Determination of Parameters of

Crystal Latticed Surfaces

Composed of Hexagonal
Plane Facets
G.N. Pavlov

Civil Engineering Institute, Gorky 603000, Krasnoflotskaya, 65, USSR

(Received 27th June 1989; revised version received 13th November 1989)

ABSTRACT: This paper offers a generalized view about the networks of system
"B", which allows the construction of geodesic domes from hexagonal plane
panels. The principle behind the method of subdivision, the general scheme of
parameter notation, the table of classification of types of breakdown, and exam-
ple computer drawings are given. It was found that up to the fourth variant of
subdivision all plane faces were symmetrical, but that further subdivisions lead
to the appearance of plane units of asymmetrical form. Examples are presented
tv illustrate the use of "B" type breakdowns in practical architectural
projects.

1. Introduction define a triangulation of the face such that each

triangle can be divided into two equal but enan-
The method used by the author for building tiomorphic parts. (The dividing lines define a
polyhedra with plane regular hexagon faces con- triangular edge network of the dual configuration.)
sists of first cutting the sphere along the shorter
perpendicular sides of the Schwarz triangles, (Fig.
I). All these faces are planar hexagons, bounded by
straight sides. The next step of the cutting process
is to draw intersecting planes through three known
adjacent vertices of the first row of faces. The
method then continues until the full cutting of the
whole spherical surface is completed. Depending
on the form of initial spherical Schwarz triangles -
icosahedral, octahedral or tetrahedral -taken for
cutting, at the end of this process there appear faces
in the form of a pentagon, a square, or a
triangle, respectively.
Fig. 1. Cutting of a sphere surface by placing the first row of
The above method of sphere cutting allows each plane regular hexagonal facets along the lines of shorter per-
face to have a circumscribed circle lying on the pendicular sides of Schwarz triangles (DB E). The second and
spherical surface, and the vertices and the centre of consecutive rows will lie concentrically with respect to an
the circumscribed circle of each hexagonal face acute apex of the triangle DBE.

International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990 169


Fig. 2. Calculating schemes of breakdown and representation
of parameters on the two schemes dual to each other:
(a) the positioning of standard members within a
Schwarz triangle;
(b) the principle scheme of a breakdown with the nodal
points numbering scheme;
If the centre is raised up to the sphere surface,
then each facet could be represented as an
assembly of 12 right spherical triangles (Figs. 2,3).
The geometric solution of this triangulation pro-
blem is presented as an algorithm for calculating
trigonometric parameters for a given kind of grid
subdivision. In the process of developing the
algorithm, it was found that the intially assumed
regularity of cutting is true only up to the fourth
variant of the problem; that is, up to the break-
down of the sphere onto 5670 triangular units
(cells). With any further increase in the number of
units there begin to appear asymmetrical hex-
agons; some facets become strongly stretched and
some facets even degenerate.
The author has published the parameters of
only the first four variants of subdivision [1,2].
2. Calculation Scheme of Network
Breakdown
Plane hexagons composed of 12 equal right-
angled triangles are located on the line DE of the
shorter perpendicular side of the right-angled
Schwarz triangle (Figs. 2,3). By extending the lon-
170
Crystal Latticed Surfaces
C)
(c) the marking of parameters for "BI" subsystem
schemes;
(d) the marking of breakdown parameters for "B2" subsys-
tem schemes;
(e) the numbering of Schwarz triangle sectors within a
Mobius triangle.
ger perpendicular sides of these triangles up to the
points of their intersection with each other and
with the line DB, the centre ofhexagonal figures of
the second row is found. This method of subdivi-
sion should be continued further so that each sub-
sequent hexagon consists of 12 right-angled
triangles with identical hypotenuses. This method
results in a sphere with a latticed surface consisting
fully of right-angled triangles.
If in the scheme of breakdown, the shorter per-
pendicular sides are identified by a bold line, there
appears on the sphere a honeycomb-like pattern.
Since the hypotenuses ofthe right-angled triangles
inside the hexagonal figures are identical, all the
vertices of the hexagonal facets are in the same
plane. Therefore, the resultant arbitrary polyhed-
ron consists almost completely ofplane hexagonal
facets.
The initial calculation parameter for each
variant of the breakdown is arc size 2 located on
the line DE (see Fig. 2). Since the line DE could be
subdivided into an arbitrary number of identical
arcs, the whole totality of subdivision types is
designated by the word "system" and the mode of
subdivision is denoted by "B". (The author has
International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990
G.N Pavlov

