Se

butr
men
deF

Fundamentalsof Particulate to ni
nh er

0ro
EmissionsControl oVer
enta
0tn:.
sn10

Tob
7 . 1 I N T R OD U C T ION
a diversity of shapes SizeI
Particulaiesconstitutea major classof air pollutants.Particleshave
wide variety of physical and 10--
and sizes; the1,can be either liquid droplets or dry dusts, with a
both combustion and non- 5 -1 0
chemical properties.1'he1 are emitted from many sourcesincluding
may react in the atmos-
combustionindustnal processes.In addition, primary gaseousemissions J-)
on preexisting ones'
phere to form secondan' speciesthat nucleate to fotm particles or condense 1-3
particles from exhaust gas
in i-po.tunt class of iniustrial gas-cleaningprocessesremove 0.5-1
This chapter presents infor-
streams,and such processesare the subject of the following chapters' 0-0.s
characteristicsof particles and particulate behavior in fluids, with particular -
mation about certain
and removing particles a Co
emphasis on those that are relevant to ihe engineering task of separating
from a stream of gas. Sourc

OF PARTICLES
7.2 CHARACTERISTICS devic
cienc
cienth
is imp
Your objectivesin studying this sectionare to
suspe
1. Understandthe importance of an aerosol size distribution' Arr rr'i
2. Charucterizean aerosol size distribution with data from a cascade shou'n
impactor. cessi
3. Develop and apply a 1og-normalsize distribution function' stage
casca
gas' Important aerosol cal stz
An aerosol is a suspensionof small particles in air or another
shape,density, stickiness, corrosivity, reactivity, and
characteristicsinclude size, size distribution,
theseis the pafiicle size distri
toxicity. From the viewpoint of air pollution, the most important of

294
 Sec.7.2 Characteristics
of particles
29s

bution'Themostcommonaerosols covera widerangeof sizes-from0.00rpm

mentioned in chapter1, theeffectsoruerosorr to r00 pm. As
on humanhealthandvisibilityarcstrongly
dependent, withparticresin therange size-
i.o pm beingtheworst.
In additionto average "ro.ii"
particleconcentration pu uiit u*orp"i*i. volume,it is important
to notethesizedishibution by particlecountandby mass.sucr,aisiiuutions
phericparticulate samolet" tnb*n in ruuir ir. p'iomoatai" ir,rl*, for a typicarafinos-
0 to l-pm t-gt ton'iitlte t*o enrries,particlesin the
3voby mass.However,
.o-nly the nuruo or particles
overwhelming compared with iherestof tte'ru*pt.. particres in thatrange is
enteringttrelungs'Froma.healtntioaponi, orirri, srzerangearecapabre of
i, it somucha questiort of toweringtheovera,
in an urbanirro Lit of 11,decreasinstni
?#;:::;: ::;;rt.oacting niavy particurate countin the

Sizeranse (um) particlecounta

_Average size(pm) Masspercent
5-10 7.5 fi2 53
:r-r
-:4ft.n
2 555
0.5-1 5
0.75 4,215
0-0.5 2
0.2s
aCountof othersizes
relativ. to .ou.rt oE0_pm sire.
Source:
WarkandWarner (l9gl).

As can be expectedfrom sucha wide range

of sizes,one type of particulatecollection
devicemight be bettersuitedthanothers
ror a specincaerosol.Furtlermore,the
ciencyof thesedevicesdependson p*ti.r" collectioneffi_
,ize, with biggerparticlesusualy removed
ciently' as shownon Figure7.1.Thus' moreeffi-
,o ,uifuur" the oiirali cottectionefficiency
is imperativeto havegoodinformation of a device,it
on ,r,. ,ize distributionof theparticles.
A good deviceto obtainthis information
is a cascadeimpactor.It separates and sizes
suspended parliclesin a mannersimilarto the
way that sieves*p;;;; and sizesamples
Air wittr particlesis drawnthrougha series of sand.
of stagesthatconsisiof slotsand impaction
shownon Figure7'2' Ea.chsuccelsivestu;; platesas
hur narrowerslotsandcloserplatesso
cessivestagecapturesincreasingly,*uil", thateachsuc-
particles.The massesoi purtict", collected
stagesare thenusedto determinethe size on all
distriburionof th. iirnrr, be emphasized
cascadeimpactorsizesparticlesaccording ".;;i.Jiurn.t thara
to theiraerodynamic m ratherthantheir physi-
cal size'Theaerodvnamic diameterir ; ;;;;r;; of thereacrionof particte
a to inertiatforces.

c$"
fl
 '...i_r5
F

296 Chap.7 Fundamental

of.'ParticulatelEmissi0ns.Contr0l $ec.7'.8r

Ifit€
r '-i.

I t::J
Ther
r... ji: i :

'
particle sizeis
, : ]:t!... -',, L, i:..i..i : ,.,
_

Figure 7.1 Collection effi- tt",(q

r'lr:-;:,:i1'.i:ra
ciency versus particle size .,-i: ii:.,::1gfl
artygital mechanical col-
60 -""70' '80". for particlesu&l
lector
rn)
P'g$"gF.d.,;sre .,.t.-:l' :i: : .,,:r': ,;, ., i..,',

'}]
. :.!

,s "',ts:ii,g.3
"it"if";.fff
theAi"meiqr#
Stage4 particlesi€.*fl
function"i+4

.t,.

3:EiUFri .. - FigureT2 Schematicdiagramofacascade .,:'i-

Because{hQ
,' impaefg{:,
: ,. , , _J. : i,: ::: .:
 $ec.7P,, Oharaeterietios,of
Far,tielbs 207

Integratingover all' parficle,siurs:r

(7.r)

4oo)= *1r;1or;
fo* (7.2)

G{Dp), is the mass-ftactionof the particles

.|f, ,;1 fir -:'

try
c(+)= n.(oo')a4'
J, (7.3)

aeroyln3nu!1iontypicallyvaryoverseveral ordersof mag_

.,",r- ,,",:g^1:::.13.ti*,y.:inan
Iuruoe,l[ oTe{co_nvenient to express
1s the sizedishibution in termsof the natural
loearithmof
thediameter, ln Do In a particularincremental particresizerangeDpto Dp* ao, i"'t *il ;i
parucles$ a certarnsTfity,. andthatquantityis thesameregardless
of howthesizedistibution
functionis expressed.Thus,
r1.; .: t:,:,,

n(D)dDo = n (ln Dp) cl(ktDp)

Q.4\
Because d(ln Dp) = dDplDp

Don(Dp) = n(lnDp) (7.5)

298 Chap.7 Partieulate,Emissions,Control
Fundamental,of Sec.7.

The next questionthat arisesis: What functions,arecommonlyusedto representparticle

sizedistributions?A popularfunction for this purposeis the log-normaldistribution.If a quantity
u is normally distributed,the probability function for z obeysthe Gaussiandistribution:

...:
n(u\-
'lJ-"*ol-fu-")'l
zn o u - L (7.6)
:
Integrating
2o3 I
,..:

u-isfhe meanvalueof the distribution i

o, is the standarddeviation

A quantitythat is log-normally distributedhasits logarithm governedby a normal distri-

bution. If the quantity of interestiC.par.ticlg. ,Do, then s.ayingthat an.aerosolpopulationis
di.4rneter For the log,
log-normallydisnibutedmeansthat u =ln Dpsatisfies Eq. (7.6):

,f rol

- (h Do- ttt?t')'
n(n oo\= -1- | i (7.7)
\2n tno, "*u| z(looe)' l
It
(NMD) dd
'The phy-sicalsignificanceof the parametepDrr,and. or wi,ll be discussedshortly.It is
..,i . are larger.
more convenientto expresstlte size distribution function in terms of D7 r4ther than,:ln,D.r.
: Dp6lDw-A
CombiningEqs.(7.5)and(7.7):

(7.8)
1I
:
.. ,: :: - : . ' . ; : 1 i : . ; ., - medial dia
For a normally disftibutedquantity,the cumulativefrequencydistribution function, F(tr),
standardd
[s
ft
is log-non
fu f '^r

- L-fu'-a)'lou
standard&
F(a)=i-I *1 2o? I e.e)
''
Izno,J-*

To evaluatethis integral,let q = (u' - u^)l2tD or, then, Therefore

!n' o'* .i*

 Secr7.2rr€haracteristies,
of Partielbs 29g

i
/u- u^)t,[icu
Ftu)=!-
In | t-- "rpft12)ar1
(7.10)

-'. .,:i .i::,. r'._: .,.

