Majesty
dance various waltzes
with the ladies, but he
also agreed to speak
with the utmost courtesy

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 to the various subjects where he was approached. The
awarding of the medal of St. George and Michael took
place in the of cial dining room of the palace and the
ceremony lasted all morning while cannon re echoed
from the Old Fortress.

Brittani
Thrasyvoulos Zaimis, Envoy of the Greek government, 22nd of May
1864

On September 23, 1863, the 13th Ionian Parliament

issues the historic resolution for the Union with Greece,
while the Treaty of London is signed on 14 November. On
April 28, 1864, a protocol was signed at St. George and
Michael’s Palace: Mr. Barr, Assistant Secretary of the
High Commissioner and Mr. Ioannis Peroglou, First
Secretary to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Greece,
signed a document of delivery and receipt of the furniture
of the Palace St. George and Michael’s Palace. On May
21, 1864, the last English soldier left the land of the
Ionian Islands. Leaving, the English took the statue of
Britain, that used to crown the façade of the Palace.

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 Ionian Accademie

The Ionian Academy, the rst Greek university, had been

established in 1823, following the resolution of the Ionian
Parliament and the assistance and dedication of the
“Philhellene of Philhellenes” Lord Frederick North, Fifth Earl of
Guilford, who considered this effort the achievement of his life.
In 1865, after the union of the Ionian Islands with Greece was
concluded, the University ceased its operation and the Ionian
Academy became host to the Public Library. Initially built as
an army barrack by the Venetian administration after 1571, it
counted almost 4 centuries when it was bombed by the
German Luftwaffe in September 1943. Restored in 1994 the
historic building hosts once again the Ionian University.
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 The Philhellene of
Philhellenes, 1824
Frederick North, citizen of Athen

I, Frederick North, was born in 1766 as the youngest son

of the Second Earl of Guilford, who, as Lord North, was
prime minister at the time of the American War of
Independence. This is already a heavy legacy, as my
father is often blamed for the
loss of the American colonies.
However, my family’s position
allowed me to enjoy the
privilege of an excellent
education. My schooldays
were spent at Eton and at the
age of sixteen I was sent to
Christ Church, the most
aristocratic of the Oxford
colleges, where I was blessed
with a sound grasp of Greek
and Latin. After graduating
from Oxford University, and,

 although I suffered from poor health, I dared to travel

around southern Europe, learning Italian and modern
Greek.

In 1791 and 1792 I travelled to the Greek world, which

enchanted me at the most. I started my journey in Corfù,
and from there to the classical sites in mainland Greece
and Mount Athos. Then I went to Cyprus, Smyrna,
Alexandria, Jerusalem and Constantinople. Most
unfortunately all of the Greek world is under the terrible
yoke of the Turks and this breaks my heart. It did not take
me long to convert to Orthodoxy, but this remained a
personal secret, well-kept inside my heart.

 Abolition of Slaver

In 1798, I was appointed governor of the island of Ceylon

and put great efforts to induce social reforms, especially
the abolition of the horrible institution of slavery. Still my
poor health has betrayed me and in 1805 I had to give
up my efforts in Ceylon. But I did not know then, that my
real mission in life was still ahead of me. In 1814, I
became president of the Society of Friends of the Muses
in Athens. This position was a rst-class opportunity to
follow the educational interests of my beloved Greece.
Together with Greeks and other philhellenes as myself we
sought to promote the foundation of schools in the Greek
world, to endow scholarships enabling young Greeks to
study in the universities of Europe and promote
archaeological excavations. I am determined to support
my cause unconditionally and nancially.

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 Turn of Fat

In 1815, I made and extraordinary acquaintance during

the Congress of Vienna, which was organized by Prince
von Metternich, who was trying to reorder the European
affairs after the turmoil Bonaparte has caused. It was
there, where I met with Count Ioannis Capodistria, a
native of Corfu and a
distinguished diplomat in the
service of the Tsar in Russia.
We discussed the possibility
of the British founding an
institution of higher education
in the Ionian Islands, now that
the Congress of Vienna had
con rmed the British
protectorate over them.

In 1817, after my elder

brother had died, I inherited
the title of the fth Earl of

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Guilford. This carried with it a very large income, which

gave me the necessary funds for the creation of the
Ionian Academy, -merited to be called University, and is
my greatest achievement in life. The curriculum has a
strong emphasis on the study of ancient Greek and the
culture of Ancient Greece. Students are required to
demonstrate a competent knowledge of the ancient and
vernacular Greek. My cousin, Lord Bathurst, Secretary of
State for War and the Colonies, appointed me director of
education for the Ionian Islands.

The Visio

What better place could be

found than Ithaca to study
Homer? I originally planned
that the Ionian Academy
should be based in Ithaca but
the Lord High Commissioner
of the Ionian Islands, Thomas
Maitland, of whom I can say
he terribly lacked education,
opposed to my plan. I know
that he is mocking of my vision
of Ancient Greece and
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dismisses all those with an interest in antiquities as “fools

looking for old stones”. He is a terrible despot and is
against giving the Ionian Islanders any say in ruling
themselves, arguing that if he gave such people a real
constitution, they would simply violate it!

