The Advent of the Europeans

Portuguese

Discovery of the New Sea Route.

The Cape route, was discovered from Europe to India by Vasco da
Gama. Vasco da Gama reached the port of Calicut on the May 17. 1498,
and was received by the Hindu ruler of Calicut (known by the title of
Zamorin).
This led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and
Cannanore.
Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India. later Goa
replaced it.
Alfonso d' Albuquerque arrived in India in 1503 as the governor of the
Portuguese in India in 1509 (The first governor being Francisco de
Almeida between 1505-09). He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur
in 1510.

Other Governors

Nino da Cunha (1529-38)— transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa

(1530) and acquired Diu and Bassein (1534) from Bahadur Shah of
Gujarat
Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-45) —the famous Jesuit saint Franrisco
Xavier arrive in India with him.

Dutch

Formation of the Company in March. 1602, by a charter of the Dutch

parliament the Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to
make wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build for tresses.
Establishment of Factories

The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605). Pulicat (1610)-. Surat

(1616),Bimilipatam( 1641), K.arikal( 1645), Chinsura (1653).
Kasimbuzar, Baranagore, Patna. Balasore. Negapatam(all in 1658) and
Cochin (1663).
The Dutch replaced the the Portuguese as the most dominant power in
European trade with the East, including India.
Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam
replaced it.
The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the battle of Bedera
in 1759.

English

Before the East India Company established trade in the India. John
Mildenhall a merchant adventurer, was the first Englishman who arrived
in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for the purpose of
trade with Indian merchants.
Formation of the Company Popularly known as the ‘English East India
Company’.
it was formed by a group of merchants known as the “Merchant
Adventures’ in 1599.

Decision to open a factory at Surat Following the decision of the East

India Company to open a factory at Surat (1608).

Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court (1609) to seek permission.

A farman was issued by Jahangir permitting the English to build a
factory at Surat (1613).
Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I to Jahangir’s
court in 1615 to obtain the permission to trade and erect factories in
different parts of the empire.

Danish

The Danes formed an East India Company and arrived in India in 1616.
They established settlements at Tranquebar (in Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and
at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their headquarters in
India.
They were forced to sell all their settlements in India to the British in
1854.

French

The French East India Company was formed by Colbert understate

patronage in 1664.
The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in
I66H. A factory at Masulipatam was set up in 1669.
The French power in India was revived tinder Lenoir and Dumas
(governors) between 1720 and 1742. They occupied Mahe in the
Malabar. Yanam in Coromandal and Karikal in Tamil Nadu (1739).
The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the
beginning of Anglo-French conflict (Carnatic wars) re- suiting in their
final defeat in India

Establishment of Factories

The East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease.

Gerald Aungier was its first governor from 1669 to 1677. The first
factory was built at Surat in (160S). Later, Surat was replaced by
Bombay as the headquarters of the Company on the west coast in 1687.
In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of
Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory, which was
named Fort St. George. Madras soon replaced Masulipatam as the
headquarters of the English on the Coromandal coast

In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti and the

zamindari of the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindpur was
acquired by the British (1698). These villages later grew into the city of
Calcutta.

The factory at Sutanuti was fortified in 1696 and this new fortified
settlement was named fort William’ in 1700.
In 1694. the British Parliament passed a resolution giving equal rights to
all Englishmen to trade in the East.
A new rival company, known as the ‘English Company of Merchants
Trading to the East Indies’ (1698) was formed The final amalgamation
of the company came in I 708 under the title of’The United Company of
Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies’. This new company
continued its existence till 1858.

Anglo Mysore Wars

First War (1766-69) Haider Ali defeated the British. Treaty of Madras
signed

-Second War (1780-84). Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe.

which was in Hyder Ali’s
territory.
-Hyder Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Marathas and captured
Arcot.

-In 1781. Hyder Ali was defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coot.
-Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by Tipu Sultan.

-Third War (1789-92). Marathas and Nizam aided the British.

Cornwallis captured Bangalore.
By Treaty of Seringapatnam, Tipu ceded half of his territories.