ir: I, :.. I .i... :
.. ...t, .,-:

Integrating,ipternrssi theerrorfunction,rerf4, (seeproblem6.1),

:':i*' i l;
"'
;

n"t=llr.*(ffi|
:.;. ,l

tt!i1
For thelog-normaldisnibution,z = ln D,o,* (7:11) canbe expresse,!".
as
-Eq

rerrlghAl
r(n,l=r+ '
z 2 [lzrnor] , 1 , , . . . ' : , :: , , ( 1 , r L Z )

It is evidentfrom Eq. (7.LD fhatF(Dw,)= 0.5. Tht4;"po*isthe numbermediandiameter

(NMD) defined as the diameterfor-which exactly.one-halfthe'particlesare smallerand one-half
are larger.To understandthe sienificance,ofog, considerthat diameterDoofor which o, =
'.-'.i l
DpJDp*. At11tu1 4hmstel .,'

r(o,ol=I + 1erfltl = o.sal

2 2 \'lzl (7.r3)

l-hus,6" is the:ratioof the diarireterbelow which 84.lvo of the,panieles;lieto the n_umber

mediandiameter,D^ is one standarddeviationfrom the median,,o jn,ig cage1,tfe:gmmetric
standarddeviation.
It can be shown (Seinfeld and Flagan 1988)that'if the numbersize distribution ftriiction
is log-normal,thenthe masssizedistributionfunctionis alsolog-normalwith the samegeometric
standarddeviationmd the massmedinndiameter(MMD) given-by

In MMD = In NMD + :(fn or)2 Q.l4)

Therefore.

lr rnr:
300 Chap.7 Fundamental
of Particulatb
Emissions
Control S9c17.2,

m(l='wn'o)l
c(D,l=L+r f
z 2 "o| l z r n o , l
(7.1s)

The log-normaldistributionhasthe usefulproperty,thatwhenthe cumulativedistribution

function, either F or G, is plotted againstthe-logbrithm,of,particle,'diameter.ona speciatrgraph
p.ap,,E1
with oneaxis.scaledaccordingto the error function, so-calledlog:probabilitypaper, a
straightline results.Sucha plot with actualdatafrom an aerosolpopulationobtainedwith a cas- _i
t::
cadeimpactorservestwo puposes:(l) to determineif the log-normalmodelfits the data,and(2)
if so,to estimatethe parametersMI\D ando*.
Apl*t
sMS
hibut&
ExaWIe 7.1.,An.4lysisof,dafa
fr,orna cascadeimpactor
T foll,owingdatawereobtainedfrorn a cascador4pactrorrun on a samplefrom an aerosol "Hn
population(CooperandAlley 1986):

.. Sire range (pm) Mass.(rng)

t,-V2 ; 4.5 ,
2-5' . 1?9.5,. *.
.:. 5:9-ri.,,.,. 368 s
9=15 276
'15-25 ..:
, 73.5. :r,
.':r.
;25"'':':"' 18,5 l

*tu*,gnnl a,loguofmatrdishibutionf.itsthqdata;:audestinatofiq,colrespondjngvaluesof
MMD, NMD, andor.

$slution ::i:.:: . 1 l

.: ' :.'. -: i:,,,,HOi

Preparea table of particle sizeverzuscumulativemassfraction, G, lessthanthe statedsize,
'(7:I4)
asfollows: ,, l '
..'. t. '
l:;::'i, ..
..., ',.,,.,
. , : ...,i .i
.q,' :il::_.: :1:l

.',cd

4d
Sec.7.2 Characteristics
of particles 301

5.0 20.0
9.0 60.0
15.0 90.0
25.0 98.0
e
{oj ol tnerydataispresenteo
in Fieure
2.3,usilstes-nrobauititl
scales.trreresultins
straight
lineis evidence
thatatog-normatdistribution
is anaoequaL
roo.t ro, thesizedis-
tributionfunction.

100

-t 10

Figure 7.3 Log-

c - -gRgF,Rg8S
S R
normal distribu-
tion, data of
Cumulative
masspercent,
G (Vo) Example 7.1
FromFigure7.3,MMD = g.0pm, Dp6= l4pm. Therefore, =
o, l4/$= 1.75.
FromEq.
(7.14),NMD - 3.13pm.

Comments
Althoughthereis no completelysatisfactoryfheoretical
explanafionfor it, manyinvestiga-
torshavereportedthatthedistributionof severalquantitieJ
relatedto environmentalpollu-
302 Chap.7 Fundamental
of Particulate
Emissions
Control Sec.7.2 Ch

tion, such as particle size, ambient air quality data, indoor radon measurements,stream
water quality data, phosphorusin lakes, radio nuclides in soil, trace metals in human tissue,
Toble
- 7.
lung function reaction to ozone, and others often appearlog-normal (Larsen et al. 1991; Ott
1990). -

Example7.2 The log-bimodalsizedistribution function

It has been observedthat frequently the log-normal size distribution becomesless accurate
to describethe end ofthe distribution representingfine particulate. Kerr (1989) suggestedto
overcome this difficulty by breaking the size distribution into a fine and a coarselog-normal
distributions-a log-bimodal distribution. This is a five-parameter model given by:

^ /^ \ R
GlDr)= -';Grl D ,l+
C,( o)
(7.16)
*J--
where
R = massratio of fine particulate sourceto coarseparticulate source

(+*r)
oAn"l=I +I ,
2 2 "n[*
| lztnoryl
-

(+n*-")
c,(o,l=L+ I .n[* 1
2 z I lztnor" ]

MMDTand MMD. = massmedian diameter for the fine and coarsefractions e10
o&r and or. = geometric standarddeviations for the fine and coarsefractions
sl
C)
This model can be fitted to actual data from an aerosolpopulation through non-linear
regressiontechniques.Software packagesfor performing this task are plentiful. Obviously,
the validity of this approachshould be testedby calculating some criteria, such as the stan-
dard error of the estimate,that teststhe goodnessof fit. Consider the data on Table i .2 char-
acterizing an aerosolpopulation. Figure 7.4 shows thesedata plotted on log-probability
scales.It is evident from it that the distribution is not log-normal. Using a nonlinear regres-
sion program a log-bimodal distribution is fitted to the data. The best estimate of the para-
metersare:R = 0.01023,MMD;= 0.5028pm, MMD, = 11.29
Fm, oe/= 1.202, andor, =
1.353.The standarderror of the estimateis 0.42Vo.The solid line on Figure 7.4 corresponds
to the size distribution predicted by the log-bimodal model whereasthe circles illustrate the
actual experimental data. The model is remarkably good.

-
'.JFm-
 of particles
Sec,7.2, Character,istics
303

Toble7.2

0.5 0.4950
0,.7 o.9579
1.0 0.9901
2.0 1..012
':.
3ro 1.035
4.0 1.039
5.0 r.343
6.0 2.808
7.0 5.636
8,0 13.59
10.0 34.99
12.0 58.28
15.0 82.67
2A.A 97.05
t< n gg.s1

Figure 7.4 Log-

'': d -gRg bimodal partide size
e Rg g3 e o\
^i
o\ o\
O\ O\ distribution of
o\ v.'
O\
g\6 Example7.2
o\
G (qo)

.{"lqltaFr
 Control
Emissions
of Particuldte Sec.7.3
304 Chap.7 Fundamental

Commenls pa
lution cont
particulate size distributions in the flue gases of
Flagan and seinfeld (1988) observed that electrostati
distinct peaks, one in the submicron-size
pulverized-coal combustion systems exhibit two the surroun
range,andoneinthe:-to50-pmrange.Accordingtothem,submicronashconstitutesless tional, iner
particles that remain when the carbon burns
than2zoof the total fly ash mass. Ash residue direction o1
ash volatilization followed by nucle-
out account for the larle-diameter fraction, whereas tem to prer
accounts for the fine fraction'
ation and coagulation into very small particles pre-
control equ
The following computer program, Lased on a very compact and efficient subroutine
qsql, eJmates the error function with a fractional error everywhere
sented by Press et af. tf
less than 10-7. 7.3.1Dro