‘King Tom’ Maitland, as he is sarcastically called by the

people, is ill-mannered, bad-tempered, insufferably rude
and often drunk! And I am not the only person, who
knows: Sir Charles James Napier, who is Maitland’s
deputy on the island of Cephalonia calls him a ‘rough old
despot’. Now you can imagine that such a person cannot
be enthusiastic to establish the Academy in Ithaca,
maintaining that it was too close to the ghting between
the revolted Greeks against the Turks on the mainland.
Instead he pointed Corfu, a town fraught with all the vice
and abominations of Venice! Nevertheless, I have to
admit that existing buildings in Corfu can be easily
adapted for teaching purposes. The law courts of the
Ionian Islands and the hospital located in Corfu are
useful for the training of lawyers and doctors.
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 The Banque

At the opening of the Ionian Academy in May 1824 I

chose to wear a costume that I designed for myself,
perfectly à l’antique, attached by a gilt button on my right
shoulder. My under garment and calf length boots were,
also, perfectly à l ’antique. But, instead of the cap of
Ulysses, I wore a narrow band of black round my head,
embroidered with gold laurel leaves, and a gold owl in
front. Academic dress à l’antique were also worn by the
professors at the Academy, with the dress of each faculty
being in a different color. I heard that Charles James
Napier, the governor of Cephalonia, ridiculed me being
dressed like Plato, but I could not care less. I have laid
on a splendid banquet for one hundred guests after the
opening ceremony, which cost me thirteen thousand
pounds, and I have gladly spent them all!

The Academy has four faculties and seven

professorships recruited from the Greek scholars:
Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine and Philosophy. The
Faculty of Philosophy includes many more subjects than
philosophy in the strict sense of the word. I became the
Chancellor of the Academy. The principal subject in the
curriculum is Greek in its various manifestations. English
language and literature, history, rhetoric, mathematics,
botany, and philosophy are also taught.

 In the rst academic year some 150 students enrolled!

Any person of whatever country or religion he may be,
would be eligible for enrolment at the university. I
intended in time to include in the curriculum also
vocational subjects, such as navigation and book-
keeping. A professorship of Sanskrit was even proposed.
There was one Scotsman, Francis Balfour, who was
appointed professor of Arabic and Hebrew, but, after
drawing a year’s salary in advance, he left Corfu and was
not seen again. But this sad incident was an exception.

30.000 book

If I were not the Earl of Guilford, I should have liked to be

a librarian. My friends, I am not just a bibliophile, I am a
bibliomane, in other words I am obsessed to collect and
possess books! I have been ably assisted by Baron
Theotoky to raise the total number of books in the library
at 30,000. The great hall of the Library of the Ionian
Academy is modelled on the great libraries of the
University of Oxford. The opening hours of the library are
generous indeed. Books can be fetched daily between
the hours of 7-11 in the morning, 1-5 in the afternoon and
6- 10 in the evening. The library is open daily, except on

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 Sundays and religious festivals. We received many gifts

from the University of Cambridge, many of them relating
to the study of classical Greece, the Marquis and
Marchioness of Bute and the King of Denmark.

The Wil
Prof. Richard Clogg, Emeritus Fellow of St Anthony’s College,
Oxford University

Reverend Rufus Anderson, an American missionary

travelling in Greece in the 1829, spoke of the collection of
modern Greek literature in the library of the Academy as
the most complete in the world. No one possessed more
opportunities of forming the best Collection of Modern
Greek Books, and no one ever availed himself of his
opportunities with more zeal, ardor or liberality than the
Earl of Guilford. Lord Guilford has always intended that
this collection should form the core of the library of the
Ionian Academy but, unfortunately, that was not to be.

Controversy surrounded his will, executed some three

weeks before his death in 1827 and amended by a
codicil added on 13 October, one day before he died.
The will and codicil made the bequest of his books
conditional on the Ionian government endowing the
university with an annual amount of £3,500, which the
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Academy could not pay. The collection of pre-1821

Greek books were sold in 1835 in London. The motive of
Guilford’s relatives in selling his books, manuscripts and
even the academic dress that Guilford commissioned for
the opening of the Ionian Academy was clearly greed.
 Ionian Parliament

The Ionian Parliament was built by Ioannis Chronis in 1855 in

neoclassical style and has a characteristic entrance with
Doric-style columns. The period is connected with the
Republic of Ionian Islands (21st of March 1800- 8th of July
1807), which was the rst semi-autonomous Greek state was
created some three hundred and fty years after the fall of the
Byzantine Empire in 1453. The Ionian Republic was a result of
the Treaty of Campo Formio (17th of October 1797) which has
practically sealed the dissolution of the Republic of Venice. In
this building the constant will of the people's representatives
of the Ionian Islands to unite with Greece was forged and
nally rati ed by the resolution of the Ionian Parliament on
23-9 of 1863. The building was restored in 1978 and has
since been the seat of a Museum dedicated to the struggles
for the freedom of the Ionian Islands.
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 Union, 1864

Napoleo
Napoleon Bonaparte, October 17, 1797

"The islands of Corfu, Zante and Cephalonia are more

interesting to us than all of Italy. If we were to choose, it
would be better to cede Italy and keep the four islands,
which are a source of wealth and prosperity for our
trade."

Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of

Richmond, Master-General of
the Ordnance of his Majesty
King George III of England,
1799

Bonaparte occupied the Ionian

Islands and strengthened his
position in the Eastern
Mediterranean. The King and
the Sultan are deeply
concerned as their trade
interests are at stake.

 Merchants of the Republi

Count Antonio Tommaso Lefcochilo, extraordinary envoy to the
Sublime Porte in Constantinople

We, the Ionians, have always been open to the outside

world. Located between the East and the West, we have
sailing skills that make us a key maritime market. What
was missing, was an opportunity. So, when Napoleon
ended in 1797 the Venetian rule in our area, the
Settinsular Republic was born, thanks to common
interests among the Tsar, the Sultan and the King of
England. In 1801 I have been appointed extraordinary
envoy in Constantinopoli with the task to resolve the
issues concerning our merchant navy: 441 ships with an
average 132 tons per ship is quite an achievement in
seven years! Thus, we have consulates to support our
commerce in Odessa, Kherson, the Dardanelles,
Salonica, Atene, Cipro, Modone, Venesia, Trieste, Malta,
Tunis, Genova, Marsiglia, Malaga, and not to forget the
of ces in Parigi and San Pietroburgo.