Fig. 3. Marking the parameters of the seventh variant of

breakdown C"17640-B" and "7008-BO").

International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990 171

 Crystal Latticed Surfaces

investigated six methods of subdivision, denoted variant; two hexagons in the sixth vaiant; three in
by A,B,C,D,E,F, this method is one of them.) Cor- the seventh; and so on (Fig. 3).
respondingly, icosahedral breakdowns are ref- Asymmetry of faces for other kinds of cuttings
erred to as system "Boo, octahedral as system "BO" develops even earlier.
and tetrahedral as system "BT". Besides this asymmetry of hexagonal faces, one
The schemes of breakdown shown in Fig. 2 cor- other class of hexagonal figures situated on the line
respond to the first four variants of the problem, DB can be observed, which as they approach the
and on close examination of the marking of arcs point B, begin stretching. This happens because
and angles, it can be noted that all hexagonal the uppermost lateral sides of the hexagonal faces
figures are symmetrical. Beginning from the fifth decrease in size.
variant of the problem in icosahedral cuttings, With every subsequent variant of the problem,
there appear asymmetric hexagons according to these lines become smaller and smaller, and
the following numbers: one hexagon in the fifth finally disappear altogether so that the hexagonal

Table 1. Classification of Types of Breakdowns in System "B"

"

~ ~ i.~
"j :
Br~'lkdownn in 3yste:n " Bl" Breakdown in sYstem. " B2 "
';J
~e Pumber of types of ele~ents § NWDber of type~ of ele~.nts
,.
.o
.......,."l
...o .
~
'/il
0" ~
..
nodes

" ...," g.
o
~
....
'ri
.,
')
c,
II]
e-, o " .,
0

[-< >, "

35C 18(' :J 2 3 - 2 ,? 2 2 1 - 2
l41~0 72C 6 5 6 - 3 4 ,~
2 4C 4 3 - 3
11 6 540 7 5 1 5
i ~2
3240 1620 10 10 157
5760 2880 15 17 16 3711 8 960 11 11 3 7
9000 15 4500 20 24 23 5 9 16 10 1500 16 17 5 9
12960 18 6l~80 25 31 30 7 11 21 12 2160 21 23 7 11
17 640 21 8820 30 38 37 9 13 26 14 2940 26 29 9 13
22800 23 11400 32 43 43 11 15 30 16 31 35 11 15
28920 26 14460 37150 50 13 17 35 18 36 41 13 17
3576C 29 17880 42 57 57 15 19 40 20 6000 15 19
"3320 32 21660 47161 61 17 21 45 22 7260 46 53 17 21
51600 35 25800 52 I 71 71 19 23 50 24 8640 ® 51 59 19 23

BrenkdlJvms in Subsystem n Bel" Breakdowns in Subsyetem "BO.? "

144 3 72 3 2 3 2 2 2 2'1 f';, 2 1 2
576 6 288 6 5 6 3 4 4 96 \l 4 3 3
1296 9 648 10 10 11 5 7 6 216 ® 7 5 1 5
2304 12 1152 15 i7 16 3 7 11 8 384 f';, 11 11 3 7
3552 1776 17 22 22 5 9 15 10 600 \1 16 17 5 9
5136 17 2568 2; 29 29 7 11 20 12 864 ® 21 23 7 11
70C8 20 3504 27 36 36 9 13 25 14 t:::.
1179 26 29 9 13
9120 23 "560 32 43 43 11 15 30 16 1528 \l 31 35 11 15

