Mekelle University

EIT-M
Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle University

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Parabolic Solar Trough Design and Product Development

Prepared By Abel Asrat

Company Advisor-Hilawe Lakew

Production Manager-Asrat

Project Mentor-Leake

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 Acknowledgment
I would like to thank God and my beloved family for their support. Following that I would
not like to pass without admiring and acknowledging my company manager Hilawe Lakew
who helped me in every step of the way starting from sharing his valuable experience in the
energy field to the extent of financing the project. Also my gratitude goes to Asrat who is
production manager and owner of Mare Engineering for assisting me and helping me in
successfully producing the prototype of the product. I also thank my internship mentor Leake
for his expertise advice and unlimited cooperation.

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Table of Contents
List of Figures...............................................................................................................................x

List of Tables............................................................................................................................... xiii

Nomenclature............................................................................................................................xiv

List of Acronym............................................................................................................................xviii

Contents
Chapter One ............................................................................................................................................ 1
Company Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1Brief History ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Product and Service ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Customers and Users .................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Overview of selected relevant experience ................................................................................... 1
Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................................ 2
Internship Experience ............................................................................................................................. 2
Chapter Three ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Parabolic Solar Trough Collector for Institutional Cooking..................................................................... 4
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 4
3.2 Problem statement and justification ............................................................................................ 4
3.2.1 Institutional Cooking .............................................................................................................. 4
3.2.2 Institutional energy utilization for cooking in Ethiopia Universities ...................................... 6
3.3 Objective of the project ................................................................................................................ 6
3.4 Methodology................................................................................................................................. 7
Chapter Four ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Literature Review .................................................................................................................................... 8
4.1Renewable Energy ......................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.1 Renewable Energy Technology .............................................................................................. 8
4.1.2 Renewable energy resource potential in Ethiopia ................................................................. 8
4.2 Solar Energy .............................................................................................................................. 9
4.2.1Solar radiation ......................................................................................................................... 9
4.2.2Advantage and disadvantage of solar energy ....................................................................... 10
4.3Solar Radiation Devices and Collectors........................................................................................ 10

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 4.3.1The flat plate collectors ........................................................................................................ 10
4.3.2 A parabolic trough ............................................................................................................... 13
Chapter Five .......................................................................................................................................... 17
Design, Simulation and Manufacturing of the Prototype ..................................................................... 17
5.1 Direction of Beam Radiation ....................................................................................................... 17
5.1.1Declination angle (δ) ............................................................................................................. 18
5.1.2 Latitude ................................................................................................................................ 19
5.1.3 Hour angle (h) ...................................................................................................................... 19
5.1.4 Solar Altitude angle (α) ........................................................................................................ 19
5.1.5 Solar Azimuth angle (z) ........................................................................................................ 21
5.1.6 Surface Azimuth angle (Zs) ................................................................................................... 21
5.1.7 Beam radiation tilt factor (RB) .............................................................................................. 21
5.1.8 Intensity of Extraterritorial radiation (Gon ) ......................................................................... 22
5.1.9 Beam radiation ..................................................................................................................... 22
5.2 OPTICAL AND THERMAL ANALYSIS OF PARABOLIC TROUGH COLLECTOR.................................. 23
CHAPTER SIX.......................................................................................................................................... 36
Manufacturing Process ......................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Seven ....................................................................................................................................... 41
Test Standards and Testing Equipment ................................................................................................ 41
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 41
7.2 Instrumentation (Apparatus) and Methods of Testing ............................................................... 41
7.2.1 Solar radiation measurement .............................................................................................. 41
7.2.2 Temperature measurements ............................................................................................... 41
Chapter Eight ........................................................................................................................................ 42
Result and Discussion............................................................................................................................ 42
Chapter Nine ......................................................................................................................................... 43
Conclusion and Recommendation ........................................................................................................ 43
References ............................................................................................................................................ 44

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List of Figures
Figure 4.1 Flat plate collectors ..................................................................................................6

Figure 4.2 Flat Plate collectors cross section ..........................................................................9

Figure 4.3 Solar Collectors ................................................................................................ 9

Figure 4.4 parabolic troughs...................................................................................................... 10

Figure 5.1 Definition of latitude, hour angle and solar declination…………………….........15

Figure 5.2 Definition of the sun...............................................................................................16

Figure 5.3Apparent daily path of the sun .............................................................................18

Figure 5.4 Cross section of a parabolic tough collector with circular receiver ......................20

Figure 5.5 Rim angle diagram ....................................................................................................21

Figure 5.6 Thermal resistance models ......................................................................................22

Figure 5.7 Radiation on a surface .............................................................................................. 21

Figure 5.6 Radiation view factors ..............................................................................................22

List of Tables

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Table 4.3 Solar collector’s comparison table..............................................................................11

Table 5.1 Day number and recommended average day of month ..........................................22

Table 5.3 Heat transfer mode and transfer path ..................................................................... 35

Table 5.4 Constants for the circular cylinder ............................................................................36

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List of Acronym
ERG: Ethio Resource Group

EITM: Ethiopian Institute of Technology Mekelle University

EIABC: Ethiopian Institute of Architecture Building and Construction

CSP: Concentrated Solar Power

DSG: Direct Steam Generation

DNR: Direct Normal Radiation

HCE: Heat Collecting Element

HTF: Heat Transfer Fluid Lab VIEW Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench

NI: National Instruments

PTCs: Parabolic-Trough Collectors

SEGS: Solar Electric Generating System

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 Chapter One

Company Background
1.1Brief History
Ethio Resource Group (ERG) is a private energy, environment research, consulting and
Service Company established in December 2005 by four professionals working in the fields
of energy and environment, development, and finance.
ERG has good reputation for the services it provides in the energy and environment sectors.
The company is competent and has well qualified professionals in the fields of renewable
energy, environment and development. ERG provides technical assistance to federal and
regional government ministries, non-governmental organizations and private clients.

1.2 Product and Service

 Renewable energy resource assessment,

 Feasibility studies, business plans, design and development of renewable energy systems,
baseline studies, and socio-economic impact studies of energy programs
 Project identification, concept design and planning, and program development
 Development of energy policies, strategies and plans at the national, regional and sectoral
levels using energy system analysis models,
 Market development for energy technologies,
 Energy technology/ product development,
 Monitoring and evaluation of energy and development projects, and
RET technical capacity development

1.3 Customers and Users

 Federal and regional government ministries
 Non-governmental organizations
 Private clients

1.4 Overview of selected relevant experience

1. Impact evaluation of Community Managed Renewable Energy Project. The project was
co-funded by the European Union Energy Facility and Plan International. Project was
implemented in 4 Woredas in Oromia, Amhara and Southern Nations Nationalities and
Peoples Regional States, August 2012.