As a consul I am the main representative of the

Settinsular ship captains’ and sailors’ in the foreign
countries. I have to issue the necessary documents for
the loading and unloading of goods when the Republic’s
ships arrive at a port and supervise the compliance with
the regulations of the Ionian merchant marine and the
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 commitments that the Republic has assumed

internationally, in order not to endanger our fragile
neutrality.

Our ships are confronted with great dif culties in the

Ottoman ports: usually their custom of cials deny to
accept the privileges the Sultan has granted to our
Republic already in its founding treaty by his decree in
1800. In 1801 I have denounced a debt collector who
imposed the haratzo tax, as it is called by the Turks, in
the port of Constantinopoli. As I realized later it was a
kind of unwritten law, and despite any signed treaty, all
nations are asked to pay the haratzo.

In 1802, a good opportunity appeared: when the greed

of a designated tax collector exceeded the limit, I took
the initiative to draw up a petition which I addressed to
the authorities, collecting the signatures of 10-12
captains of our Republic. The Sultan has answered: "...
when those equipped with authentic papers are real
subjects of the Republic and come to my states must not
in any way be harassed by the tax collectors or other
of cials with searches for haratzo and other impositions”.

The Radical
Guiseppe Monferrato, Founder of the Radical Party, 1848

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 At the top of the pyramid are the signori, the aristocratic

landowners and rich merchants, who we call masters or
lords. In the last layer are the workers - craftsmen and
artisans - and the small traders. The workers in the
estates of the landowners since generations now are
threatened with expulsion if they do not meet their
obligations to pay compensation to the owners for the
losses in the harvest. It had been always like this since
Venice took over and any attempt to free the farmers was
futile. And in our days the English are in complete
agreement with the landowners, who perpetuate the
economic dependence of the peasants. In 1850 the
Parliament of the Ionian Islands voted for the Union with
Greece, but Great Britain as a guarantor rejected it.

Napoleon agai

On 8 July 1807 the Treaty of Tilsit was signed between

the French and the Russians. The Ionian Islands did not
concern the obvious articles of the Convention but one of
its two secret points. The Tsar, having no sovereign right
to the islands after the Treaty of Constantinople, handed
over the Ionian Islands to Napoleon in return: "Emperor
Napoleon, as the absolute owner and sovereign, will
occupy the seven Ionian Islands." The French, in order to
prevent any intervention by the English, landed in Corfu

 on 20 August 1807 and for the second time the Ionian

Islands became part of the French Empire.

British Rul

William Meyer, Consular Of cial of His Majesty, 180

‘Among the numerous essential bene ts accruing to

Great Britain from the possession of Corfu is to be
reckoned the very important one of its being an
observatory over the whole of European Turkey. Such an
operation would convince the nations of the South and
the western Asiatics, now the objects of Russian and
French delusion, of the irresistible energy of British
power.

Spyro Verychio, 1814

The new conquerors of the islands appear as saviours

from the tyranny of the French and the Ionians tried to
accept them in good faith, but the situation became
dramatic in no time. There is no more bread on the
market, while the stocks in the houses are running out.
The ordered cultivation of all areas yielded practically
little. The inhabitants were suffering from famine,

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 starvation, taxes and being exposed to the bombing from

the English ships.

Mr. Joseph Hume, 07th of June 1821

The lord high commissioner, Sir Thomas Maitland, has

the power of reversing the sentences of the judicial
authorities. To him was given, in short, the power of nally
deciding every case that could be brought before any
tribunal of the islands. He is nothing less than a Roman
proconsul. He rules like a complete despot under the
disguise of a representative government, and became,
more odious than the tyranny of Turkey or Persia, a
disgrace to England.

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 Secret Diplomac
Charilaos Trikoupis, Plenipotentiary of the Greek Government

On 25 October 1863 the Minister of Foreign Affairs, P.

Deligiannis, was informed of the intention of the Great
Powers to hand over the Ionian Islands to Greece. The
Minister has chosen me to be the Plenipotentiary and
represent Greece. On my way to London, the Minister
informed me that England and Austria set as a condition
the demolition of all the historic fortresses of the islands,
fearing a possible expedition of Greeks to the mainland
coasts of the Austrian and Turkish territory! This
arrangement caused intense discomfort on our side, as
we realized the great historical and emotional importance
of the fortresses for the Ionian Islands and the Greeks in
general.

On the other hand, an issue had arisen: Austrian

companies had been granted economic and commercial
advantages in the Ionian by the English protection, and

 thus Austria maintained an unwavering stance on the

issue of fortresses. This was an issue that I tried to
resolve diplomatically. In fact, talking to the Russians I
tried to persuade them to help. They advised us that we
can in uence the Austrian government, if we were willing
to grant the Austrians privileges in Greece, because, as
he said, “they don’t have anything else in mind other than
enjoying the bene t of their steamship companies”. The
Greek Foreign Minister replied that we have to achieve
the greatest possible consensus, and urged me to seek
the favor of the Ambassador of Prussia, who did not have
special claims in the region and could help us. However,
Prussia took the issue of the Ionian Islands as an
opportunity to support Austria and thus rejected us.

In the meantime, the union with Greece was rati ed by

the resolution of the Ionian Parliament on the 2rd of
September, 1863. At the end of the year Lord Russell, the
British Foreign Secretary, presented me with a second
revised draft of the Treaty and this time in more onerous
terms for Greece! This, of course, happened after
intense pressure from the Austrian side. Article 8, for
instance, provided that the Greek state should continue
to pay the pensions of English nationals who had
occasionally retired in the Ionian and their name were
listed as an annex to the treaty!