PROGRAMERFUNC A
'ENTER VALUE OF X ' consider th
PRINT *,
READ *, X equationso
IF (X . GT. O)THEN ticle, a fon
ERF = 1.- ERFCC(X) when visco
ELSE or low-Rey
ERF= ERFCC(X)-1. TT
ENDIF a sphere in
.THE VALUE OF ERF(X)IS '' ERF
PRINT *,
exertedby l
END
pressurefie
FI.INCTION ERFCC(X)
z=ABS(X)
T=l.l(1.+0.5*Z)
ERFCC=T*EXP(-Z*Z-1'2655|223+T*(1.00002368+T*(.37409196+
x 1x(.Q967841 8+T*(-.18628806+T*('27886807+T*(-1' 13520398+
where
5223+T* .l7 0872,7))))))
* 1* ( 1.488515g1a7 * 1-.8221 ur
IF (X.LT.0.)ERFCC=2'-ERFCC
tl
RETURN
St
Stokes'sla
IN FLUIDS
OF PARTICLES
7.3 DYNAMICS account for
force in ter

Your objectivesin studyingthis sectionare to

force exertedby a
1. Apply Stokes's law to the calculation of the drag
fluid on a moving Particle'
not apply'
2. Estimate the drag force when Stokes's law does where Ao i
correction factor for small particles'
3. Calculate the Cunningham diameterD
of particles under the influence of gravity.
4. Estimate the settling ielocity
 of particlesin Fluids
Sec.7.3 Dynamics
305

Particles are often separatedfrom a fluid as part of a pollution

control system. In air pol-
lution control, particles can be removed by gravity settlers,
centrifugal collectors, fabric filters,
electrostatic precipitators, or wet scrubbers.In all of these
devices, iarticles are separatedfrom
the surrounding fluid by the application of one or
more external forces. These forces-gravita-
tional, inertial, centrifugal, and electrostatic-cause
the particles to accelerate away from the
direction of the mean fluid flow. The particles must then
be collected and removed from the sys-
tem to prevent ultimate reentrainment into the fluid. Thus,
design and operation of particulate
control equipment require a basic understandingof the
dynamics oiparticles in fluids.

7.3.1DrogForce
A good place to stafi to study the dynamical behavior
of aerosol particles in a fluid is to
consider the drag force exerted on a particle as it moves
in a fluid. To calculate this force, the
equationsof fluid motion must be solved to obtain the
velocity and pressurelields around the par-
ticle' a formidable task' These equations can be solved
analytically only at very low velocities,
when viscous forces dominate inertial forces. The type of
flow that results is called creeping
or low-Reynolds number flow flow
The solution of the equations of motion for the velocity
and pressuredistribution around
a sphere in creeping flow was first obtained by Stokes.
The drag force, which is the net force
exerted by the fluid on the particle in the direction of flow,
can be Jalculated once the velocity and
pressurefields are known. The result, known as stokes's
law, is(Bird et al. 1960):

Fp = 3npDou, (7.r7)
where
ur = telatle velocity between the fluid and the particle
F = fluid viscosity

Stokes'slaw is valid for Re = u,Dpprtrt< 0.1. At Re = 1.0,

the drag force predictedby
Stokes's law is 13vo low owing to the neglect of the inertial
terms in the equation of motion. To
account for the drag forc9 over the entire range of possible
Reynolds numbers, expressthe drag
force in terms of an empirical drag coefficient Cn as

Fp=CpAop
f (7.18)

where Ao is the projected area of the body normal to the

flow. Thus, for a spherical particle of
diameter D,

-,
 control
Erfrissions Sec.7.3 Dy
306 chap.7 of Particulate
Fundamental

smaller than that I

pr=Tcop " ',2 Do becomessmal
Di (1.r9)
T Stokes'slaw:

for the drag coefficientas a

Table 7.3 summarizessomeof the correlationsavailable
number'
functionof theReYnolds
Pqilicles
Tqble7.3 Correlolionsfor Droo coefficient of sphericql
where an empiri
Millikan between

Number Correlation for Cp

Range - - -Reynolds
- * " ^of _l
law) 24
Re < 0.1 (Stokes's
Re

2a(t+!xe+*ot trd Table 7.

0.1<Re<2 Re\ 16 160 atm and 298K.
utt)
2+(r*o.rsn"o
2<Re<500 Re

0.44
Toble7.4 C
500<Re<2x105
Do $m)
Source:Flaganand Seinfeld i988'
0.01
0.05
0.10
Effects
7.3.2Noncontinuum 0.50
1.00
Aerosolparticlesaresmall.Theparticlesizeisoftencomparabletothedistancesthatgas
gas molecules' consequently' the basic continuum 5.00
molecules travel between collisions with other
non continuum effects' The Knudsen number'
transport equationsmust be modified to accoonifor 10.00
key dimensionlessnumber in this
;r':;;ri;;, *r,"r" 1,, is the mean free path of the gas, is the
respect.
ThemeanfreepathofagascanbecalculatedfromthekinetictheoryofgasesaS
7.3.3Grovit
0 . 1 1 4 p5
Ls= (1.20) For a re
p^F external force mr
UT
Newton's secon

gas molecular weight' For example' fot ur at298

where P is the gas pressurein kPa, and M is the
m = 0.0651 pm' Stokes's law derives from the
K and 1 atm the mean free path is 6.51 x 10-8 as
the particle diameter approachesthe sameorder
equationsof continuum fluid mechanics.When by the fluid is
the resisting force offered
the mean free path of the suspending gas molecuLs,

,:i
 Sec.,7,3 Dypamics
of particlesin Fluids
307

small-erthan that prediqtedby Stokes,slaw.

To agcountfor,this effect that beoomesimportant
Do becomessmaller,a slip factor, c., also as
called cunningham factor, is introducedinto
Stokes'slaw: ";;;;"

n 3Tt1turD,
fD=<
cc
(7.2r)

where an empirical correlation for c"

was deveroped,basedon experimentsperformgd
Millikan between1909and 1923,as(Allen by
andRaaUef qgZl

, c"=or+ roft.zst+o.4o
exp
f #] (7.22)

showsthe varueof the iunningham correction

atm and:;:F." factor for parficlesin air at I

nd 298 K

r3.oz -
o.o5 2.ffi 5.06
o.1o t.3o z.gl
0.50 0.26 L337
l.oo o.t3 1.168
5.00 0.a6 r'034
lo.oo :::

7.3.3GrovitofionotSetiling
For a relative tg,oist betweenu
Tol*corrsidering
externalforce must exist. !ryd and a freely suspendedparricle,at leasrone
* force, a, *ni"t i;'opposed by the drag force,
Newton'ssecondlaw of motionfor a particls "*i"rnal
of mass*; ; ;;;;
",

F"- Fo=ry#
(7.23)

nflh
 308 Chap.7 Fundamental
of Particulate
Ernissions
Control Sec.7.3

For a sphericalparticle in the Stokes'sregion, Eq. (7.21) can be substitutedinto I

Eq(1.23)to yield
0.8
4a* 18IL
u,- !, (7.24)
dt ppc"Di mp 0.6
:!l

s
0.4
Equation(7.24) canbe rewritten as

0.?
dur,ur_F"
(7.2s)
dtxmp 0
0
where t is a characteristic time associated with the motion of the particle given by:
The
terminal velo
, =oj tf: (7.26) pollution con
18p velocity is att

Equatior!(7,?5) is the basic differential equationgoverningthe motion of a particle in a

fluid when Stokes'slaw applies.Consider,for example,the resultantmotionwhen gravity isthe
Tqble 7.5
-only externalforce (thebuoyancyforcecanbe neglectedwhenthe fluid is a gas).Equation(7.25) Kqnd I o
becomes
D, (pm)
0.1
du" . u"
r+r=g
,dt! (7.27) 0.5
1.0
where g is the gravitational constant.If the initial relative velocity is zero, the solution to.Eq, 5.0
(7.27)is 10.0
ur=x.;t*nf ; I (7.28)
For t >> t, the particle attainsa constantvelocity, calledits terminal settlingvelocity, a,,
For a
ut= r,g=Di Poc's (7.29)
ber is too higl
18p representthe I
' law of motion
Figure7.5 illustratesthe transientbehaviorof a particlesettlingunderthe influenceof
gravrty.After four characteristictimes, the particle'svelocity is virnrally equalto its terminal
velocity.

ir ,

rtr, -1:T.*--*
 of ,Partitiles
Sec,7-;3''Dynarnics, in.Fluids 309

*:'0t6
:3
L
:s
Figure:Zs,'Difilensionless
particlevelocityversus
ol::
dimensionless time

t17 "
ji.. ].: r:t : : ri i i :: r: .t., -.- r. .t :,. ,..,
i:, ::.i: : i :.

." ,. The.transientpOrtionof4 prar.tig"lels:setttinS:

time is usually ignored.Tab,le7.5 showsthe
terminalvelocity'and the characteristictime for severalparticlesin tha.sizerange,gfintg-ettin,,air
pollution conffol applications.Bgqauset is so small, it is justified to assumethat thg teffninal
velocity is attainedalmostinstantaneously.