2. Alternative energy resource assessment and detail design preparation for an Eco Lodge in
Bale National Park, Campbell Management Service, July – August 2012

3. Feasibility Study for Ethanol Micro Distilleries in Ethiopia (World Bank and Nordic
Climate Fund, December 2011 – ongoing)

4. Review of the Clean Cooking Sector in Ethiopia (SNV Ethiopia, December 2011)

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 Chapter Two

Internship Experience
During my internship tenure I have been assigned by the company manager to work
on renewable energy field where the company has shown a great deal of interest to
research for alternate energy resource for institutional cooking. After researching and
studying about alternate energy source I agreed to develop a parabolic solar trough
collector prototype for institutional cooking.

In order to accomplish my project I have conducted a ground observation to clearly

comprehend the energy utilization of higher institution for cooking which include a
data survey collection and interview in EIABC (Ethiopian Institute Of Architecture
Building and Construction).Following that I was working on the design and product
development of the parabolic solar trough collector .To overcome my project
challenges I have gone through a lot of reading , visited different sites that have a
relevance to my study and attended workshop that can broaden my perspective on the
energy sector.

During my practical attachment period I was also able to upgrade my theoretical knowledge
by working on a project that ultimately challenges you to apply it in a local context. Working
on my project has allowed me to find solution and design products from materials that can be
accessed locally even if they can profoundly affect the performance or efficiency of the
product that is being developed.
Regarding practical skills I have developed an immense experience by going through
all the necessary steps that are required to manufacture the prototype of the parabolic
solar trough.

The first task I was assigned to accomplish by the company manager was to
understand the company overall interest in business engagement and contribute
something tangible that can produce an outcome in the near future. As a result of this
I was able to go through all the necessary steps including research, consulting, design
and manufacturing.

Even though the company have got fewer personnel’s but I have had the opportunity
to always consult my work progress with the company manager and I was assigned
fully in charge of my project. As a result of this I was able to absorb a great deal of
knowledge from the experience of my company manager.

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During the internship period I was able to develop the company work ethics which
focuses on meeting a deadline of a project and punctuality. Regarding the
entrepreneurship skills I was able to broaden my perspective on the wide range of the
energy sector business that can be worked from micro enterprise level to a point of
mega projects that still remain untapped business potential in the energy sector.

I have also engaged in the testing of improved rocket stoves that was developed to
solve the problem of cracking of clay and maneuverability for transportation.

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 Chapter Three

Parabolic Solar Trough Collector for Institutional Cooking

3.1 Introduction
Being born and raised in a nation that brand its public image as Thirteen Months of
Sunshine now has every reason to brand itself as Thirteen Months of Energy Source
because of it’s vast, untapped and clean energy resources that can be harnessed from
solar, water and wind. For quite long time we were depending on our dense forest
resource to meet up our energy consumption that is mainly consumed for cooking
which ultimately caused depletion of our forest resource. Currently the depletion of
our forest resource and our reliance on unaffordable carbon fuel is compelling us to
look for sustainable, clean, cheap and renewable resources.

For a nation like Ethiopia which is located proximately to the equator and that
receives adequate sunshine throughout the year with annual daily average radiation
reaching the ground estimated to be 5.2 kWh/m2 /day should consider solar energy as
alternate energy resource. At this moment there are good indicators that shows
Ethiopia interest in the solar energy field and the opening of the world first solar
kiosk; companies like Total that are known in selling carbon fuel products are also
renovating their gas station to operate with solar technologies, mega factories like
Derban Cement are producing zero carbon emission because of their environment
friendly adaptation of technologies.

In this project I have designed and manufactured a parabolic solar trough and tested
its efficiency. The completion of this project will allow my company to strength its
engagement with higher institution in providing alternate energy resource for cooking.

3.2 Problem statement and justification

3.2.1 Institutional Cooking

Institutions like universities, hospitals, prisons, boarding schools, and hotels utilize a
high amount of energy in order to provide food service to the communities in their
institution. These institutions mainly depend on three ways to acquire the needed
energy for their cooking, firewood and wood charcoal (traditional cooking), electric
power and liquid petroleum gas (LPG).

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  Traditional cooking- Mainly uses the burning of firewood or charcoal as a
source in order to acquire the needed energy for cooking. This method of
cooking was in practice for a long period of time and its one of the main cause
for the depletion of our forest resource. Traditional burning of wood is not a
clean energy resource and is responsible for indoor pollution that causes health
problems especially affecting the respiratory system and the eyes.
 Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) - LPG gases in spite of their high efficiency
they are not free from health risk, very expensive (sky rocketing price of
petroleum in world market), currently institutions are abandoning the LPG
technology because of its unaffordability. LPG also requires strict caution for
safety and they also are not widely available.

Electric Stoves- electric stoves are being widely adapted in institutions to meet the
demand of high energy in a more efficient way than the traditional way of cooking.

 Electric stoves are an effective way of cooking with clean energy and zero
indoor pollution. One of the disadvantages of electric stoves are they are not a
reliable resource especially in a developing nation like Ethiopia that is
struggling to meet the demand of electric power. Also electric stoves
completely rely on consistent and uninterrupted power supply. Power
interruption and fluctuation can greatly affect the schedule of meal services,
unless we prepare or provide some other way of energy supply (generators)
that takes over during which obviously incur additional cost.

In the near future the energy demand on institutions will rise up dramatically
following the increase of enrolling capacity. At the same time the unreliability of
nonrenewable energy resources sums up with their spiraling up costs compels us to
look for cheap, clean and reliable energy resources.

When we look out the vast alternative energy resources that are available in Ethiopia
solar energy, wind energy, hydropower is among the list. But for institution utilization
the consideration of solar technology is very crucial because solar energy is
abundantly present resource. Currently more research, product development and
technology adaptation is occurring in solar energy area. Fastest growing economies
like India and Brazil are adapting a green economy policy to utilize solar energy

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resource and using parabolic trough they are able to generate steam that is used for
cooking. The steam generated from parabolic trough is vastly used in religious
institution, schools and community centers that serve thousands per day.