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 There were no allies in the whole effort, since even co-

religious Russia kept its distance, so as not to come into
direct con ict with the Great Powers, mainly with Austria,
which maintained the greatest reservations and demands
regarding the Union of the Islands. I started a new round
of contacts with the representatives of the Great Powers
in order to satisfy one last issue: the pensions of the
British citizens in accordance with the legislative
regulations of the Ionian Parliament. This issue was
regulated by a special contract between Greece and
England and the sum amounted to a total of seven
thousand pounds per year.

I sought the non-signing of this contract, since the cost

would be borne by the Ionians and the Greek State, and
therefore the reactions were expected to be intense. The
only thing that I managed, however, was for the pensions
to be paid but to be interrupted in case Britain
undertakes to pay them or the bene ciary dies. Shortly
before the signing of the treaty, the Russian envoy made
an objection which gave the impression that the
negotiations were failing.

In particular, Russia, considering the issue of religion a

major one, wanted to add to the Treaty a special Protocol

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according to which: "The legal heirs of King George had
to represent the Orthodox Doctrine.” It is clear that the
Russians sought to establish a co-religious king in
Greece in order to serve their future interests. I assured
the Russian envoy that his claim was taken for granted
and that in Greece there was unanimity on the issue and
this was con rmed by the royal oath of acceptance of the
authorities.

England, France and Austria, however, did not object to

the claim of the Russians. Therefore, after the insistence
of Baron Brunoff, together with the special Convention
that regulated the details of pensions, the
Plenipotentiaries also signed a Protocol on the
observance of the Orthodox Doctrine by the current King
of Greece.

On March 29, 1864 in London, I as Plenipotentiary for

Greece, Count Russell, Prince De La Tour D’Auvergne
and Baron Brunoff signed the Treaty of Union of the
Ionian Island with Greece.

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 References, Bibliography, Credits

Illustration and Pictures

CHAPTER 01: Old Fortress

Fifteen days in hell, 1537

A Sultan in rage
Anonymous, Italian School, 16th century: “Portrait of Sultan Suleiman” Wikimedia Commons
Juan Pantoja de la Cruz (after Tizian), 1605: "The Emperor Charles V in Armory". Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Christian Karl August Noack, 1867: Luther in religious dispute with Ulrich Zwingli in 1529.
Paolo Veronese, 1563:" Marriage at Cana". Charles V, Francis I and Sultan Suleiman are depicted on the left side. Musée de Louvre, Paris.
An unholy agreement
Tiziano Vecellio, ca. 1546: “Portrait of Doge Andrea Gritti”, National Gallery of Arts, Washington
Jean Clouet, 1527: “Portrait Francis I of France“. Flemish realism and Italian in uence. Musée de Louvre, Paris
Unknown artist, 16th century: “Ariadnevus Barbarossa”, Hayreddin Barbarossa Ottoman corsair (1466-1546).
Ali Amir Beg, 1558: “Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans” Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Museum
Useless mouths
Sebastian Vranckx (1573-1647): Cannon battery at the Siege of Esztergom 1543, where French Artillery has assisted the troops of the
Ottoman Sultan Suleiman. Wikimedia Commons
Vlassis Tsonos, 2020: “Old Fortress of Corfu"

20 thousand slaves
Ohannes Umed Behzad, 1866: "Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza, 1538". Turkish Naval Museum, Istanbul
Hieronymus Bosch, 1494: “Death and the Miser”. National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

CHAPTER 02: Annunziata

The End of the Terror, 7th of October 1571
Jacopo Da Montagnana, 1494-97: The Archangel Gabriel and the Virgin. Detail. Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
Vlassis Tsonos, 2020: Annunziata, Corfu
Clash of Values
The Balance

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 Antonio Vassilacchi, ‘L’ Aliense’, early 17th century: «Arrival of the Queen Caterina Cornaro in Venice». Venice, Museo Civico Correr
Obedience
Jacopo Robusti, ‘Tintoretto’, ca. 1588: The Miracle of the Slave, Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice
The Richest Gifts
Giovanni di Niccolò Mansueti, ca. 1527: "Episodes from the life of St. Marc". Gallerie dell' Accademia, Venice
Three conditions
Unknown Venetian painter, 17th century: Preparation for Battle. Museo Civico Correr, Venice
Levied boys
Nikolaos Gyzis, 1873-1875: “Slave Trade”. Athens National Gallery
The Message
Anonymous, ca. 1570-1590: “Portrait of Selim II (1524-1574), Sultan of the Ottoman Empire”. Aga Khan Collection, Toronto.
Sacra Liga Antiturca
Tiziano Vecellio, 1550: “Portrait of King Philipp II of Spain (1556-1598)”. Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Domenico Theotokopoulos ‘El Grecο’, 1579, “The Dream of Philip II”. El Escorial, Madrid.
Bartolomeo Passarotti, 1566: “Portrait of Pope Pius V” The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
The Keys of Famagusta
Pietro Valderio, 1573: The War in Cyprus, Europeana Collections
Giovanni Bellini and Vittore Belliniano, ca. 1515-1526: Martyrdom of San Marco, Gallerie dell' Accademia, Venice
Tiziano Vecellio, ca.1570-1576: “The Flaying of Marsyas” National Museum, Kroměříž, Czech Republic. This painting was one of the last
paintings which Titian made and it is perhaps un nished. It is suggested that the choice of such a violent scene was inspired by the death of
Marcantonio Bragadin, the Venetian commander of Famagusta in Cyprus who was ayed by the Ottomans when the city fell in August 1571,
causing enormous outrage in the Christian world.
The Scribe of the Grand Vizier
Jacopo Ligozzi , ca. ca. 1580-85 “Sultan Selim II with a dragon”. Ligozzi probably painted this sheet as part of a book devoted to gures in Turkish
costume, many of whom are accompanied by animals. Rather than drawing from life, he used a variety of costume engravings.
Seyyid Lokman, c. 1571-81: Ottomans conquering Limassol. Topkapı Palace Museum Library
Unknown artist: ca. 1571: “Ottoman-Venetian War, Battle of Famagusta”
Tiziano Aspetti, 1571: "Marcantonio Bragadin". Palazza Ducale, Venice
500 zecchini d’oro
Golden Zecchino, AV 3,47 g. Time period of Doge Francesco Venier, 1554-1556.
This means we ght?
Jacopo Robusti (Tintoretto), 1571: "The Naval Battle of Lepanto”. Detail with Sebastiano Venier, Doge of Venice (1577 -1578) and admiral of
the Venetian eet at the Battle of Lepanto. Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie
Tiziano Vecellio, 1571:" Portrait of Philip II of Spain (1527-1598)". Prado Museum, Madrid
No more talking
Alonso Sánchez Coello, 1567: "Portrait of Don Juan D'Austria in armour". Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales, Madrid