Tobb 7.5 GrqvitotionqlSetflingof UnitO€nsity,Spheres

|n Air At 298
K ond I otm
(tn) Chdracteristictime (r, s) Terminal velocity (m/s)
0.1 8r8x trO8 '8.6x 1Oz
0.5 1.0x lt6 1.0x 1Os
1.0 3.6x 10-o 3.5x l0s
5.0 7.9x lOs 7.8N 10.4
I

Fora particlelargerthan10to 20pm settlingat its terminalvelocity,theReynoldsnum-

beris toohighfor theStokes's regimeanalysisto bevatid.Thedragcoefficient is a usefulwayto
representthedragforceon a partieleovertlp err{irerangeof Reynoldsnumber.Newton'ssecond
law of motioncanberewrittenin termsof thedragcoefficienr

*rT= F"-+cpp
A,u,2 (7.30)
310 Chap.7 Fundamental
of Particulate
Emissions
Oontrol Sec,7.3 Dyna

If the external force is constant, the motion approaches a terminal velocity at which the ' , :, To calcul*
external force is exactly balancedby the drag force,
late Re/C2 from Eq.

^ .rF
CPurz=!!c- (7.3r)
pAp Example7.3 Gr

Estimate the te
For terminal settling owing to gravity of a spherical particle,
a density of }(
ty. Calculate tr

Cpur2=?# (7.32) Solution

BecauseCp dependson zr throughRe, this equationcan not be solvedexplicitly for 2,. For,airat 373|
' =4.174.F{ng
Instead, n4.' 1l .Z;27must be solved for u; by trial and error or through the following procedure.
Definea new dimensionless number,the Galileonumber. CalculateRe,=
': ,.. The easyway i
perfectlybalm
Ga=Cn,'.,= Cnr,'(n' P| equalto the wt
'\p/ (7.33)
,
only at the tern
,.1 a,,i, ,' , '
Eq. (7.19).Caf
SubstitutingEq. (7.32)in Eq. (7.33),
T
Cr= 24lRell
aDiPPos Thereis a slig!
Qn= _- (7.34\ matecorrelath
3rP

Another useful relation between C2 and Re is: 7.3.4Collecli(n

Whena flor
Re -Re3 - 3 p2 ur3 waterdroplet , or a il
(7.3s) of their inertia"ftfo
Cp Ga 4 g p p V
haveenoughinertiar
collectedby it.
The following correlationdueto Koch caqbe usedtcjrelateRe/c; to,Ga (Licht 1980): Impactior o
streamlinesstrikes r
1I^ closelymissesfu d
tV = - 3 . 1 9 4 +2 .1 5 3 l n-0
Ga.2r/3
3 8 (n cut"
) 2+ 0.01068( r out"
;'
H ( 7.36) of particlesby ffiu
the meanpath) dift
 Sec.7.3 Dynamics
of Particles
in Fluids 311

To calculate urfor a particle of any diameter, first calculate the value of Ga. Then, calcu-
lateRe/CD from Eq. (7.36) and finally obtain u, from Eq. (j.35).

Example7.3 Gravitational Settling Velocity

Estimate the terminal settling velocity of a sphericalparticle with a diameter of 100 pm and
a density of 2,600 kg/m3 falling through air at 313 K and 1 atm under the influence of gravi-
ty. Calculate the terminal Reynolds number, Re,, and the terminal drag force on the particle.

Solution

For air at373K and 1 atm, p =0.941kglm3,V=2.1x 10-skg/m-s.From Eq. (j.34),Ga1t3

=4.174. Equation(7.36)yietds(Re/Cr;tn = 0.564.FromEq. (7.35),ut=0.522m/s.
Calculate Re, = upopllt = 2.35. There are two ways to calculate the terminal drag force.
The easy way is to notice that when the particle attains constantvelocity, the drag force is
perfectly balancedby the external force, gravity in this case.Therefore, the drag force is
equal to the weight of the particle: Fp = mpg = 1.33 x 10-8N. Rememberthat this is true
only at the terminal velocity. A more general approachto calculate the drag force is through
Eq' (7.19). Calculate the drag coefficient with the correspondingcorrelation fromTableT.2:

I ^,--
od/ t
Cp = 24lReIt + O.tS Reu ) = 12.97.Substituting in Eq. (7.19),Fo = I.32x 10-rN.
Thereis a slightdifferencebetweenthe two resultsdueto theuseof Eq. (7.36),an approxi-
matecorrelation,aspartof theprocedureto calculatethe terminalvelocity.

7.3.4collection of PqrticlesBy lmpoction, Inlerception,ond Diffusion

When a flowing fluid approachesa stationary object such as a fabric filter thread, a large
water droplet , or a metal plate, the fluid flow streamlineswill diverge around that object. Because
of their inertia, particles in the fluid will tend to continue in their original direction. If the particles
have enough inertia and are located close enough to the stationary object, they will collide and be
collectedby it.
Impaction occurs when the center of mass of a particle that is diverging from the fluid
streamlines strikes a stationary object. Interception occurs when the particle's center of mass
closely misses the object, but, becauseof its finite size, the particle strikes the object. Collection
of particles by dffision occurs when small particles (which are subject to random motion about
the mean path) diffuse toward the object while passing near it. Once striking the object by any of

*5

+*fi
312 Chap.7 Fundamental Emissions
of Particulate Control Sec.7.

these means, particles are collected only if there are short-range forces strong enough to hold T
them to the surface. amount of
A simple meansto explain impaction is with the concept of stopping distance.If a sphere lection or
in the Stokes's regime is projected with an initial velocity usinto a motionless fluid, its velocity as tional or g
a function of time (ignoring all but the drag force) is
ur= uoe-ll7 (7.37)
The total distance traveled by the particle before it comes to rest is

=
*rr"O u, dt = ugr, (7.38) T
f inlet ando
If the particlestopsbeforestrikingthe object,it can be sweptaroundthe objectby the
alteredfluid flow. Becauset is very small,x",oois also small' For example,if a 1'0-pmparticle
with unit densityis projectedat 10m/s into air, it will travelonly 36 pm'
An impactionparameter, Nr, canbe definedasthe ratio of the stoppingdistanceof a par-
ticle (basedon theupsffeamfluid velocity)to thediameterof the stationaryobject,ds,or:
The overa
N t =!!:L (7.3e)
do
If N, is large, most of the particles will strike the object, otherwise, most will follow the
fluid flow around it.

In termsc
OF COLTECTION
7.4 EFFECTIVENESS

Your objectivesin studying this sectionare to

1. Define fractional efficiency, overall efficiency basedon particle
number, overall efficiency basedon particle mass,and penetration'
2. Develop a relation between overall mass collection efficiency and
fractional efficiency for a log-normal aerosolpopulation. Combini
3. Apply Gauss-Hermitequadratureformulas to the evaluation of overall
masscollection efficiencies.
4. Estimate the fractional and overall collection efficiencies of settling
chambers operating in the turbulent flow regime.
5. Calculate the overall collection efficiency of two or more particulate
collection devices operating in series.
Sec,-7;4,,
:':Et&etMilrl$s
of ;eolfedtion s"l€

Tb successof a particulate,idolleedoil.
slritem'rrrayrbs:eiipra$stdiei,&br..irftdilns ,of the
amountof aerosolremovedfrom the air sfteam,o, ttr" u-o* permittedto remain in it. The col-
lectio-nor removal efficiency of a devjpe;rnaybg,q€$qgdin variousways. For instance,thefrac-
tional or gradefficiency \ (Dr) is definedas:

particlesof diamet{rDrout
n(Dr)= , -numberof {?r4O)
numberof paticles of diameterDoin
'.,.,;:' ' :- ' :
;. ;-. -i': '- r' ,,'.t' i
This effrciencycan be expressedin terrnsof the particle sizedistribution functions at the
inlet andoutletsidesof the device:

nt*(h - no*(oo)ano
I(Dp)=

.,.',; '.:j-:..::,:::li
.'..'r.:.it':l,t:::. YJ'll; ,-, :j,.:.ir:.. i,: t,

,,. ,- ,ii,ir
i-.i.:'.:- .;-,:{ifi;E
f_ "f,l{:,Il lit
Te,f
number pmticles
.. of in

.,.:i:,1,: .