Breakdo',ms in Subsystem'" BTl " Breakdowns in Subsystem "BTZ"

72 3 36 3 2 3 2 2 2 12 t:::. 2 1 2

~ 288 6 144 6 5 6 3 4 4 48\1 4 3 2

!i
648 9 32'1 10 10 11 1 5 7 6 108 00 7 5 1 5
1152 12 576 15 17 16 3 7 11 I 8 192 t:::. 11 11 3 7

172 International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990

G.N Pavlov
figures degenerate into trapezoidal ones. By com-
puterized calculations it was found that in
icosahedral breakdowns such degeneration begins
from the eighth variant ofthe problem, in octahed-
ral cutting from the fifth variant, and in tetrahedral
cutting from the third variant of the problem,
respectively.
3. Classification of Breakdown Types
Graduation of breakdown types corresponds to
the number ofequal divisions ofthe side DE of the
Schwarz triangles. General data about all the types
of breakdown considered are given in Table 1.
B
a
f
e
International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990
Asterisks mark those types of breakdown from
which degeneration of hexagonal figures into
trapezoidal ones begins. The classification is given
by dividing the basic scheme of breakdown into
two dual subsystems distinguished by means of
adding either 1 or 2 to the main indexes of the
breakdown schemes. The author uses the follow-
ing designation for each type ofbreakdown: "2880-
Bl", "864-B02" (read as "2880-faceted icosahedral
breakdown of the first subsystem", "864-faceted
octahedral breakdown of the second subsystem").
The full designation of an other type of subdivision
is: "43320-B" ("21660-B1 " + "7260-B2").
Fig. 4-1. Schemes of several sections of break-
down singled out for the sake of calculation con-
venience: (a) step H-l, (b) step H-2, (c) iterating
section (cycle TC), (d) step TK-I (marking corres-
ponds to the problem with ine cycle TC), (e) final
step K-2, (f) final step K-l.
173
 Crystal Latticed Surfaces

Fig. 4-2. Computer drawings of the first six variants of breakdown.

174 International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990

G.N. Pavlov

Fig. 3 illustrates the marking of the dihedral
angles of the arcs for breakdown. By analysing
such schemes of cutting it was found that the pro-
cess of calculating the parameters may be per-
formed by means of marking out two initial steps
-mark them as H-I and H-2 ofthe typically repeat-
ing cycle TC , and four final steps - K-I , K-2, and
TK-I , TK-2. In Fig. 4 little circles mark out the
triangles solvable in every -§'tep, and figures show
the succession of their solution.
By employing these schemes it is possible to
write an algorithm for calculating any variant of
the problem. Furthermore, these very schemes are
the basis of an algorithm for calculating any
variant of the problem. Furthermore, these very
schemes are the basis of an algorithm for
numerically calculating the nodal point co-
ordinates.

Fig. S. Assembly of layered domes

Fig. 6. Model of a dome assembled from circular overlapping

panels. Type of breakdown "4500-BI".