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 Anastasios Chatzes, ca. 1980: "Galleasses and Gallies". Private Collection, Athens
Rafael Tegeo, ca. 1828: "Portrait of Don Alvaro de Bazan (1526-1588)". Naval Museum, Madrid
Six Galeasses
Unknown Venetian painter, 17th century: “Preparation for Battle”. Museo Civico Correr, Venice
Carnage
Jacopo Robusti (Tintoretto), 1571: "Naval battle of Lepanto, 7 October 1571". The Venitian, Spanish and papal eet under Don Juan d’Austria
defeat the Turkish naval power near Lepanto (Nafpaktos) in the Gulf of Corinth. Private Collection
Unknown Venetian Painter, end of the 16th century, Marciana Library, Venice
Sante Peranda, 1590: "Victory of the Venetian eet at Jaffa". Palazzo Ducale, Venice
What we have nally learnt
Bartolomeo Passarotti, 1566: "Portrait of Pope Pius V". The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
Unknown painter: “Venetian galleasses at the Battle of Lepanto”. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London
Paolo Veronese, ca. 1572: "The Battle of Lepanto". Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice

Vittoria, vittoria!
Luca Cambiaso (1527-1585): "The Battle of Lepanto". Monastery of El Escorial. Cambiaso is considered the founder of the Genoese school who
established the local tradition of historical fresco painting through his many decorations of Genoese churches and palaces.
Tiziano Vecellio, ca 1573-75, “Allegory of the Lepanto Battle. Philip II offering the Infante don Fernando to the Heavens”. Museo Nacional del
Prado, Madrid
L’ Aquila di Corfù
Paolo Veronese, ca. 1582: "Votive Portrait of Doge Sebastiano Venier". Palazzo Ducale, Venice
Silver Anchors and Satin Sails
Anonymous German broadsheet print, 1571. It depicts the fate of the beheaded Ottoman Admiral Muezzinzade Ali Pasha, whose head was
displayed on La Real, the agship of the Christian eet at the Lepanto battle. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Tommaso Dollabella, 1632: “Battle of Lepanto". Galeria Malarstwa Polskiego, Cracow
The Cells of Annunziata
Juan Luna, ca. 1887: "Naval battle of Lepanto". Detail, showing Miguel de Cervantes, Madrid Senate Hall
Andrea Vicentino, ca. 1603: "Battle of Lepanto". Palazzo Ducale, Venice
Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar : «Miguel de Cervantes». Portrait attributed to Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar. Object 119216. The
Bridgeman Art Library, New York. The portrait is mentioned in the prologue of the Exemplary Novels. It has not been authenticated, and the
names of Cervantes and Jáuregui on it were added centuries after it was painted. No authenticated image of Cervantes exists, and the Jáuregui
painting is lost.

CHAPTER 03: Spianata

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 Razed Ground, 1537

Vlassis Tsonos, 2020: Spianata, Corfu
The Letter of Simone Leòn
Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, 1546: “Quesiti et Inventioni Diverse”. Tartaglia was the rst to apply mathematics to the investigation of the paths of
cannonballs, known as ballistics, in his Nova Scientia (A New Science, 1537); his work was later partially validated and partially superseded by
Galileo's studies on falling bodies. He also published a treatise on retrieving sunken ships.
Sir William Gel, 1811: Depiction of Spianata and Old Fortess with the signi cant buildings. Theophilos Files Tzikas Collection. Accessed at:
https://www.corfuhistory.eu/?p=2202
Aerial view of the Spianata with the twin bastions of the Old Fortress Martinengo and Savorgnan. Open Source
The Response of the Senate
Simon Pinargenti, 1573 "Isole che son da Venetia nella Dalmatia et per tutto l'arcipelago, no a Costantinopoli, con le loro fortezze, e con le
terre piu notabili di Dalmatia", Map of Corfu with Old and New Fortress
Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, "General Tratatto di numeri et misure", Part II, Book 2. page 69, Venice, 3rd of April, 1556 (digitized by Google).
Dorothea Papathanasiou-Zuhrt, 2016: Palazzo Ducale Venice
Forced Labor
Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia: "Nova Scientia", 1537.The Dibner Library of Science and Technology, Smithsonian Institute, Washington D.C.
Bertram Buchholz, 1597: The Market Place "El Bazaro" in Corfu. From: Civitates Orbis Terrarum, Part 2: De Praecipuis, Totius Universi
Urbibus, Liber Secundus. Köln, (Van der Krogt 4, 41:1.2).
Francesco è Leandro Bassano, ca 1590: “Pope Alexander III blesses the doge Sebastiano Ziani”. Detail, Sala del Consiglio dei Dieci, Palazzo
Ducale, Venice.
Wolfgang Kaiser, 2008: "Le commerce des captifs - les intermédiaires dans l'échange et le rachat des prisonniers en Méditerranée, XVe-XVIIIe
siècle" Ecole Française de Rome EFR. Cover photo of the book.
Gianfranco Muneretto, 2017: Ritorno_dal_Levante
Christoph Weigel (1654 -1725): Old colored map of Corfu with Old and New Fortresses. Printed in Nuremberg by Johann Ernst Adelbulner in
1718.
Ferrante Vitelli (1555-1584): “New Fortress of Corfu” Appointed to renovate the forti cations of Corfu in 1572, the brilliant military engineer
Ferrante Vitelli, has designed and built the New Fortress of Corfu at the Hill of San Marco.
The Interrogation
Hans Holbein, 1533: The Ambassadors. National Gallery of London
Leandro Bassano (1557-1622) “The banks of the Schiavoni in Venice” Saan Fernando Royal Fine Arts Academy, Madrid
Simon Pinargenti, 1573: Map of Constantinople from the " Isole che son da Venetia nella Dalmatia et per tutto l'arcipelago, no a
Costantinopoli, con le loro fortezze, e con le terre piu notabili di Dalmatia " Venice. Digitized Edition Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation, Athens.
Domenico Tintoretto, early 17th century “Antonio Grimani”. Private collection, Milan.
Faith break
New Fortress, Foundation Relief. Digitized by the “Network creation and promotion of castles” Funded by the Territorial Cooperation
Programme Greece – Albania 2007 – 2013