-,.:
,ti t:,:,;i
'
1 . . :, . j . l l : l '

_::.t .
I

,:'

(7.43)

n(u)**@)ary
TIN=
[,-
,,.@,)an, Q.44'
f
314 Chap.7 of'Particulate
Fundamental Emlssigns,,Control Sec,7.4
\
I

basedon paniclemass,Tlu.is
The overall,efficiency defined.as . ;. .. :
.:-: ,. r ':: ,_
a J, ..r .. I

mass of particles out'

massof particles in Q.4s)

^ i -

For sphericalparticlesof uniform density:

whereu = lx
ri ,;,,(oo)
n@) apo (seeProblen
rlM =
I
(7.46)
,,,(n)ojaoo
f
The overall collection efficiency by massis usually the easiestto measureexperimental-
ly. The inlet and outlet streamsmay be sampledby a collectiondevice,suchas a filter, that col- Equation(7.
lectsvirtually all of theparticles.
The collection efficiency is frequentlyexpressedin termsof penetration.The penetration
is basedon the amountemittedratherthanon the amountcollected;basedon particlemass,it is
justPty- | -\*.
The fractionalefficiencyn(Do) is, for most collectors,a uniquesingle-valuedfunction
for a particularsetof operatingconditions.It dependson suchparametersasthe natureanddesign
dimensionsof the collector,andthe rate of flow andparticulateloadingof the gassffeam.The fol- where u = lr
lowing chapterswill developthe fractional efficiency.function'forthe most commondevicesused
for particulateremovalfrom gaseousstrbams. ,
For a log-normalparticlesizedistribution,Eq. (7.46)canbe writtenas

In tr
f *'n(da'nr,(u)du
\u=
(7:.17)
nin(u\ e3udu

For
numerically
316 of'Partieulate,Emissions,Control
Ghap.7 : Fundamental: t€ci,7,4:.

haveusedthis techniqnewherethe log-normaldisribution applies.The

1989)andBenitez,(1988)
integralbecomes: ;t--
-
-2.93063
f*N
-1.98165
I n!)"-'ar= ) w;q(u;) (7.s3) -1.15719
l-* i=l
-0.38119,
where w; and v; are the weight factors and roots of the Nth degree Hermite polynomial 0.381lt,
(Abramowitz and Stegun 1972). As a general rule, the accuracy of the mrmerical integration t.157Lg
increaseswith increasing polynomial dbgree..Beni-tez(1988) suggestedthat an 8-point"formula 1.98165
was adequate for preliminqrydesign purposes. 2,93063

i"j

Example 7.4 Overall Mass Cotiection Efficiency

'
Caleulations llu= I
:' . .._..
: The fractional efficiency function of a particulateremovaldeviceis given by:
_
-l:" : l' r'tr
' : .: 1_'-' ' :"::'I .:r
.
.., , ..
/ \
. , , . t , i . i. . , .
I - - tl
Gom
n(Dp)=I - exp(-0.000651D1) ::
:l' ' t '"t
' : I ::' l- i
1t.s+l
r"'_: : :il' Notice
:: .-.i ._
:, : , ..
.:. ,.',
chir,ac
where The deviceprocesses
. r Dois in microns.
a log-normallydistributedaerosolwith a putef s
trAnApof SOFq ando, of 2.5.Estimatethe overallmasscollectionefficiency.Usean 8- mial;
^ ; ' Gauss-Hermitequadratureformula to estimatethe integral.
point

'Sbmion
. c
c
The procedureto estimatethe overall mass.eollectionefficiency is asfollows: c
o Choosethenumberof quadrature pointsto use,N. c
r Obtainthe valuesof the roots,v;, an-dweight factors,rry;,of the conesponding
'
Hermitepolynornialeitherfrom,amathecraticdtableor from a cormpoter,r,:,:,',i ,
programprovidedsubsequentlyi , ::, ,
rFoieachoftheroots,calculatethecorrespondinga;from.Eq.(7.51).
o CalculateDpi= expui.
o Calculatev1(Dp)from Eq. (7.54).
o Calculate]vJq (Der)_for
,: --, -
!:r, I,_,...
. Calculaten,ufrornEqs.(7.52)and(7,53).
The following table summarizesthe calculationsfor an aerosolpopulationwith MMD = 50
Prnando, =25.
 of,,Giltlection
S,eci.7.4r,,Etfectiveness 977

Dpi t'l Nrt

-2.93063 t.I2 0.0008 0:00020 0
-1.98165 3.83 0.009s 0.01708 r. o,ooo16
-t.t5719 TT.16 0.0779 a.zaianz 0.01619
-0.38119 30.51 0.4545 0.66115, 0.30050
0.38119 8194 0.9870 0.66115, 0.65260
t.t57rg 223'.97 1.0000 0.247802 0.20780
1.98165 ,651.89 1.0000 0.01708 0.01708
2.93063 2,2,16.I0 1.0000 0.00020 ,0.00020
>;1.1945;3.

r1y= Ll9453lntn =0.673g (67.1:9Eo) , :

Comments
.
Notice the symrnefiryof tlp roots andweight functionsof the Hermitepolynomials.This
characteristic
simplifiescomputerimplementation of the method.Thefollowing is a com-
puter subroutineto calculatethe roots andweight factorsof the Nth degreeHermitepolyno-
mial. .:. . . :r , , : ,: : . . r 11, : . . ; :I. - 1 , ,1
a lr ..::::,.t:..; :

, . :: : :' ''
, suBnoum.{EIsRMIT(NN,X,A,EpS)
c CALCULATESTHEZEROESX(DOFTHENN-THORDER i' :
c IERMrrEipoLyNoMIAL. ALSOCALCULITESTrm,COnnr5p6y9Xg6,:,::
' c 1VtrGIrrFACToRA(DFORGAUSS-HERMTTEQUADRATUI3: :,"!i', :':
' ': ::r :
C fr;'

DTMENSTON x(50), A(50)

FN=NN
Nl =NN-l
N2 = (NN+1y2
* *N I )
CC =,1.77'2453&509*GAMMA(FN.X(2,
S = (2.*FN+1.)**.16667
D O l l I = 1 ,N 2
rF (I.EQ. 1) TIIEN
. i.:XT =rS**3 - 1.85575/5
sLsErF(r.EQ.2)Tr{EN
, ,i XT=XT- 1.14*FN**.426IXT
ELSEIF (I .EQ.3) THEN
XT= 1-86f)(L0.86tx(l)
 ,Particulate Control
Emissions' Sec,.7"4
318 C h a p . 7 Fundamental'of

e
ELSEIF (I .EQ.4) THEN '
c
'XT=1.91*XT-.gl*xQ) "' c
, .
ELSE c
XT = 2.*XT-X(I-2)
ENDIF
CALLHROOT(XTNN,DPN,PNI,EPS) :
x(I)=XT
A(I)=CC/DPN/PNI
NI = NN-I+I
I '
X(NI)=-XT
A(NI) =A(I) :...
1 l COMINUE
;t"*
END . :
FUNCNONGAMOD
c '
.r' I
= '193527818)*Y + '+szleme+;*v-
cAM ((((0.035868343*Y-
- '89705693?)*Y+ '988205891)*Y
+ .918206857)*Y
1 .756704078)*Y
2 -.5771g1652)*Y
+ 1.0
RET.RN ' r,.':
END
FIJNCTION GAMMA(X)
X FbR X.BETWEEN OENO:S
c CO}VFUTESTHE GA}'IMA FUNCTIONOF
e
! - ' ]
Z'=X
IF (Z J.B o.o .oR. z.GT. 35.)THEN
GAMMA=0.
ELSE IF ( Z .EQ.l.) TIIEN
GAMMA= 1. '; :., " .' , ..- .
ELSE IF (Z .LT. 1.O)TIIEN
GAIyfl\4A=-,G.AM(Z)U ,::: '1,:
ELSEIF (Z:G:I; 1.0)THEN
ZA=1. '
10 Z=Z-'1..
IF(z .EQ.l')THEN
GAMMA=ZA
FLSE IF (Z .G'T.1.0)TIIEN :
ZA=ZA*Z Examl
....
GOTO l0
:
: ELSEIF (Z .LT' 1'0)TIIEN ..',,,'-
GAMMA=ZA*GAM(Z) '
lls
END IF :t€
ENDIF o1
RETURN
d
END
SUBROUTINEHROOT(X,NN,DPN'PN1'EPS)

gl"*
 31.9
:drG6[[ection"
7,4, Effectiveness
Sec,,,

C IMPROVESTIIEI|PPROXIMATEROOTX
x
i ot" = DERIVATTvE oF l(N) AT
C PNI=VALUEOFH(N r":'r''r; :'
' .;l)ATX,:'."""
-rl
'
t-
- tt"" : :'t':' l
C ,:'' "'1'11 .,,",.
":t'' t't-'i:
- : r i ' , . : : ' , , : : : . , t : i. , . . :'
, : , . t f ! . n : = , o . :. 1
I I T E R = I T E R + l- . - , . , , , , :: :,r . . ..: :,,t:,'
CALL HRECUR(P,DP,PN I,X'NN)
D=P/DP
X=X-D
.Gr.EPs.ewo'rren'lr' r0)rHEN
"tyjJ?,
GOTO 1
'ELSE : t'
":
.pp5 = Dp ..
ENDIF . .. .
REIURN
BND
l'x'NN)
iunnournrn HRECuKPN,DPN,PN