International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990 175


4. Architectural Design of Domes and
Shells
The network breakdowns con sidered here are
optimal for constructing shells assembled from
typically plane panel units. They were found to be
very useful for constructing a form oflayered shell
as well, see for example Figs. 6 and 7, which can be
assembled by laying the edges of flat plates over
each other and bolting them (or riveting) together.
The construction of the structure is begun from the
edge beams (Fig. 6), and proceeds upwards tier by
tier. An interesting sculptured (fish-seale-like) sur-
face is thus produced (Fig. 6).
The author has designed and built several
layered domes in the cities of Gorky and Baku.
They have been constructed of different materials:
e.g., aluminium, waterproof plywood and fib-
reglass plastic plates. The method of their design is
demonstrated by the examples of their erection
and modelling.
Figs. 7 and 8 illustrate the models of two domes
designed by using a subdivision based on icos-
Fig. 7. Model of a dome based on breakdown "2880-BI".
176
Crystal Latticed Surfa ces
ahedral breakdown "2880-Bl" and octahedral
breakdown "2568-BOl " respectively. The first
model is composed of five full Mobius triangles,
and the second has 4 octahedral Mobius triangles.
Fig. 9 illustrates an example obtained by project-
ing a dome with a circular base ring, the line of
which is on the level of the Mobius triangle
(broken line). The size of incomplete units, joining
the base ring, is defined according to the values of
the nodal point coordinates.
Two variants of the dome where the panels are
butt joined can be seen in Fig. 10. In the first
variant the framework of the dome is on the inner
side, and it is constructed from volumetric units
made of fibre concrete. In the second variant, the
dome framework is on the outside, and it is
assembled by means ofjoints attached to the high
points of the spherical convex volumetric units.
The coordinates of the joints are calculated
according to the data of the breakdown "960-B2",
and the dimensions of the hexagonal fibre-
concrete units by the breakdown "2880-B1".
International Journal of Spa ce Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990
G.N. Pavlov

Fig. 8. Model of a dome based on breakdown "2568-BOl".

Fig. 9-1. Assemhly scheme of a dome hased on breakdown "14460-B \"0.

International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990 177

 Crystal Latticed Surfaces

',>-----,---- ---'--, /III .., • n

l' .
\1 UI"5R _
1
2
60
15
15
16
10
15
10
~
3 1'1'+1
b
5 t
1I
5, 30
40
18
III
20
II
II
5
21 1
8!S'
II
LS
30
s-
6· 18
g.
11~'1'
15
19
B I".,.
20
12 6·
IUI4' 14. Is
5IIlI

Fig. 9-2. General view of a model.

Fig. 11 illustrates the erection scheme and the
general view of the dome designed using the grid-
type "4500-B1". This is the fifth variant of the
breakdown where for the first time there appears
an asymmetrical unit, namely N5.
As has been mentioned above, besides asym-
metrical units in many-cellular aggregations, there
appear degenerate units as well. These resulting
irregularities are evident in Fig. 13.
Fig. 14 illustrates a dome developed using the
octahedral breakdown "2568-BO 1". The stretched
out hexagonal panels and the degenerate quad-
ragular units can be clearly seen. Fig. 15 illustrates
a model of a latticed dome with cells in the shape
of triangles based on the octahedral 2568-facet
breakdown. Of special interest is the ornamental
pattern at the zenith of the dome. This pattern is
not a product of artificial construction, but is a
direct result of employing the breakdown of the
"B" type. The ornamental pattern has threefold
rotational symmetry in tetrahedral breakdowns,
and fivefold rotational symmetry in icosahedral
subdivisions. It is obvious that this regularity can
be used in the design as an additional aesthetic
element.
The number of element types in "B" systems is

178 International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990

C.N Pavlov

Fig. 10-1. Model of a dome based on breakdown "2880- BI".

Fig. 10-2. Model of a dome constructed from fibre-concrete

members based on breakdown "2880-BI" and "960-B2".

International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990 179

 Crystal Latticed Surfaces

-----
~-1~ __-- - - ----

-"I
-J: I I'
\~ ( 1)

'I ~\I
\
Fig. 11-1. Facade and assembly
scheme of a dome shed
(breakdown "45()()-BI").

a
\

180 International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990

G.N Pavlov

comparatively small, and this is why these break-
downs are ideal for constructing lattice shells. Fig.
16 gives an example of such a lattice dome. From
the compositional point of view the dome is
formed of five Mobius triangles with the three
lower levels deleted in order to reduce the camber
height of the dome. The dome is double-layered.
The lower layer is in the shape of a triangular grid,
the upper consists of hexagonal cells.
The members of the dome are aluminium tubes
with flattened ends , and the dome is assembled by
joining (with a single bolt) all tubes meeting at one
point. The posts connecting the two layers are
metal tubular distance bars. Cables are used for
the inclined members. This dome served as a large
scale test model to evaluate total stability of the
structure and to improve the method of erection. It
was shown in practice that the erection of domes
with small spans and simplified nodal construc-
tions is quite efficient. A number oflatticed domes
with membrane cladding designed by the author
(1973-1975) are still in use.