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 CHAPTER 04: New Fortress

The Daughter of Venice, 1716
Highly Con dential
Gian Antonio Guardi, 1741: Count Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg. Ca'Rezzonico, Venice
Unknown Artist, "Portrait of a Gentleman" Italian School 18th century. Mutual Art
Iacopo Negretti (Palma, Il Giovane), 1590: Allegory of the Victory over the League of Cambrai. Palazzo Ducale, Venice. The painting It
commemorates a rather inglorious war against the League of Cambrai (formed by the pope, the kings of France and Spain, and the emperor of
the Holy Roman Empire9 which went badly for Venice. In 1509 its enemy occupied Venice's mainland territories and threatened the city itself.
The canvas depicts Doge Leonardo Loredan and represents the Venetians' resistance to the combined powers of Europe, symbolized by
allegorical gures.
Vittore Carpaccio, ca.1495: The miracle of the relic of the cross, detail. Gallerie del Accademia, Venice
Francesco Guardi, ca. 1766–70: “The Departure of Bucentaur for the Lido on Ascension Day, Musée de Louvre, Paris.
Dorothea Papathanasiou-Zuhrt, 2016: Elisabeth I of England, signed document to Venice. Marciana Library of Venice.
The Diary of Marcantonio Loredan
La Madonna di Cassopo
Holy Bema of the Madonna di Casoppo, Corfu, Greece.
and
Holy Icon of the Madonna di Casoppo, Corfu, Greece. Accessed on 12/08/2020 at: https://greekorthodoxreligioustourism.blogspot.com/
The Landing
Sultan Ahmet III and his son. From: Αθανάσαινας, Γ.Α. 2001, Το Ασσέδιο των Κορυφών "1716", Μακεδονικές Γνώσεις, Αθήνα, page IV
Island of Vido, 1716. Accessed at: http://wwwbisanzioit.blogspot.com/2012/08/corfu-lassedio.html
Andrea Corner, commander of the Armata Grossa, breaks the Turkish Blocade: Αθανάσαινας, Γ.Α. "Το Ασσέδιο των Κορυφών 1716". Αθήνα:
Μακεδονικές Γνώσεις; 2001.
Tower of Babel
Panagiotis Doxaras "The Turkish forces in Corfu, 1716" in: Αθανάσαινας, Γ.Α. Το Ασσέδιο των Κορυφών "1716". Αθήνα: Μακεδονικές Γνώσεις;
2001, page XII
Without a single shot
Jacob van Schuppen, 1718: “Portrait of Eugene, Prince of Savoy”, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Jan van Huchtenburgh, 1729: The Battle of Pterovaradin, 1716. Huchtenburgh accompanied Prince Eugen on his campaigns between 1708–
1717 as a court painter, glorifying his victories in a comprehensive series of engravings and many paintings. Digitized by Artnet. Private
Collection
Jan van Huchtenburgh, 1729: The Battle of Pterovaradin, 1716, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

The Letter of the unknown soldier

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 Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky, 1866: “Wave” State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg

CHAPTER 05 Teatro San Giacomo (Town Hall)