I, ",,
n*amtple,i;s;t.rull Masseoilccfi Effici,q4cJrotse!$Charnbef '
,,,t*i;*tg *i*iibdapsthesimpiestof al.far,.no,llu*:1."-**ddevipei'Itsmain
controlsys-
a"ni"".fot arnor'qefficient
[sefulness lies in servingasa prelimirrl;t;;g remove much
can
tem.Whereth" .;';t"- f*go purti"i"r i-itg"r ,ft" dh.g cnamUe' control
' , tlie massof theparticulate *rti"rt 'i"tfA otrrgrwi.sechokeup the other
of popufution
or requrrng too frequent cleaning'
i""J"l-ft"pti.ing its operation
820 Chap.7 FundamentalofrParticulate
EmissionsControl Sec.7.4,,,Ef

The useof severaltrays improvesthe collection effieiencyof a settlingchambersincethe Considera

particleshavea much shorterdistanceto travel beforereachingthe bottom ofthe passage atr at298l
betweentrays.Figure7.6 showsa settlingchamberin which tays areprovided- ,Thedensi
The flow in a rectangularchannel,suchasthe onesin a settlingchamberwith ffays, is tur-
the ov-era
bulent if the Reynoldsnumber,Re" > 4,000 (McCabeand Smith, 1976).For the situation
depictedin FigureT.6,theReynoldsnumberis (Crawford1976)
Solution.
JQP- The first I
Re"=- (7.ss)
ItlNtrW + H) Por:air*:
dimerrsiu

whereN1"is the numberof trays,including the bottom surfaceof the chambel.For turbulent meansfuI
,t.

flow, the fractionalefficiency for particulatecollectionby a settlingchamberis given by b9cgm6

(seeProblem7.13):

To illusrr
n(pp)=1-explry-l (7.s6)
overallq
lated h*l
At,ttre lb
wbereul is the terminal,velocityof a particle of diameterDo.Notice:thatNolW = A" wherc calculatio
A" is the total areaavailablefor particle collection.Therefore,Eq. (7,56)canbe rewritten as
-
Yi
-
q(Do)=
r-explTl (7.s7) -1.6506
4.52ffi5
0:5?46
Top view 1.6ffi

1
w :,:;
lltt=
:

t +z'
'> , F$eE
series.The.or
of each:dE*:
device,bugs
Figure,7.5,Schematicdiagram
total massEi
,, , of a.settling chamber wi,th system,Pr- i
trays
r,-* Alley 1986).
 -

321
of Collection
Sec.7.4 Effectiveness

of
10 squaretravs' Ttre-!3vice processes10 m3/s
consider a 5-m long settling chamber with =25 pmand O' = 2'g'
u"l.o'ol with MMD
ar at298K and 101.3 kPa, carrying u log-norrnal
Thedensityoftheparticlesis2,000kg/m3.Thetotalheightofthechamberis3m.Estimate
chamber'
the overall mass collection efficiency of the

Solution
if the flow through the chamberis turbulent'
The first step in the solution is to determine
andp = 1 31] 10-5kg/m-s'Thechamber
For air at2ggKand 101.3kpa, p = 1.1g5kg/m3
g = 10,EQ.(7.55)yieldsRe. = 24'300which
dimensionsu,e:L =W = 5 m., = 3 m.Fori,
(7'57)
A. = (10) (5)2 = 250m2' Equation
meansfully developedturbulentflow. Calculate
becomes
/ \ | ^- I
-
n(Dp)= I exPl- hw) (7.s8)

Toillustratetheconcept,choosea4-pointquadratureformulatorelatethefractionaland calcu-
velocities in Eq' (7'58) must be carefully
overall collection efficiencies. The terminal covered'
the higher end oi the particle size range
lated becauseStokes's law is not valid at
correction factor must be included in the
At the lower end of the range, the Cunninghari
calculations.

Wi
0rm) ur (m/s) \(Dpi)
0.0368 0.08131 0.0030
-1.65068 5 0.0015 0.0002
0.2548 0.80491 0.2051
4.52465 15 0.0118 0.0113
0.9220 0.80491 0;142t
0.52465 41.8 0.1020 0.275
1.0000 0.08131 0.0813
1.65068 126 0.6220 5.05
t = 1.0315

r1y= 1.0315/''l:n = 0.582(58'2Vo)

Frequently,aparticulatecollectionsystemconsistsoftwoormofedevicesoperatingin
the sum n9r tfe product of the efficiencies
series. The overall collection efficiency is not simply entering that
is based on the mass loading of particles
of each device. Each device's efficiency a fraction of the
is.based on the total mass collected as
device, bul.the overall ,Vri"* efficiency penetration of such a
be easily shown that the overall
total mass enfering the first device. It can (cooper and
penetrui#r or all of the individual devices
system,p/r, is simply the product of the
Allev 1986).
 Control
Emissions References
322 Farticulatd
O h a P : 7 Fundamental,of

n
Pto = fI Pt' (7;59) Ahail
l= | Foffi

Alleql
Theoverallcollectionefficiencyofthesystemisqy=|_Pto'
Benfu
Partio
Tlvo control Devicesin
Example 7.6 Overall collection Efficiency with Me€lit
Series
Btu4
contolsystem'consirt* tl* * ou"'otl-ui' ;i1;;1-ii
oi'ur"ttlingchamber Yorlc
A particulate an overall rnasscollection
precipitatorwith
efficiency of 65%, followed by an electrostatic
collection'bffrciencyfor the system. Caru
etriciencyof 9|To,.Calculatethe overall
Wite
Solution coq
Eng
Calculatethepeneffationsoftheindividualdevices.!!,=|-0.9'=oss..r2:'-o:::
nitll1l:i9,?t)(0'05)=0'o175'Therefore''theoverallefficiencvforthe
0.05.FromEq Cra
is n"a= 0'9825(98'257o)
sYstem
Fla
Hd

T.S"CONCLUS|oN : Hi
P4
.Removalof:particulate.matter.from.exhaustgasesisuu"ryimportantengineeringtask
of an
ui, p-ottutuitt'-the most ilnportant characteristic
becauseparticlesconrtitot" u -u3".1classof deleterious effects of particu- K
Not only arethe
aerosol,populationis its size distribution ton"tiln-
natureand-design of tle poilution controldevice'appropriate
latesdependenton their size,but the the size distiibutio-nfunction' x
- * tr,"
for a given aerosolare highly d"p-".nq"ff "r'i'""t"tistics'bf fortynate
are log-nomatfY distribuled,which is
Most aerosolsof interestio ui, pottoti* :ooOol
ar*;;;il;i- a"Jrr"i*""-rzed in termsof only t*o parameters'
;;;; particles
. :'Most p*i"ri",t""rieJ,i"J"oi*t a"peoJ on an sxternal'forceto impart on the
depend on
dit ;;1"n of the gasflow. Settlins:chambers
a velocity:compo"""rfiur"tifi;#";;;i the most
the mechanismsthrough which
gravity for that plrpose.:The following chaptersexplore
o"ti1e the,corespondlngfractioral'ef'ficiency
popularparticularcc;;tr;i;yt.Jn:*",o"d i"'qquil
szins and orp*i"otu* control:equlpmentarecovered
A;ti4 fJting
I
 t-

References 323 ,5

REFERENCES

Abramowitz, M., and Stegun,I. A. (Eds.) Handbook of Mathematical Functions with

Formulas, Graphs, and MathematicalTables, Chap.25, Wiley, New York, (1972).

Allen, M. D., and Raabe,O. G. J. Aerosol Sci.,13.53'7(1982).

Benitez, J. "The Use of GaussianQuadratureFormulas for the Optimal Design of

Particulate Control Equipment," paper No. 88-72.6, presentedat the 8lst Annual
Meeting of APCA, Dallas,TX (1988).

Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., and Lightfoot, E.N. Transport Phenomena,Wiley, New
York, (1960).

Carnahan,8.,Luther, H. A., andWilkes, J.O. AppliedNumerical Methods,Chap.2,

Wiley, New York, (1969).

Cooper, C.D., and Alley, F. C. Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach,PWS

Engineering,Boston,MA (1986).

Crawford, M. Air Pollution Control Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, (1976).

Flagan, R. C., and Seinfeld, J.H. Fundamentalsof Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice
Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ (1988)

Hinds, W. C. Aerosol Technology,Properties, Behavior, and Measurementof Airborne

Particles, Wiley, New York,' (1982).

Ken, C. P. Environ. Sci.andTechnol.,15:119(1981).

Kerr, C. P. JAPCA,39:1585(1989).

Larsen R. I., McDonnell, W. F., Horstman, D. H., and Folinsbee,L. J. J. Air Waste
Manage.Assoc., 4l:455 (1991).

Licht, W. Air Poltution Control Engineering, Basic Calculationsfor Particulate

Collection, Marcel Dekker, New York (1980).

McCabe, W. L., and Smith J. C. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,3rd. ed.

McGraw-Hill, New York (1976).

,ilttm' ,:l:l]L !'''!i*i.\ryl] ?i

g2A Chap.7 Fundamental
of Particulate
Emissions
Control Problems

(1990).
Ott,W. R. J. AirWasteManage.Assoc.,4O:I378

Press,W. H., Flannery,B. P., Teukolsky,S. A., andVetteiling,W.T. Numerical

Recipes:TheArt of ScientificComputing,CambridgeUniversity Press,New York
(198"9).
i
Wark,K., andWarnerC.F. Air Pollutionlts Origin and Control,2nd ed.,Harperand
Row,New York (1981)., :
Determ
MMD. NMD

7.2b.Log-no
PROBTEMS .Forthe
(a) Mas

The problems at the end of each chapter have been grouped in-to (b) Fra
four classes(designatedby a superscriptafter the problem num-
ber).

Class a: Illustrates direct numerical application of the formulas in the 7.3b.Modal

text. ' An imt
Class b: Requireselementaryanalysisof physical situations,based.on definedasti
the subject material in the chapter. eteris locate
Class c: Requires somewhatmore mature analysis. disribution,
Classd: Requirescomputersolution.

7.1u.Analysisof data from a cascadeimpactor

Estimatethe

The following dalawere obtainedwhen a sampleof an aerosolpopulationwas ana-

lyzedwith a cascadeimpactor: . .1
7.44. Log-b
 3e5
Problems

Sizerange(Pm) Massr(mg) . !. .
0-4 25
4-8 t25. ,, ., ,,,.
. r: : , ... r : , , f '
8-16 100
,16-30 ': ; ' 75 , .; ', r..'

30-50 30 ..
>50 ),
':r .' i .
"
and,if so-estimate ''
: Determinewhether,alog.normal'distributionfits this data
MMD,NIvID, andos.
': '" 'Answer: MMD 10'Bllrn
'=

7.2b'Log-normal distribution
,,,,,Fqf,th€4grpsolpopulationotProblem?.1;'calculate:thefollowitrg:"'",.t'',',.,,
(a)Mass.fractionofparticleswithdiametersbetween5andl0pm'

.r:: t. ri .:- I :
1 and 5 pm'
. ,

particleswith between
diameters
.1,:
O) Fractionof the total numbr of
l: l.i .:rt: .f i-::.
, tl:.. i::
An"rWer:74t67'p
.: r'':r",r'.,r' .',"'i ,
1.1::1r:
:
7.3t.'Modd ditirneter'Ofa'log-nornal dishibudon
mOdal:diam9t9'!' D!*'
An impoftantparameterot a srzeorsribution function is the
aam-
d"fi;;;;; ii*r",rr at which tne geatest numberof particlesis clustered'.rnis
(Dp)' Show that' for a log-1ormal.
eteris located'atthe maximumpoint of the cnrvef6 n ' ll
; :.:r i: j::::: :

distribution, l :

':Do144
='NIvF I 1**qr)?j ,' ,.t
t

..i::.'....':.i::.:.'..'.j:::'....:.
"*P l: :::'::l-.1

:. : ' ., . :
Problem7'1'
Estimatethe modal diametelfor the aerosolpopulationof
' ::r, :.' r': :

;.1r .. :;.-i
.
]] . Answer:1,58'1tm
r.:,rl;: -'
::l .
'1.:1.,l'::,';, :. ''- r-:..- ..''.:

2.4d,tog-birnoihl'sise diqtributioh
' 'r . r. :.. l:i:'J-'-:' ' il r:''
:
326 Chap.7 of Particulate
Fundamental Emissions
Control Problem

The following data were obtainedwith a cascadeimpactor Estimate wh

Dn (|'tm) G (7o)
0.5 7.7b.Mass r
1.0 14.4 An ae
2.0 zJ.+
4.0 37.0 1.5.If the n
8.0 55.1 Particlesmi
10.0 6r.4 may be use
15.0 72;7
20.0 79.6
25.0 84.6
50.0 94.8

Fit a log-bimodaldistributionfunctionto thesedataandcommenton thegoodness

of fit of themodel.

7.5b Log-bimodalsizedistribution 7.8a.Term

An aerosolpopulationresultsfrom thecombinationof particulatematterfrom two

(a)Es
distinctsources.The coarsersourceis log-normallydistributedwith MMD = 10 pm and
with o, =2.5,bttunknown diameters1
os =3.0.Thefiner sourceis alsolog-normallydistributed
MMD. Twenty-three percentof all the massoriginatesat the fine particlesource.It was
foundexperimentallythatthe combined,cumulativemassfractionup to 3 pm was (b) Ft
30.8Vo. Estimatethe valueof MMD for the fine source.
Cunningha
atm.
7.6u.Urban aerosols
The sizedistributionof urbanaerosolscontainingphotochemical smogareusually
bimodal.The "fine particle"mode-less than2trrm-containsfrom one-thirdto two-
thirdsof thetotal mass,with theremainderin the "coarseparticle"mode.The fine parti- 7.9a.Dyn:
clesareproducedby photochemical atmospheric reactionsandthecoagulationof com- Aco
bustionproducts.The coarseparticlesaremainly of mechanicalorigin. accountfo
The aerosoloverPasadena, California,wassampledon September 3, 1969under becomes
light to moderatesmogconditions.TheMMD of thefine particlemodewas0.3 pm with
a o, of 2.05.The correspondingparameters for the coarseparticleswere8.0 pm and2.3,
respectively(Hinds 1982).The cumulativemassfractionup to 1.0pm was557o'
Problents ' 'tr I
327

Estjmatgrv[ratfraction of the total atmospheiicaerosolw-asofphotochemic{ origin.

' ''- -: ': :l
ir"r::.
r,"' l , :, ,.::r',: : : i:. .:::''.''..i1 :- :l '
.::.,,:

" -n-q-w' -eir :-5 7 ' 3 7 o

. '':' A

7.7b.Mass concentrationof a log-normal aerosolpopulation

An aerosolwith a log-rronqalsizedistributionhasa NMD of 0.3 pm anda o* of
1.5.If thenumberconddhhbiion15'd'$e'pi ds nij,.whatis the''4aS$'icihcentration?
particlesmay be'assumedsphericalwith a densityof 4;500kg/m3lThe following identity
mav be useful:

rz)
,* s-(,-i)'rzo,'du=,[ii ooei s(,'o,?
| '
:r., .. j . J-- :: , .;:.,'r: , I ,r, '

'
:r.i '

: : : ,, , '
7.8a. Teiftffinalgrwit#nat setding vel,ocity
. .t ti' ;i : . ; : :- l : . :

:r,, ,(a) Estirnatgthe termioal gravitationalsettlingvelocity of a unit-denstty,200-pm

diameterspherein air at 298K and 1 atm.
'i.':
::-.