-Fourth War (1799). ford Wellesley attacked and Tipu died.

Anglo Sikh Wars

-Began after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839.

-First War (1845-46). Sikhs were defeated in all the four battles at
Mudki. Feroz Shah, Aliwal and Sobraon. Treaty of Lahore ended the
War. Sir Henry Lawerence became the first resident.

-Second War (1948-49/. Dalhausie annexed Punjab. Sir John Lawerence

became the first Chief
Commissioner of the Punjab.

The East India Company and the Bengal Nawabs

Siraj ud Daula (1756-57)

-He seiged the English factory at Kasimbazar. On 20th June 1756, Fort
William
surrendered hut Robert Clive recovered Calcutta.

-On 2nd January 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed, whereby Siraj
conceded practically all the demands. British then captured
Chandernagore. the French settlement, on March 1757.
-Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757. Owing to the conspiracy.
the Nawab was defeated.

The following betrayed the Nawab:

Mir jafar—Mir Bakshi

Manikchand—Officer in charge of Calcutta
Aminchand—Rich Sikh merchant
Jagat Seth—Biggest banker of Bengal.
Khadim Khan —Commanded a large number of Nawab’s Troops

Mir Jafar (1757-60)

-The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal,

Bihar and Orissa. It received
the Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
-Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears and was forced to abdicate in
favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim.

Mir Qasim (1760-64)

-Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his

capital to from Mursidabad to Monghyr.
-Mir Qasim soon revoked as he was angry with the British for misusing
the dastaks (free duty passes).

However, having been defeated by the British, he fled to Awadh, where

he formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah Alam

- Battle of Buxar (1764) Shuja-ud-daulah. Shah Alam and Mir Qasim

were defeated by Munro.
-Mir Jafar (1763) was again placed on the throne.
Nizam-ud-Daulah(l 765- 72)

-On Mir Jafar’s death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on the
throne and signed a treaty on 20th February.
1765 by which the Nawab was in disband most of his army and to
administer Bengal through a Deputy Subahdar nominated by the
company.

-Clive concluded two separate treaties of Allahabad with Shuja ud daula

and Shah Alam II.
-Dual system of government started in Bengal. The company acquired
both Diwani and Nizamat lights from Najm-ud- Daula (1765-66). the
new nawab of Bengal. But the company did not take over direct
administration and revenue collection. Warren Hastings ended the Dual
system of government in 1772.

Anglo-Carnatic (Arcot) Wars

An instance of Anglo French Rivalry.

• First (1746-48). The French besieged Madras. At St. Thome battle the
Nawab of Carnatic's army was defeated by French under Dupliex
• Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian
Succession.
• Second War (17-49-54). Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung
(Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic).
• Alter initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious.
• Third War {1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured Fort St. David'.
-An instancxe of Angle French Rivarly.
First (1746-48). The French besieged Madras. At st. Thome battle
the Nawab of Carnatic’s army was defeated by French under
Dupliex Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian
Succession.
-Second War (1749-54). Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung
(Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (carnatic)
After initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious.
Third War (1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured ‘Fort St. David’.
French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760).
Pondichery was returned to French by the Treaty of Paris

Anglo-Burmese Wars

Aims

-To control forest resources.

-To increase exports
-To check French influence.
-First War (1824-26). British forces drove the Burmese out of Assam,
Cachar, Manipur and Arakan. Peace Treaty of Yandobo signed.
-Second War (1852). British an-nexed Pegu but faced a popular guerrilla
warfare.
-British now controlled whole of Burma’s coastline.
-Third War (I8S5). The British annexed upper Burma

Anglo-Afghan Wars

-First War (1839-42). Arose because the British (Lord Auckland)

wanted 10 replace Dost Muhammad with a puppet ruler. Shah Shuja.
-The British laced a popular revolt but were able to re-occupy Kabul.
However, they had to restore the throne to Dost Muhammad.
-Second War (1878-80). Afghan ruler. Slier Ali. was defeated by Lord
Lytton and his son signed the Treaty of Gandamak. A British resident
was kept in Kabul. Alter he was killed. British adopted the principle of
non-interference (Lord Ripon).