Loggia dei Nobili, 1663
Marmora, A. 1672, Della Historia di Corfu, Venezia.
Marmora, A. 1672, Della Historia di Corfu, Venezia.
Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo
Paolo Veronese, 1582:"Trionfo di Venezia". Palazzo Ducale, Grand Council, Venice.
Anonymous: View of the Town Hall, built in 1663 as Teatro di San Giacomo and the St. James Cathedral
The missile
Unknown artist. “Portrait of Ioannis Capodistria (1776-1731)” First Governor of liberated Greece. National Historical Museum, Athens
Jean-Charles Langlois, 1828: "Entrevue du général Maison et d'Ibrahim Pacha, à Navarin". Collections du château de Versailles. Stamatis
Voulgaris (1774-1842) has served in the regiment of General Maison, when the latter has freed the Peloponnese from the ravaging troops of
the Egyptian Pasha Ibrahim.
The Performance
Anton Raphael Mengs, 1760: “Portrait of Giacomo Girolamo Casanova”. Unidenti ed location.
Born in Corfù
Claude Arnoulphy (1697-1786): "Adélaïde de Gueidan et sa sœur au clavecin". Musée Granet, Aix-en-Provence
Libretto of Rigoletto: Rigoletto is an opera in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901).
Until the day I die
Raffaele D'Ambra (1814-1892): Chiese di San Sebastiano, Napoli
Giuseppe Castignace (1778-1858), Duetto "Parla di Dio, quall' è l'ogetto". Bibliothèque National de France
Joseph Cartwright (1789-1829) "Views in the Ionian Islands: The Town, Citadel, and the Harbour of Corfu, from the Island of Vido". Christies.
[Formerly in possession of the Lord High Commissioner for the Ionian Islands, Sir Thomas Maitland (1760-1824)].
Three sopranos
La Traviata (1853) is an opera in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi (1813 –1901). Performed by Anna Netrebko and Yusif Eyvazov
Spyros Lambros Children Choir: Greek National Anthem
Dimitris Tiliakos and Arianna Vendittelli, 2017 Don Giovanni: Opera by Lorenzo Da Ponte and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1787
The Ionian School of Music
G. Kalosgouros: Portrait of Nikolaos Chalichiopoulos Mantzaris. Ekpaideutiki Elliniki Egyklopaideia, Pagosmio Viographiko Lexiko, vol. 6,
Ekdotike Athenon, Athens 1991, p. 12.
Coats of Arms of the Corfu Nobility
Greek national anthem score and lyrics
Unknown artist: “Portrait of Conte Dionissi Solomo”, author of the Greek National Anthem (1823). Museum of the Historic and Ethnologic
Society, Athens

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 CHAPTER 06: San Spiridione

The Letters of Marshall Schulenburg, 1716
Vlassis Tsonos, 2020: Overview of Corfu historic center with the landmark church St. Spyridon
Ottoman miniature painting: Sultan Ahmed III, to his side stands the young heir to the throne Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, Istanbul.
Antonio Guardi, 1741: Portrait of Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg. Ca' Rezzonico, Venice
La Madonna di Palestrina
The Church of the Madonna in Pellestrina
The Madonna Nicopeia was originally located in the monastery of Saint John the Theologian in Constantinople and was one of that city’s most
precious icons. Known as the “Hodegetria,” or “She who shows the way,” the image was carried into battle by various Byzantine Emperors. The
icon was brought to Venice by Doge Enrico Dandolo, as one of the many spoils of the Fourth Crusade of 1204, when the Latins sacked
Constantinople on their way to Jerusalem.
Eighteenth century Continental School depicting an Ottoman-Habsburg War scene
San Spiridione
Panagiotis Doxaras, early 18th century: Mass in San Spiridione, National Gallery, Athens
Panagiotis Doxaras, 1719: Portrait of Johaness Matthias von der Schulenburg. Ioannis Perdiou Collection, National Gallery of Athens
Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky, 1849: Ships in a Storm, Private Collection
Archbishop of Cyprus Fotios-Ioakim, 2019: St. Spyridon, the Miracle Maker. San Spiridione saves Corfu in 1716
Two silver chandeliers
Konstantinos, P. Thymis, 2019: Silver chandelier awarded to the church of San Spiridione by the Senate of Venice for the miracle performed at
the siege of Corfu in 1716. and
Konstantinos, P. Thymis, 2019: Base with inscription devoted to Saint Spyridon of the silver chandelier awarded to the church of San Spiridione
by the Senate of Venice for the miracle performed at the siege of Corfu in 1716. Accessed at: http://corfutvnews.gr
Once and for all
Joseph Cartwright, 1821: The litany of Saint Spyridon in Esplanade (Spianada) in Corfu. The Gennadius Library, The American School of
Classical Studies at Athens
The Letter of the unknown soldier
E. Kellaki, 1996: St. Spyridon, Private Collection, Athens
Σοφία Nτρέκου,19 Aυγούστου 2019: Αέναη επΑνάσταση, Ιστορικά έγγραφα για το θαύμα του Αγίου Σπυρίδωνα το 1716 και την Λιτανεία
στην Κέρκυρα,

CHAPTER 07: Liston

Changing hands, 1807
Without any unrest

 Denis Brig, 2016 “In the shadow of the Napoleonic era. Mediterranean Expedition of Admiral Senyavin” Anonymous artist: Dmitry Nikolaevich
Senyavin, naval commander and diplomat (1763-1831).
Louis César Gabriel Berthier de Berluy, 1807, Commandeur de Corfù, Général de l'armée française, Corfù. Wikimedia Commons
The Imperial Order
Jaques-Louis David, 1805-7: The Coronation of the Emperor Napoleon I and the Crowning of the Empress Joséphine in Notre-Dame
Cathedral on December 2, 1804, Musée du Louvre, Paris
Élégance Française
François Pascal Simon Gérard, 1811-1812: portrait of Joachim Murat, Prince d’Empire, Grand Duke of Clèves and of Berg, King of Naples
under the name of Napoleon in 1808 (1767-1815), Marshal of France in 1804. Private Collection
Charles Mullié: General François-Xavier Donzelot, second French Governor-General of the Ionian Islands (1808–1814). Wikimedia Commons

CHAPTER 08: St George and Michael’s Palace

Uncontested rule, 1821
Change of course
St. George and Michael's Palace before 1864. M. Kokkalis archive. Museum of Asian Art, Corfu.
Unknown artist, “Sir Thomas Maitland”. Governor of Malta and the Ionian Islands 1815-1823. Thirlestane Castle
Karl Anton Hickel, 1793-95. National Portrait Gallery, London, NPG 745.
The protégé
Joseph Schranz, ca. 1830: “The Palace of St Michael and St George, Corfu”. Exhibition “Prossalendi’s Britannia – Historical Perspective “.
Curated by Megakles Rogakos, Ionian Academy, Corfu, 7 – 29 July 2018
Vlassis Tsonos, 2020: St. George and Michael's Palace, Corfu
Lady Nina
Vlassis Tsonos, 2020: St. George and Michael's Palace, Corfu, Music Event
The Ball
William Salte, 1848: Portrait of Sir Frederick Adams. National Portrait Gallery, London
Joseph Stieler, 1832: Otto I, King of Greece (1833-1862). Wittelsbacher Ausgleichfonds, München