3.2.2 Institutional energy utilization for cooking in Ethiopia Universities

In a 2011 data survey collected by ERG (Ethio Resource Group) states that around
214420 students are studying in 32 governmental universities from this total amount
of student’s 166630 use cafeteria. In the process of providing meal to the students
64% of the energy that is used to cook is acquired from electricity and 36% percent of
it comes from wood.
Region Name no.of students no.students served Enj. Baked Fuel Used Fuel Used % Cooking Fuel Fuel Used %
oromia Adama 10554 10200 1 1E
addis ababa Addis Ababa 18553 13000 2 E&W E &W 0.65,0.35
tigray Aksum 6501 7000 1 E&W 0.85,0.15 W 1
oromia Ambo 5721 3500 1 E&W 0.55,0.45 E &W
SNNPR Arbaminch 12911 13200 1 E&W 0.8,0.2 E &W
Amhara Bahirdar 16185 15000 2 W 1
Amhara Debre Birhan 6120 6564 1W 1W 1
Amhara Debre Markos 5785 5150 2 W 1
SNNPR Dilla 8696 7799 2 W 1
Dire Dawa Dire Dawa 5982 5000 2
Amhara Gondar 11716
oromia Haremaya 14914 15000 1E 1E 1
SNNPR Hawassa 15284 12000 1W 1w 1
Somali Jijiga 6051
Oromia Jimma 16114 14000 2 E 1
Oromia Medewolabu 4606 3800 1 E&W 0.4,0.6 E &W
Tigray Mekelle 13468 13000 1E 1E 1
SNNPR Mizan-Tepi 4786
Afar Semera 3134 3000 2 W 1
SNNPR Wolaita-Sodo 5434 5817 1E 1W 1
oromia Wollega 7933 7600 2 E &W
Amhara Wollo 6719 6000 1 E&W 0.8,0.2 E &W
Addis Ababa AASTU 2000
Hosaena Wechamo 550
Asosa Asosa 1283
Welkite Welkite 600
Borena Bulihora 250
Wollo Weldiya 595
Adigrat Adigrat 1040
Illubabor Metu 300
Debre Tabor Debre Tabor1 635
Table3.2 Ethiopian higher institution energy utilization for cooking

3.3 Objective of the project

The objective of this project mainly focuses on researching, designing and developing
a proto type of parabolic sun trough collector using materials that can be accessed on
local market .The project will test the efficiency of the developed prototype and

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investigate its constraints and recommends a solution on how to make the product
cost effective, efficient and marketable. The completion of this project will allow the
company to look on the possibilities of investing, developing and promoting solar
energy technology in order to penetrate on the growing energy market.

3.4 Methodology
The methods employed to achieve the objectives of the research project are

 Literature Survey: Reviewing books, journals, articles and websites that

revolve around solar technology and their application in different countries.
 Energy Audit :Sample Survey, data collection
 Prototype Design: A prototype of the parabolic trough is designed with a
dimension that can easily be managed for production.
 Manufacturing Prototype: Once the design process is finished, the prototype is
manufactured. The Product is manufactured at one of the ERG sister company
called Mare Manufacturing and Construction
 Experimental Investigation: After the prototype is installed, experimental
investigation are conducted by recording data.
 Analysis and Interpreting the Result: The test results are compiled and
compared with the results obtained using a mathematical model to check the
validity of the result

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 Chapter Four

Literature Review
4.1Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy that comes from natural resources or uses energy sources
that are continually replenished by nature. Renewable energy resources play a vital
role in the energy sector. Renewable energies are unlimited in sources and sustainable
throughout the course of energy utilization. Renewable energy is preferred for having
lower environmental impact, lower emission of greenhouse gases, creating job
opportunity. The following are list of renewable energy resources that can be
harnessed to produce energy.

 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
 Biomass Energy
 Marine Energy
 Geothermal Energy

4.1.1 Renewable Energy Technology

Renewable technologies are technologies which turn renewable energies into usable
forms of energy such as electricity, heat, chemicals and mechanical power.

Solar energy₋ solar heater, PV

Wind energy₋ wind turbine, wind pumps

Hydropower₋ water turbines, water pumps

Marine energy₋ current turbine, wave energy convertor

Biomass energy₋ gasifier, combustion burner

Geothermal energy₋ heat exchangers, steam turbines

4.1.2 Renewable energy resource potential in Ethiopia

 Hydropower ₋45,000MW generating capacity potential
 Solar energy₋ expected to the highest category of the world

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  Wind energy₋10,000MW generating capacity
 Biomass
 Geothermal ₋5,000MW generating capacity

4.2 Solar Energy

Almost all the renewable energy sources originate entirely from the sun. The sun rays
that reach the outer atmosphere are subjected to absorption, reflection, and
transmission processes through the atmosphere before reaching the earth’s surface.
On the other hand, depending on the earth’s surface topography the solar radiation
shows different appearances. The emergence of interest in solar energy utilization has
taken place since 1970, principally due to the then rising cost of energy from
conventional sources.

4.2.1Solar radiation
Solar radiation is the world most abundant and permanent energy source and it’s the
best energy with a big potential for a decentralized generation in Ethiopia. The
amount of solar energy received by the surface of the earth per minute is greater than
the energy utilization by the entire population in one year. An assessment study
indicated in 2002, that the average daily solar radiation reaching Ethiopia ground is
5.2 K Wh⁄

For the time being, solar energy, being available everywhere, is attractive for stand-
alone systems particularly in the rural parts of developing nations. Occurrences of
solar energy dynamically all over the world in the forms of wind, wave, and
hydropower through the hydrological cycle provide abilities to ponder about their
utilization, if possible instantly or in the form of reserves by various conversion
facilities and technologies. It is also possible that in the very long term, human beings
might search for the conversion of ocean currents and temperature differences into
appreciable quantities of energy so that the very end product of solar radiation on the
earth will be useful for sustainable development.

The design of many technical apparatuses such as coolers, heaters, and solar energy
electricity generators in the form of photovoltaic cells, requires terrestrial irradiation
data at the study area. Scientific and technological studies in the last three decades
tried to convert the continuity of solar energy into sustainability for the human
comfort. Accurate estimations of global solar radiation need meteorological,

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geographic, and astronomical data and especially, much estimation models are based
on the easily measurable sunshine duration at a set of meteorology Stations.

4.2.2Advantage and disadvantage of solar energy

Solar energy has the following important advantages over the energy traditionally
obtained from the fossil fuels.

 It doesn’t not pollute the environment

 It doesn’t not introduce more heat into the atmosphere
 It is free
 It is practically unlimited to over time

At the present, solar energy is not the main source of energy used because

 Before the introduction of new solar technology the devices using solar energy
were more expensive than those relying on fossil fuels
 It has a small power density so we need large areas to collect significant
quantities of energy
 It is variable in time(night, day ,the season, the clouds)
 It cannot be stored in its original form

4.3Solar Radiation Devices and Collectors

Typical uses of solar radiation collectors can be grouped into four different categories

Depending on the purpose:

1. As a low-temperature heat source which may be used for domestic hot water or
crop drying purposes.

2. In order to power heat engines, relatively high heat collectors can be used.

3. Depending on the climate, the collectors can be used as high temperature heat to
power refrigerators and air conditioners.

4. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used for direct electricity production.

4.3.1The flat plate collectors

The flat plate collectors are based on two important principles: a black base that
absorbs the solar radiation better than any other color and a glass lid that is needed to

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keep the heat in. Its surface should be located perpendicularly to the solar radiation
direction for the maximum solar energy gain.

Figure 4.1 Flat Plate Collectors

Here the sun’s rays go through the glass cover and the air layer to warm up the black
metal plate which in turn warms the water. Unfortunately, the ordinary metal plate is
also warmed up. The heat insulation lagging keeps most of the heat inside the
sandwich. With the heat in the water, it has now to be moved to where good use can
be made of it. The simplest method for achieving this water movement is shown in
Fig. 4.1, the “"thermo-siphon” system. Its operation is based on the simple fact that
hot water will rise to settle above a quantity of cooler water. As the collector heats up,
the water in it rises out at the upper pipe and pushes its way into the top of the tank.
This hot water then displaces some of the cold in the tank, pushing it down and out of
the bottom. This heat-induced circulation is completed as the water, being pushed
down the pipe, comes round the bottom and back into the collector.

Different types of solar collectors are given in Fig. 4.3. Among these, the most
primitive is unglazed panels which are most suitable for swimming pool heating
where it is not necessary for the collectors to raise the temperature of the water to
more than a few degrees above ambient air temperature, so heat losses are relatively
unimportant.

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 Figure 4.2 Flat plate collector cross-sections (Howell 1986)

Flat plate collectors are the main stay of domestic solar water heating, these are
usually single glazed, but may have an additional second glazing layer. The more
elaborate the glazing system, the higher the temperature difference that can be
sustained between the absorber and the external wall. It is necessary and is usual that
the absorber plate should have a black surface with high absorptivity. In general, most
black paints reflect approximately 10% of the incident radiation. On the other hand,
flat plate air collectors are mainly used for space heating only. These type of
collectors are connected with photovoltaic panels for producing both heat and e
electricity. Evacuated tube collectors in Fig. 4.3 are in the form of a set of modular
tubes similar to fluorescent lamps. The absorber plate is a metal strip down the centre
of each tube. A vacuum in the tube suppresses convective heat losses.

In practice, most often the collectors do not move, and therefore, they must be located
such that during one day the maximum amount of solar radiation can be converted
into solar energy. For this reasons, fixed collectors must be located to face south
(north) in the northern (southern) hemisphere. This implies that for given a latitude
there is a certain angle which yields the maximum solar energy over the year. As a
practical rule, for low latitudes the angle of the collector is almost equivalent to the
angle of latitude, but increases by 10° at 40°N and 40°S latitudes. All these
arrangements are for flat-surfaced collectors. Typical temperatures that can be

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achieved by flat plate collectors vary between 40°C and 80°C depending on the
astronomic

Figure 4.3 Solar collectors

4.3.2 A parabolic trough

Parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal energy collector. It is constructed as a long
parabolic mirror (usually coated silver or polished aluminum) with a Dewar tube
running its length at the focal point. Sunlight is reflected by the mirror and
concentrated on the Dewar tube. The trough is usually aligned on a north-south axis,
and rotated to track the sun as it moves across the sky each day.

Parabolic trough power plants use a curved, mirrored trough which reflects the direct
solar radiation onto a glass tube containing a fluid (also called a receiver, absorber or
collector) running the length of the trough, positioned at the focal point of the
reflectors. The trough is parabolic along one axis and linear in the orthogonal axis.
For change of the daily position of the sun perpendicular to the receiver, the trough
tilts east to west so that the direct radiation remains focused on the receiver. However,
seasonal changes in the in angle of sunlight parallel to the trough does not require
adjustment of the mirrors, since the light is simply concentrated elsewhere on the
receiver. Thus the trough design does not require tracking on a second axis.

The receiver may be enclosed in a glass vacuum chamber. The vacuum significantly
reduces convective heat loss.

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 Figure 4.4 Parabolic Trough

4.3.2.1Heat Collection and Exchange in Parabolic Trough

More energy is contained in higher frequency light based upon the formula of E = hν,
where h is Planck's constant. Metal collectors down convert higher frequency light by
producing a series of Compton shifts into an abundance of lower frequency light.
Glass or ceramic coatings with high transmission in the visible and UV and effective
absorption in the IR (heat blocking) trap metal absorbed low frequency light from
radiation loss. Convection insulation prevents mechanical losses transferred through
gas. Once collected as heat, thermos containment efficiency improves significantly
with increased size. Unlike Photovoltaic technologies that often degrade under
concentrated light, Solar Thermal depends upon light concentration that requires a
clear sky to reach suitable temperatures.

Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain; heat
transfer; heat storage; heat transport; and heat insulation. Here, heat is the measure of
the amount of thermal energy an object contains and is determined by the
temperature, mass and specific heat of the object. Solar thermal power plants use heat
exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat
exchange.

 Heat gain is the heat accumulated from the sun in the system. Solar thermal
heat is trapped using the greenhouse effect; the greenhouse effect in this case
is the ability of a reflective surface to transmit short wave radiation and reflect
long wave radiation. Heat and infrared radiation (IR) are produced when short
wave radiation light hits the absorber plate, which is then trapped inside the
collector. Fluid, usually water, in the absorber tubes collect the trapped heat
and transfer it to a heat storage vault.

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  Heat is transferred either by conduction or convection. When water is
heated, kinetic energy is transferred by conduction to water molecules
throughout the medium. These molecules spread their thermal energy by
conduction and occupy more space than the cold slow moving molecules
above them. The distribution of energy from the rising hot water to the sinking
cold water contributes to the convection process. Heat is transferred from the
absorber plates of the collector in the fluid by conduction. The collector fluid
is circulated through the carrier pipes to the heat transfer vault. Inside the
vault, heat is transferred throughout the medium through convection.
 Heat storage enables solar thermal plants to produce electricity during hours
without sunlight. Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an
insulated reservoir during hours with sunlight, and is withdrawn for power
generation during hours lacking sunlight. Rate of heat transfer is related to the
conductive and convection medium as well as the temperature differences.
Bodies with large temperature differences transfer heat faster than bodies with
lower temperature differences.
 Heat transport refers to the activity in which heat from a solar collector is
transported to the heat storage vault. Heat insulation is vital in both heat
transport tubing as well as the storage vault. It prevents heat loss, which in
turn relates to energy loss, or decrease in the efficiency of the system.
 Heat transfer fluid (usually oil) or Common fluids like synthetic oil, molten
salt runs through the tube to absorb the concentrated sunlight. This increases
the temperature of the fluid to some 400°C.The heat transfer fluid is then used
to heat steam in a standard turbine generator. The process is economical and,
for heating the pipe, thermal efficiency ranges from 60-80%.