Fig. 11-2. General view of a dome shed.

Fig. 12. A dome in the shape of a quarter of a sphere. Open- air concert stage. (Breakdown type "2880-BI").

International Journal of Spac e Stru ctures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990 181
 Crystal Latticed Surfaces

Fig.B-t. Model ofa shell based on the 12th variant of break-down ·'51600-B".

Fig. 13-2. Compositional employment of a shell in the design of an exhibition pavilion.

Fig. 14. A dome for a storehouse based on breakdown type "2568-BOI"',

182 International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos, 3&41990

G.N. Pavlov

Fig. 15. Model of reticular dome based on breakdown type

"2568-B01".

Fig . 16. A reticular dome based

on breakdown "5760-B".

. .
co;

.I
\
o
/ \

_ 0
, \
c
/ \
\

International Journal of Space Stru ctures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990

 Crystal Latticed Surfaces

Fig. 17. A double-layered dome with pyramidal units based on breakdown "360-B".

Fig. 18. A double-layered dome with pyramidal units based on breakdown "360-B".

Fig. 19. Model of the dome designed on a meridian-and-ring variant of the "B" system breakdown.

184 International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&41990

G.N. Pavlov
Figs. 17 and 18 illustrate the erection of double-
layered domes designed by setting trihedral
pyramids on triangular large-cell networks. In the
sleeping pavilion project (Fig. 17), a single
pyramid was set on each triangular cell, while in
the case of the "RUBY" dome (Fig. 18), there were
four pyramids per triangular cell. In both cases the
dome was assembled from large-scale units ofonly
two types.
Breakdowns of the "B" system may also be
employed in projecting shells for meridian-and-
ring type domes. Fig. 19 gives an example of pro-
jecting a spherical dome based on the parameters
of the "B" system breakdown. It is worth noting
that the line DE of the Schwarz triangle may be
considered as a equatorial line and the vertiallines
of the network as meridional ones. Several rows of
the hexagonal units located on line DEform a sec-
tion of a spherical vault. By using only a certain
number of meridional sections it is possible to
design domes with any desired camber height.
Fig. 20. General view of an erected dome.
International Journal of Space Structures Vol. 5 Nos. 3&4 1990
5. Conclusions
The method of sphere cutting called mode "B"
allows many-faceted surfaces to be obtained, con-
sisting almost completely of plane hexagons. The
resulting regularity means that in the first four
variants ofthe subdivision, all facets are symmetri-
cal. Beginning from the fifth variant there appear
asymmetrical facets, and the facets located on the
hypotenuse of Schwarz triangles became stretched. In
many-cell grids (with the number offacets exceed-
ing 20,000) they even degenerate into
quadrangles.
Network breakdowns of the "B" system possess
a great aesthetical expressiveness for the following
reasons: they possess a clear ordering of the hex-
agonal surface; regularity in the violation of the
original symmetry of facets; and regularities in the
formation of ornamental grids on the surface of
polyhedra.
The criterion for optimum breakdown of the "B"
system is that there be a minimum number of hex-
agonal plane facet types, so that this kind of sub-
division is ideally used in constructing shells
assembled from plane panels. Experience has
shown, however, that grids of the "B" system can
also be employed for projecting lattice shells with a
triangular network, since the number of joint and
member types are comparatively small.
REFERENCES
1. Pavlov, G. Dome-like buildings of small span for erec-
tion in towns (in Russian). In Trudy Gor'kovskogo
inzehenemo-stroitel'nogo instituta, 6, 1975,50-53.
2. Pavlov, G., Gogoleva, N. Golov, G. Decorative crystal
structures as a landscaping object (in Russian). In Izves-
tija vuzov, Stroitel'stvo i Arkhitektura 4, 1980,62-64.
185