..;'-,*-.r'.1

(b) For a 0.15-prhdimeter spheiicalparticle(pp= 2,500kgfol &tr-miriethe

CunA gh.afl:corr€ctiodfaq*jq.ad thriter,mirnlsettlingr.f*e€ity:if;arfo.at'il$ K,'a,dl1.r:
. L l
328 Chap.7 of Particuldte
Fundamental Control
Emissions Problem

of 10sV/m.
where Do is the diameter of a sphericalparticle with the samevolume as the irregularly
shapedparticle. The following table gives dynamic shapefactors for particles of various
shapes.
7.12b.Ove
Deriv
Shaoe Dvnamicshapefactor
-sphere a log-norm
1.oo
Cube(UD = 4) 1.08
axishorizontal 1.32
r.07 7.1,3".Tirr
axisvertical
Bituminouscoaldust 1.05- 1.11
1.36 Derir
Quartz
Sand r .57 chambero
Talc 2.04 adjacenttc
trate,so th
Source:Davies.C. N. J. AerosolSci.,L0:477(1979)'
of theflov
butionof 1
An old indusrrialhygienerule of thumbis that a 10-pmsilicaparticlesettlesin
the lamina
atmospheric air at a rateof 1 cm/s.Whatis thetrue settlingvelocityof sucha particle?
clesmove
The specificgravityof silicais 2.6.Usethe dynamicshapefactorfor quartz.
Answer:0.566cm/s
7.LAd.G
Writ
7.10b.Gravitational settling velocity
estimatet
Atmosphericair is driedby bubblingit throughconcentrated sulfuricacid(po= tion effici
1,840kg/m3).Theacidcontaineris a 0.l-m diameter,2-m long tubewhich holds 1'5 L of tion. The
acid.The air flow rateis 10L/min. Whenthebubblesburstat the liquid surface,they of thelog
form droplets.What is the largestdropletthatcanbe caniedout of this system? your pro8
Answer: 19.5 Stm
andobse

7.15d.Or
7.ll,b.Terminalvelocityfor electricallychargedparticles
Whena particlepossessing an electricalchargeep entersa regionwherean electric
Wr
forceF will act on the particle.The
field of strengthE, is alsopresent,an electrostatic settlingc
magnitudeof this forceis givenby F = qoEr, whereF is in newtons,4oin coulombs,and normally
E" in volts/m.Estimatethe terminalvelocityin air at 298K and 1 atm of a 1.0-pmdiam- formula
eterparticlewith a chargeof 0.3 x 10-1scoulombsundertheinfluenceof an electricfield
 Problems 329

of 105 V/m.

Answer: 0.2 nt/s

7.12b.Overall efficiency based on particle mass for log-normal function

Derive Eq. (7.50), which relatesoverall mass efficiency to fractional efficiency for
a log-normal distribution, beginning with Eqs. (7.49) and (7.I4).

7.13". Ttrrbulent flow in settling chambers

Derive Eq. (7.56) for the fractional efficiency of particulate collection by a settling
chamberoperating in the turbulent flow regime. Assume that there is a laminar layer
adjacentto the bottom surfaceof the passageinto which turbulent eddies do not pene-
trate, so that any particle that crossesinto this layer is capturedshortly. In the remainder
of the flow passage,the eddying motion owing to turbulence will causea uniform distri-
bution of particles of all sizes.The vertical componentof the velocity of the particles in
the laminar layer is the correspondingterminal settling velocity. Horizontally, the parti-
cles move at the averagevelocity of the gas through the passage.

7.14d,Gauss-Hermite quadrature for overall efficiency estimation

Write a computer progrilm to implement the method outlined in Example 7.4 to
estimatethe overall masscollection efficiency for a device with a given fractional collec-
tion efficiency equation when it operateson a log-normally distributed aerosolpopula-
tion. The user should be able to specify the fractional efficiency function, the parameters
of the log-normal distribution, and the number of quadraturepoints up to N = 50. Test
your program with the information on Example 7.4. Increasethe number of points to 16
and observethe effect on the overall efficiency predicted.

7.15d.Overall efficiency of a settling chamber

Write a computer program to estimatethe overall mass collection efficiency of a

settling chamber operating in the turbulent flow regime. Assume that the aerosolis log-
normally distributed. Estimate the integral with an N-point Gauss-Hermitequadrature
formula. Test your program with the information on Example 7.5. Increasethe number of

*ifr
 330 Chap.7 Fundamental
of Particulate
Emissions
Control Problems

points to 8 and observethe effect on the overall efficiency predicted.

Tobfe7.6 F
I

7.16b.Overall penetration of a log-bimodal aerosol population

Ken (1989) showed that the overall masspenetrationof a log-bimodal aerosolpop-
ulation through a particulate control device can be estimatedby:

N N
RI wirt(v1i)+l w;Pt(v"i)
i=l ;-l
Pty =
lnlR+11

wherev6;lfid vJareasdefinedby Eq. (7.51)for thecoarseandfine fractionsrespective-

ly. Considera particulatecontroldevicewith a fractionalpenetrationfunctiongivenby

rt(nr)=e^p(-o.oool74 -78,37lDp) -
Source:Hatt
whereDo is in meters.The aerosolis log-bimodalwith MMD/= 0.5028pm, MMD" =
11.29!tm,6ef= 1.202,or. = 1.353,andR = 0.01023.Estimatetheoverallmasscollec-
tion efficiencyof the devicebasedon a S-pointquadrature
formula.
7.18a.Parti,
Answer:61Vo

Particl
7.17t Particulatematter depositionin the alveolar region emission st
Table7.6 showsthefractionof inhaledparticlesdepositedin the alveolarregionfor what is the
nosebreathingat a rateof 14Llmin asa functionof particlesizeDo. Estimatehow much
massdepositsin a person'salveolarregiondaily owing to breathinglocal air which con-
tains150mg/m3of a log-normallydistributedaerosolwith MMD = 2.72pm ando* = 7.19c.Des
r.649. Desi
Answer:0.54mg/d (ESP).Th(
96.77ofot
settlingch
particlede
traysin th
Calculate

t
 Problems 331

Toble7.6 FroctionolDepositionof Porticlesin AlveolorRegion

Dofttm) Fraction D, (Pm) Fraction

0.1 0 0.20 t.2 0.21

0.20 0 .1 5 1.3 0.22
0.30 0 .1 2 r.4 0.23
0.40 0.r2 1.5 0.25
0.50 0.12 2.0 0.28
0.60 0.r2 3.0 0.26
0.70 0 .1 5 4.0 0.19
0.80 0.18 5.0 0.11
0.9 0.20 6.0 0.03
1.0 0.20 7.0 0.0
1.1 0.20 8.0 0.0
et al. JAPCA37:1060(1987).
Source:Hattis

7.1.8a.Particulate control devices in series

Particulateremoval efficiency on a certain gas streammust be 98.5Voto satisfy

emission standards.lf a 607o-effrcientcyclone precleaneris used with a wet scrubber,
what is the required efficiency of the scrubber?
Answer:96.27o

7.L9". Design of a settling chamber

Design a settling chamberto serve as a precleanerfor an electrostaticprecipitator
(ESP). The removal efficiency for the systemmust be at least 987o.The ESP efficiency is
96.77ofor a gas flow rate of 10 m3ls of air at 298 K and 1 atm. The aerosolentering the
settling chamberis log-normally distributed with MMD = 15.0 pm and 6s=2.5, and a
particle density of 2,000 kg/m3. Becauseof floor spacelimitations, the dimensions of the
trays in the settling chambercannot exceed4 m. The tray spacingmust be 0.3 m.
Calculate the chamberdimensions and the number of trays required.

,,"'dtf[ll0fiIiffi4*;r;tffitiltn{,,,,{fi,r,{hrr!'.
392 of particurate
chap-7 Fundamentar Emissions
control

7.20b.Optimat designof-asetdingchamber .
crawford (1976)showedthat,whenthereareno spacelimitations,
the optimal
designof a settlingchamberoperatingin the turbul"ntfio*
,"gi.;;;;;;;b;-'*'

L=w=^l*
YNn

A:13
Nrr-
(ztnlttt
8.I INTROD
whereA" is thetotal collectionareaandAl1is the tray spacing.
Calculatethe optimal Cyclm
dimensionsandnumberof traysof a settlingchamberto collect
50-pmparticleswith of the most wid
90Voefficiency.Thegasflow rareis 25 m3/sofair at 29g spreaduseof qn
K and 1 atm.Theparticleden_
sity is 2,000kg/m:. The tray spacingis 0.3 m. be constructedg
erally not adequ
Answer;L=5.53m purpose.Their k
precleaners fou
In the p
varies greatly wi
greatly improvod
particleslmger il
becauseof thertr
Cyclorn
from a gas.Egu
laden gas entqs I
entry force the gl
move outwarrd,q
Near the bottm
smallerinner qin
cles exit from fu
a rotary valve-
Thecen
proportionalto tL
increases asthed
of smallercyclm
gentialvelocity il
usea largenumbr

-*6**gfiirr