4.3.1.3Current usage of parabolic trough technology developments

Current commercial plants utilizing parabolic troughs are hybrids; alternative fuels are
used during night hours, but the amount of alternative full-scale parabolic trough
systems consist of many such troughs laid out in parallel over a large area of land.

15
Other designs lack this kind of long experience and therefore it can currently be said
that the parabolic trough design is the most thoroughly proven technology.

Figure 4.4 Solar energy generating system

The Solar Energy Generating System (SEGS) is a collection of nine plants with a total
capacity of 350 MW. It is currently the largest operational solar system (both thermal
and non-thermal). A newer plant is Nevada Solar One plant with a capacity of 64
MW. Under construction are Andasol 1 and Andasol 2 in Spain with each site having
a capacity of 50 MW. Note however, that those plants have heat storage which
requires a larger field of solar collectors relative to the size of the steam turbine-
generator to store heat and send heat to the steam turbine at the same time. Heat
storage enables better utilization of the steam turbine. With day and some nighttime
operation of the steam-turbine Andasol 1 at 50 MW peak capacities produces more
energy than Nevada Solar One at 64 MW peak capacities, due to the former plant's
thermal energy storage system and larger solar field.

553 MW new capacity is proposed in Mojave Solar Park, California. Furthermore, 59

MW hybrid plant with heat storage is proposed near Barstow, California. Near
Kuraymat in Egypt, some 40 MW steam is used as input for a gas powered plant.
Finally, steam input for a gas power plant in Hassi R'mel, Algeria.

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 Chapter Five

Design, Simulation and Manufacturing of the Prototype

For most solar energy collector applications, a reasonable and accurate prediction of
where the sun will be in the sky at a given time of day and year is necessary to
consider in the design. In the Ptolemaic sense, the sun is constrained to move with 2
degrees of freedom on the celestial sphere; therefore, its position with respect to an
observer on earth can be fully described by means of two astronomical angles, the
solar altitude (α) and the solar azimuth (z). The following is a description of each
angle, together with the associated formulation.

5.1 Direction of Beam Radiation

The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular orientation to the earth
at any time (whether the plane is fixed or moving relative to the earth)and the
incoming beam solar radiation, that is, the position of the sun relative to that plane.
Can be described in terms of several angles [Benford and Bock (1939].

Figure 5.1 Definition of latitude, hour angle and solar declination [1]

17
5.1.1Declination angle (δ)
It is angle between the sun earth centre line and the projection of this line on the
equatorial plane or it is the angular distance of the sun’s rays north (or South) of the
equator north declination designated as positive. The variation of the solar declination
throughout the year is shown in Figure the declination, δ, in degrees for any day of the
year (N) can be calculated

δ= 23.45 Sin [360/365(284 + N)]

Figure 5.2 Declination of the Sun

18
 Table 5.1 Day number and recommended average day for each month

The above table is a reference for solar geometry calculation. For any day of the Year
N .Thus in this design Addis Ababa has maximum solar radiation is recorded to be on
May 15 in which from the above table i=15.Therefore N=135 and using this value
calculating the value of the declination angle.

N.B Consideration is in European calendar

Thus substituting the value in the above equation δ= 18.8

5.1.2 Latitude
Latitude is the angular location north or south of the equator, north positive -
90°≤ɸ≤90° or it is the angle between the axis and the reflected beam at the focus of
the parabola or is the angle made by the radial line, joining the given location to the
centre of the earth, with its projection on the equatorial plane. The value taken for
Addis Ababa is 8.98⁰N.

5.1.3 Hour angle (h)

The angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due to rotation
of the earth on its axis at 15° per hour, morning negative, afternoon positive or it’s a
point on the earth’s surface is defined as the angle through which the earth would turn
to bring the meridian of the point directly under the sun.

The hour angle can be obtained from the apparent solar time (AST) i.e.

h= (AST-12)*15

Where AST is apparent solar time taken to be 15:00 in which for calculation it is
taken as 15:00 thus taking this value to the above equation we have the value to be

h= (15-12)*15°

h= 45⁰

5.1.4 Solar Altitude angle (α)

The solar altitude angle is the angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun.

I.e. the complement of the zenith angle

19
 Figure 5.3 Apparent daily path of the sun across the sky from sunrise to sunset

The solar altitude is related to the solar Zenith angle Φ which is the angle between the
sun’s rays and the vertical. And it is given by the following mathematical expression

Φ + α = π/2 = 90⁰

The mathematical expression is also given as follows

Sin(α) = Cos(Φ) = Sin(L)Sin(δ) + Cos(L)Cos(δ)Cos(h)

Where L=is the local latitude, defined as the angle between a line from the centre of
the earth to the site of interest and the equatorial plane. Thus putting the values

Sin (α) = Sin (8.98) Sin (18.8) + Cos (8.98) Cos (18.8) Cos (45)

Sin (α) = 0.711

α = 45.31°

Φ = 90⁰-α

Φ = 90⁰- 45.31°

Φ = 44.68 (Φ =Zenith angle)

Note - Values at north of the equator are positive and those south are negative.

20
5.1.5 Solar Azimuth angle (z)
The solar azimuth angle is the angular displacement from south of the projection of
beam radiation on the horizontal plane, displacement east of south are negative and
west of south are positive., westward is designated as positive mathematical
expression is as follows

Sin (z) =

Sin (z) =Cos (18.8) sin (45) Cos (45.31°)

Sin (z) =0.951

Z=72.14

5.1.6 Surface Azimuth angle (Zs)

The angular displacement from south of the projection of beam radiation on the
horizontal plane, Displacement east of south are negative and west of south are
positive or It is the angle between the normal to the surface from true south, west
ward is designated as positive. Thus surface Azimuth angle is 90˚ or -90˚, depending
on the solar azimuth angle.

If Z> 0˚, Zs= 90

If Z< 0˚, Zs= -90

Thus from the above relation since the value is positive then Zs= 90

5.1.7 Beam radiation tilt factor (RB)

For purposes of solar process design and performance calculation, it is often
necessary to calculate the hourly radiation on a tilted surface of a collector from
measurement or estimates of solar radiation on a horizontal surface. The most
commonly available data are total radiation for hours or days on the horizontal
surface. Whereas the need is for beam and diffuse radiation on the plane of a
collector.

The geometric factor Rв, the ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to that on a
horizontal surface at any time, can be calculated exactly by the appropriate use of
equation.