CHAPTER 09: Ionian Academy

The Philhellene of Philhellenes, 1824
Hugh Douglas Hamilton, 1790: "Frederick North, the later 5th Earl of Guilford in Rome". National Gallery of the Art, Washington, D.C.
Mother Mary with Emperor Ioannes B Comnenus and his wife Empress Eirene Piroska of Hungary. Aghia So a Mosaics, Upper Gallery
Abolition of Slavery
John Rising, ca. 1790: “Portrait of William Wilberforce (1759-1833)”. Wilberforce House, Hull Museum. The abolition of slavery was a cause
championed by William Wilberforce, a Member of Parliament and philanthropist who was one of the most important and in uential gures. He
was soon joined by likeminded individuals who would bring the matter into the public sphere as well as the political sphere.

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 Turn of Fate
Thomas Lawrence, ca. 1815 “Prince von Metternich”. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien. The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was one of the
most important international conferences in European history. It remade Europe after the downfall of French Emperor Napoleon I strangulating
all forms of freedom. Prince von Metternich (1773 – 1859) was the heart of this policy and initiator of the Congress.
Johann Peter Krafft: Entry of Emperor Franz II into Vienna on 16 June 1814. Schloß Schönbrunn, Vienna
Conte Ioannis Capodistria (1776-1831), rst governor pf liberated Greece and founder of the Greek State. Capodistria, who served as the
Foreign Minister of the Russian Empire was one of the most distinguished politicians and liberal diplomats of Europe.
William Thomas Fry, after John Jackson (1817): Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford. National Portrait Gallery, London
The Vision
Edward Dodwell, 1821: Views in Greece, London
Theodor Vryzakis, 1861: The Reception of Lord Byron in Missolonghi. National Gallery of Greece
Joseph Cartwright, ca. 1820: Town, Citadel, and Harbor of Corfu, from the Island of Vido. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London
The Banquet
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1815: Portrait Drawing of Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford. Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney
Bookplate in Greek of Frederick North, fth Earl of Guildford from a 17th-century work on Swedish church history by Johannes Baazius. The
Greek reads O archon tes Ionikes Akademias Komes Guilford, referring to the Ionian Academy which he was instrumental in founding, owing to his
lifelong philhellenism.
30.000 books
Signature of Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford on title page: “E libris Comitis Guilford”. Colloquium Charitativum (1645: Torun). Acta
Conuentus Thoruniensis, 1646
The Will
Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford, Boschietto, Corfu
"Catalogue of the library of the late earl of Guilford. Which will be sold by auction, by mr. Evans". Volume 5. Digitized by Google.

CHAPTER 10: Ionian Parliament

Union, 1864
Napoleon
Andrea Appiani, 1805: “Portrait of Napoleon as King of Italy”, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
Francis Hayman, ca. 1760 " Mir Jafar and Robert Clive after the Battle of Plassey". National Portrait Gallery 5263. The victory increased the
British military might and pushed the other European colonial powers such as the Dutch and the French out of South Asia, thus expanding the
British Empire.

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 Merchants of the Republic

Flag of the Settinsular Republic
Joseph Cartwright, 1821: View of the Town and Harbour of Vathi in Ithaca. London: Published by R. Havell, March 1821
Spyridon Scarvellis (1868-1942): Old Fortress of Corfu, Bonham Auction House
François Léon Prieur-Bardin, ca. 1900: Constantinople. Auction House Invaluable, Lausanne
Ottoman Edict (Firman) for the Regulation of Trade with the Settinsular Republic. Source: https://atcorfu.com/corfu-history/
The Radicals
Joseph Cartwright, 1821: The Piazza of Saint Mark, in Zante. Private Collection
Joseph Cartwright, 1821: Corfu - Views of the Ionian Islands. Private Collection
Napoleon again
Jacques-Louis David, 1801: "Napoleon Crossing the Alps". Schloss Charlottenburg, Berlin
British Rule
British coat of arms surrounded by the emblems of the seven Ionian Islands comprising the British amical protectorate of the United States of
the Ionian Islands.
Coinage from the United States of the Ionian Islands. Numista
Unknown artist: “Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Maitland (1759–1824), Governor of Malta and the Ionian Islands”. Thirlestane Castle

Secret Diplomacy
ERT Digital Archives: “Photograph of Charilaos Trikoupis”, Open Access. Charilaos Trikoupis was a Greek politician who served as a Prime
Minister of Greece seven times from 1875 until 1895.
Coat of Arms of Austria and Hungary. Peter Crawford, Wikimedia Commons
Unknown. Ionian Parliament Members - Ιστορία του ελληνικού έθνους, ΙΓ´, 1977, page 234
Armorial bearings of Russian Empire according to the "Manifesto on Full Blazon of All-Russian Empire", presented to Emperor on October 13,
1800. Wikimedia Commons
Andrei Rublev, 1425–27: "Trinity". Rublev's famous icon showing the three Angels being hosted by Abraham at Mambré. Tretyakov Gallery in
Moscow
"Union", Corfu Local Biweekly Paper, 24th of January 1864

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 Credits

Author: Dorothea Papathanasiou

Producer: Konstantinos Papanikolaou, COMITECH

Art Director: Mauro Scaramella

Photographer: Vlassis Tsonos

Series Editor: Dorothea Papathanasiou

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Published by: CULTUREPOLIS

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First Prize Award in the category World Heritage Sites at the 12th International Tourism Film Festival Art and Tour 2019
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ISBN 978-618-851-90-0-8
Place of publication: Corfu Date of publication: 2020