21
GBT=beam radiation on a tilted surface

GB=beam radiation on a horizontal surface

RB= Gвт /Gв

RB = √ (1-cos2 (δ) sin2 (h)/ cosΦ

RB = √ (1-cos2 (18.8) sin2 (45)/ 0.711

RB = 1.083

5.1.8 Intensity of Extraterritorial radiation (Gon )

In addition to the total energy in the solar (i.e., the solar constant).it is useful to know
the spectral distribution of the extra-terrestrial radiation, that is the radiation that
would be received in the absence of the atmosphere .Solar radiation received on a
surface at the limit of the earth’s atmosphere and is a radiation measured on the plane
normal to the radiation on the Nth day of the year.

Gon= Gsc[1+0.033cos(360N/365)]

Where Gon= Extraterritorial radiation measured on the plane normal to the

radiation on the Nth day of the year.

Gsc= Solar constant=1366.1 w/m2

N =135

And substituting the values to the equation Extraterritorial radiation becomes

Gon=1335.26 w/m2

5.1.9 Beam radiation

Beam radiation is given as

GB = GBncosΦ

GBn= Gonexp(-TR/ [0.9+9.4sinα])

Where TR is turbidity factor from standard table to be TR 2.0

Using this value and α

22
GBn is 1025.69 w/m2

GB is 729.31 w/m2

5.2 OPTICAL AND THERMAL ANALYSIS OF PARABOLIC TROUGH

COLLECTOR
As indicated earlier the primary function of the receiver subsystem of the PTCs is to absorb
and transfer the concentrated energy to the fluid flowing through it. In the process, however,
the absorbing surface of the receiver will be heated, and its temperature will considerably
higher than that of the surroundings. For example, depending on the temperature requirement
of the application, operating temperature as high as 400⁰c can be attended at the absorbing
surface of the receiver during operation. Subsequently, the temperature difference between
the absorbing surface and the surrounding will cause some of the collected energy to be
transferred back to the surroundings (i.e. lost).

A cross-section shown below shows a parabolic trough where various important factors are
described. The incident radiation on reflector at the rim of the collector (where the mirror
radius r is maximum) makes an angle ϕr with the centre line of the collector, which is called
the rim angle. The equation of the parabola in terms of the coordinate system;

Y2 = 4fx

Where f= parabola focal distance (m)

Figure 5.4 Cross-section of a parabolic trough collector with circular receiver

23
In order to determine the length of the receiver which is also the length of the collector is
obtained from the total rate of heat transfer energy from the trough in which the expected
temperature of the fluid at the exit is at evaporation temperature is given by

̇ = Cp ( Texit – Tinlet)

Where is the mass flow rate of the liquid entering the receiver tube = 0.2 Kg/s

Texitis the expected output temperature of the water = 120 ⁰c

Tinletis the inlet temperature of the liquid to the receiver tube= 20⁰c

Cp is specific heat of water at the average temperature of the inlet and exit
temperature = 4195.5 J / Kg.K [3]

̇ = 83.91 kW

Now from Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a
tube is given by

̇ = h As ΔTln

Where h is average convective heat transfer coefficient for forced convection of the flowing
water ranging from 50 – 20,000 w / m2 k taking 20000 w / m2 k

As is the heat transfer surface area of the receiver given by π D L for tube D=40 mm

ΔTlnis the logarithmic mean temperature difference given by [2]

ΔTln =

= Ts Tₑ

= Ts Ti

The exit temperature of the fluid becomes almost equal to the surface temperature, Te≈Ts.
Noting that the fluid temperature can approach the surface temperature but cannot cross it, an
NTU (number of transfer units) of about 5 indicates that the limit is reached for heat transfer,
and the heat transfer will not increase no matter how much we extend the length of the tube.

24
Therefore considering the difference of the absorber temperature and exit temperature of the
fluid to be 5 ⁰c making Ts 125 ⁰c

ΔTln= 30.06º c

Having this values the length the absorber can be calculated from the equations stated above
L = 1.1 meters
L = 2 meters actual size on production
Selecting the effective rim angle since for the same aperture various rim angles are possible
as it can be seen from the following figure. Thus, the rim angle is 90⁰.

Figure 5.5 Rim angle diagram

25
From the diagram above it is noticed that

f / Wa= 0.25

And it has to be noticed that when ϕr = 90˚ H p= W a where the aparture width is calculated
from the following equation

[ ]

Wa = 1 meters

Calculating for the focal length

Wa = 4f

f =1/4tan45

f = 0.25 meters

And at this rim angle the rim radius rr can be calculated

rr=

rr = 0.5meters

For tubular absorbers concentration ratio is taken to be as follows

C = Wa/πD

Taking standard diameter of the absorber pipe to be D = 40mm = 0.04 m

C = 1/0.04π

C = 7.96

Optical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy absorbed by the receiver to the energy
incident on the collector aperture. The optical efficiency depends on the optical properties of
the materials involved, the geometry of the collector and the various imperfections arising
from the construction of the collector.

26
 γρ𝛕𝛼

Where γ = intercept factor = 0.95

ρ = Reflectance loss = 0.96

𝛕 = Transmittance of glass cover = 0.93

𝛼 = Absorbance of absorber plate = 0.94

= 0.797

Thermal efficiency of a collector is also give as follows

η = FR

Ti is the inlet temperatuer of the fluid 20⁰c

Ta is ambient temprature 25⁰c

FR is heat reoval factor 0.9

C is concentaration ratio

GB is beam radiation which is 529.43 w/m2

UL is overall heat loss coefficient for blackened steel pipe 1.14522 w/m2 ⁰c

Thus using this valus and substituting them on the above equation

η = 71.7%

Now the thermal efficincy is calculated finding the usefull energy collected using the themal
efficinecy but first calculating for

Aa the collector aperture area, taking in acount of shading of central part of the collector by
the reciver

= (Wa 0.03) L

= (1 0.03) 2

Aa = 1.94 m2

27
Absorber area is calculated by Aabs

=π D L

= π 0.04 2

= 0.2512 m2

Based on the above calculations the collectors dimentions are determined and the number of
collectors should be determined with referance of the required amount of steam to be used in
the cooker dish. To determine the amount flow rate of steam the energy acquired above can
be used to obtain the mass flow rate of steam.

Q = mw hfg

Where hfg is the latent heat of vaporization

mw is the rate of evaporation of water

Q is the energy obtained by the collector

Now to calculate the latent heat of vaporization at the temperature of the liquid at the end of
the collector which is 120ºc can be taken from a simple steam table corresponding hfg

hfg = 1194 kJ/kg

And from the calculation done above it is already known that Q is 83.91 kW therefore using
these values and substituting this in the above formula,

Mw = 0.07kgs

Again using the following formula the volume of the steam can be calculated

Now it is known that density of water is 940.9 kg/m3 and the value of mw is already
calculated substituting to the above the volume flow rate can be known.

267.8 lit/hr

28
5.3 Heat collecting element (HCE) performance model

The HCE Performance model uses an energy balance between the HTF and the atmosphere,
and includes all equations and correlations necessary to predict the terms in the energy
balance, which depend on the collector type, HCE condition, optical properties, and ambient
conditions.

Figure 5.5 shows the one-dimensional steady-state energy balance for a cross-section of an
HCE, and Figure 5.6 shows the thermal resistance model and subscript definitions. For
clarity, the incoming solar energy and optical losses have been omitted from the resistance
model. The optical losses are due to imperfections in the collector mirrors, tracking errors,
shading, and mirror and HCE cleanliness. The effective incoming solar energy (solar energy
minus optical losses) is absorbed by the selective coating .

Some energy that is absorbed into the selective coating is conducted through the
absorber and transferred to the HTF by Convection ; remaining energy is
transmitted back to the environment by convection and radiation .

The model assumes all temperatures, heat fluxes, and thermodynamic properties are uniform
around the circumference of the HCE. Also, all flux directions shown in Figure 5.5 are
positive. And all the terms in above paragraph are defined in Table 5.3. Dotted variables
indicate rates and the prime indicates per unit length of receiver. A double prime will indicate
per unit normal aperture area. With the help of Figure 5.5, the energy balance equations are
determined by conserving energy at each surface of the HCE cross section

Heat flux Heat Transfer Mode and Transfer Path

definitions Heat
Flux Heat
Transfer Path
(W/m)

Solar irradiation absorption from incident solar irradiation to outer

Conduction heat flux from outer absorber pipe surface to inner

absorber pipe surface

Convection heat flux from inner absorber pipe surface to heat transfer
fluid.

Convection heat from outer absorber pipe surface to ambient

Heat radiation from outer absorber pipe surface to sky

Table 5.3 Heat Transfer Mode and Transfer Path

29
 ₌ (5.4)

₌ ₊ ₊ (5.5)

₌ ₊ (5.6)

Figure 5.5 One dimensional steady state energy balances

Figure 5.6 Thermal resistance models for a cross-section of an HCE

Where: Point 1 is heat transfer fluid
Point 2 is absorber inner surface
Point 3 is absorber outer surface
Point 4 is sky
Point 5 is surrounding air

30
i. Convection heat transfer between the HTF and the absorber
From Newton’s law of cooling, the convection heat transfer from the inside surface of the
absorber pipe to the HTF is
₌ π ( ₋ ) (w⁄m) (5.7)
Or ₌

With (5.8)
Where
2
h1 =convection heat transfer coefficient inside the tube at T1 (W/m K)
D1 = inside diameter of the absorber pipe (m)
o
T1 = mean (bulk) temperature of the HTF ( C)
o
T2 = inside surface temperature of absorber pipe ( C)
Nu D1 = Nusselt number based on

₌thermal conductance of the HTF at (W⁄mk)

In these equations, both and are independent of angular and longitudinal HCE direction,
as will be all temperatures and properties in the one dimensional energy balance model.
The Nusselt number depends on the type of flow through the HCE. At typical operating
conditions, the flow in an HCE is well within the turbulent flow region. However, during off
solar hours or when evaluating the HCE heat losses on a test platform, the flow in the HCE
may become transitional or laminar because of the viscosity of the HTF at lower
temperatures. But for our prototype test the HTF flow rate maintained at minimum level.
Therefore, the model heat losses determine at laminar flow type.
When the laminar option is chosen and the Reynolds number is lower than 2300, the Nusselt
number will be constant.

ii. Conduction heat transfer through the absorber wall

Fourier’s law of conduction through a hollow cylinder describes the conduction heat transfer
through the absorber wall

₌2 π ( ₋ ) ⁄ (w ⁄m) (5.9)

Or ₌2 ( ⁄ (w ⁄ )

absorber thermal conductance at the average absorber temperature ( ₊ )⁄2

₌ absorber inside surface temperature(k)

₌absorber outside surface temperature (k)

₌absorber inside diameter (m)

₌absorber outside diameter (m)

31
In this equation the conduction heat transfer coefficient is constant, and is evaluated at the
average temperature between the inner and outer surfaces.

iii. Heat transfer from the absorber wall to the atmosphere

The heat will transfer from the glass envelope to the atmosphere by convection and radiation.
The convection will either be forced or natural, depending on whether there is wind.
Radiation heat loss occurs due to the temperature difference between the glass envelope and
sky.
• Convection heat transfer

The convection heat transfer from the glass envelope to the atmosphere ( ) is the
largest source of heat loss, especially if there is a wind. From Newton’s law of cooling

₌₌ π ( ₋ ) (w⁄ m) (5.10)

Or

₌₌ ( ₋ ) (w ⁄ )

With

Where

₌Glass envelope surface temperature (k)

₌ Glass envelope outer surface temperature (k)

₌convection heat transfer coefficient for air at ( ₋ ) (w ⁄ )

₌average Nusselt number based on the glass envelope outer diameter

₌average Nusselt number based on the glass envelope outer diameter

The Nusselt number depends on whether the convection heat transfer is natural or forced (i. e
no wind or with wind). The experiment setup is outside the house, thus convection heat
transfer assumed forced convection (with wind).
If there is wind, the convection heat transfer from the outer surface of the tube to the
environment will be forced convection. The Nusselt number in this case is estimated with
Zhukauskas’ correlation for external forced convection flow normal to an isothermal cylinder

C M
1₋40 0.75 0.4

32
40₋1000 0.51 0.5
1000₋200000 0.26 0.6
200000₋1000000 0.076 0.7
Table 5.4 constants for the circular cylinder

Radiation on a surface

Figure 5.7 Radiation on a surface

l=α+τ+ρ

α=ɛ (kirchhoff’s law)

α -absorptivity ρ-reflectivity τ- transmissivity ɛ-emissivity

If τ=0, body opaque, α=1- ρ

If ρ=0, body is "black"

All incident radiation is absorbed In practice properties vary with temperature

Eg : glass transparent to high frequency radiation, but opaque to low frequency. If ɛ constant
with wavelength body is considered as "grey".

Radiation –View Factors

How much radiation is exchanged between two bodies?-depends on geometry

33
 Figure 5.8 Radiation View Factors

Nett heat radiated from dA₁ to dA₂=

Heat emitted by dA₁ and absorbed by dA₂

Heat emitted by dA₂ and absorbed by dA₁

Depends on angles: φ₁ and φ₂, the distance between the areas, etc.

Result defined as a view Factor or Form Factor

F₁₂=

Note: A₁F₁₂=A₂F₂₁

If surfaces are "black", then form factor defined only by geometry.

Effects of emissivity on form factors

Two terms :( per unit area, per unit time)

G=Irradiation, total radiation in

J =radiosity, total radiation out

J=

Where E is , black body radiation

̇
Net energy leaving:

̇=

Consider (E-J) equivalent to a “potential difference”, ̇ as a flow, so:

34
Radiation resistance of space

If is leaving surface1, then reaches surface2 of the leaving surface 2,

Reaches surface 1.

So ̇ = - =(

Since So becomes a”space resistance”.

For the long concentric cylinders (1):

=[* +( )]

Long cylinders (l>>gap)

35
 CHAPTER SIX

Manufacturing Process
After the completion of the design work the next step is to produce a prototype of the design
and it’s elaborated in steps as followed.
Step 1
The first and essential step in the production of a parabolic trough is to use software that can
simulate the designed parabolic. Using a programme called wolfram CDF player we can get
the parabolic exact simulation by inserting the following required inputs.
Designing a parabolic trough solar concentrator requires specifying:

• The collector aperture

• The focal length

• The size of the tube located at focus 50.8mm

• The degrees out of focus possible before the trough need to be refocused
This Demonstration was written to aid in the design of parabolic solar trough for use in
developing countries. The material in the tube can be used for water heating.

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

600 400 200 200 400 600

Step 2
After drawing the parabola using the above given dimension the next step is to print the
parabola on a one to one scale. The printing of the parabola was done on a plotter that have
got a 900mm width and with

36
Step 3
The printed parabola is used as a blue print to be used on a metal sheet. Using the printed
parabola we can draw and extract the exact replica of the parabola on the metal sheet. After
extracting the shape of the parabola on the metal sheet we produced other 5 similar copies
that can be used later for the construction of the parabolic trough.
Step 4
Before using the parabolic metal sheet we constructed a metal frame with a rectangular size
that is going to be used as a support frame for the parabolic metal sheet.
Step 5
Following the completion of the frame the next step is to construct the parabolic metal sheet
on the frame by giving equal space gap so that we can have even distribution of loads
throughout the structure. The parabolic metal sheet is welded on the metal frame.

Step 6
After the successful construction of the frame we cover the parabolic frame using a thin metal
sheet which will be used as a base for the coating of Aluminium sheet that is used as a
reflective surface of the parabolic trough. The flat metal sheet is riveted on the metal frame in
order to strength it’s resistance to wind.

37
Step 7
Locating a centre point on the side bar of the frame we will locate the exact or centre position
of the pipe that is going to be suspended on the trough. The suspended pipe in the trough will
absorb the reflected sun ray from the Aluminium coated surface. In order to add more
absorptivity character to the pipe it’s highly recommendable to paint the pipe black colour.

Step 8
The support or the leg for the parabolic trough is constructed in a triangular base in order to
allow a strong foundation. The manual tracking device for the parabolic trough is managed
by the usage of a door hinge that can swing manually by applying less force.

38
Step 9
The final stage of the manufacturing of the parabolic trough is finding a mechanism that
allows the circulation of water through the parabolic trough as a result it’s highly
recommendable to use a water pump

39
Step 10
In order to test the efficiency of the parabolic trough in producing steam we constructed a
sealed pot.

Step 11
Get valve is added to allow water into the pipe and also a pressure gage has been installed
that opens up when pressure builds up so that we can allow a circulation of water.

40
 Chapter Seven

Test Standards and Testing Equipment

7.1 Introduction
To be able to compare the thermal performance of our collectors, a standard test method must
be followed.

Requirements

 In order to conduct the test we have to make sure we are placing the parabolic trough
in a location that is free from any structures that can block access to sun radiation. For
instance buildings can cast a shadow that will ultimately affect the sun radiation from
reaching the reflective surface.
 The heat transfer fluid applied in the solar collector testing should not be different
from the one specified in the designing.

7.2 Instrumentation (Apparatus) and Methods of Testing

7.2.1 Solar radiation measurement

A pyranometer (Radiometers) should be used to measure the global shortwave radiation from
both the sun and the sky, and a solar-tracking pyrheliometer is used to measure the direct
normal component of the solar irradiance. The instruments have the following minimum
characteristics.

7.2.2 Temperature measurements

The recommended devices for measuring the temperature difference of the transfer fluid
across the solar collector are

• Precision thermometers;
• Matched type-T thermocouples;

41
 Chapter Eight

Result and Discussion

Following the successful construction of the parabolic solar trough we were trying to conduct
a performance test on the device unfortunately we faced with the following

Limitation

 unable to obtain a water pump that would have been crucial in circulating the water
 unable to secure different measuring and testing devices for radiation and
 ineffectiveness while gluing aluminium on the metal sheet

Some of the successful side of the project are listed below

 The company interest and commitment in investing in such project and in solar
project
 The interest shown by different people who visited our project
 The successful execution in constructing the parabolic shape from its blue print

42
 Chapter Nine

Conclusion and Recommendation

The main objective of the project was to work on the design and product development of a
parabolic solar trough in order to test its performance. During the production process we
adapted a steam cooker technology system to observe the potential of the parabolic trough in
generating steam.

 A continuous improvement of the developed product is needed before considering

marketing
 Lack of materials locally greatly affect the efficiency of the developed product
 In a long term goal institution need to invest in the generation of steam from solar
technology
 Galvanized steel pipe greatly reduce the efficiency as a result it’s recommendable to
use steel pipe
 A parabolic trough can be very efficient for about six working hours a day from 09:30
to 16:30
 Weather condition can play a role in reducing the trough performance

Recommendation
 From manual tracking system it’s recommendable to use a tracking sensor that detects
the sun progress
 Preparing a glass tube for the absorbing tube can reduce heat loss due to convection
 in order to reduce heat loss from the pipe we can insulate half part of the pipe in
which sun ray is not reflected

43
References
1. John W. Twidell and Anthony D Weir. Renewable Energy Resources
2. John A. Duffie and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes
3. Zekai Sen , F (2008). Solar Energy Fundamentals and Modeling Techniques
4. Halil M. Gaven and Richard B. Optical and Thermal Analyisis of Parabolic Trough
Solar Collectors For Technically Less Developed Countries
5. Soteris A. Kalogirou.Solar Engineering Process and Systems
6. Ming Qu. David H. Archer. Sophie V. Masson A Linear Parabolic Trough Solar
Collector Performance Model
7. Rogier G. Kauk₋ A₋ Tjoe. Solar Kitchen Project, Solar is nature’s gift
8. N.k.Mandal.T.Mandal.Analysis of a Steam Generating System Using a Linear Solar
Concentrator

44