Anglo-Maratha Wars

-First War (1775-82). Favouring the cause of Raghunath Rao for

Peshwaship, English (Hastings) came in conflict with the Marathas. On
being defeated, the British had to sign the humiliating Convention of
Wadgaon.
-British later signed Treaty of Salbai, renouncing the cause of Raghoba.

-Second War (1803-06).

The Marathas Peshwa signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of
Bassein (1802).
-The Maratha confederacy, which did not like the idea challenged the
British power but were defeated by the British.

-Third War (1817-1888).

Lord Hastings’ was determined to proclaim British paramountacy in
India. Hastings moves against Pindaris transgressed the sovereignty of
the Maratha chief and the war began.
-The Marathas were decisively defeated.

Phases of Economic Policy in India

1600-1757: The East India Company was a purely trading company

dealing with import of goods and precious metals into India and export
of spices and textiles.

1757 - 1813 (The Mercantilist Phase)

-The East India Company monopolized trade and began direct plunder
of India’s wealth.
-They could impose their own prices that had no relation to the costs of
production. This was the phase of buccaneering capitalism whereby
wealth flowed out of the barrel of the trader’s guns.
-The company used its political power to monopolize trade & dictate
terms to the weavers of Bengal
-The company used revenue of Bengal to finance exports oi Indian
goods.

1813-1858 (The Industrial Phase)

The commercial policy of the East India Company after 1813 was
guided
by the needs of the British industry
-The British mercantile industrial capitalist class exploited India as
Industrial Revolution in Britain completely transformed Britain’s
economy

-Charter Act of 1813 allowed one way free trade for British citizens
resulting in Indian markets flooded with cheap & machine made
imports. Indians lost not only their foreign markets hut their markets in
India too.

-India was now forced to export raw materials consisting of raw cotton
jute and silk, oilseeds, wheal, indigo and tea, and import finished
products.
Indian products had to compete with British products with heavy import
duties on entry into Britain.

1860 & After (Finance Colonialism):

The essence of 19th century colonialism lay in the transformation of

India into a supplier of foodstuffs and raw materials to the metropolis, a
market for metropolitan manufactures and a field for investment of
British capital.
-Started with the emergence of the phase of Finance Capitalism m
Britain. The rebellion of KS57 was the key factor in the change of the
nature of the colonialism.
-The British introduced roads and railways, post and telegraph, banking
and other services
under the ‘guaranteed interests’ schemes (government paid a minimum
dividend even if profits were nonexistent).
Various investments by the British capitalists were also made in India.
-As a result of this, the burden of British public debts kept on increasing
and India became, in the real sense, a colony of Britain.

The Drain of Wealth Theory

The Drain of Wealth theory was systemically initiated by Dadabhai

Naoroji in 1867 and further analysed and developed by R.P. Dutt, M.G
Ranade etc.

The "drain of wealth" depicts the constant flow of wealth from India to
England for which India did not get an adequate economic, commercial
or material return. The colonial government was utilizing Indian
resources- revenues, agriculture, and industry not for developing India
but for its utilization in Britain.
If these resources been utilised within India then they could have been
invested and the income of the people would have increased. Ranade
opined that one-third of India’s national income was being drained
away-in one form or the other.

According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of drain can be

identified:
-Home charges refer to the interest on public debt raised in England at
comparatively higher rates; expenditure incurred in England by the
Secretary of State on behalf of India;
Annuities on account of railway and irrigation works; Indian office
expences including pensions to retired officials who had worked in
India or England, pensions to army and navals etc.
-Remittances to England by Europeans to their families.
-Remittances for purchase of British Goods for consumption of
British Employees as well as purchases by them of British Goods in
India.
-Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.

Land Revenue Systems in British India :

Three major systems of land revenue collection existed in India. They

were – Zaminidari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari.

Zamindari System

 Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through

Permanent Settlement Act.
 It was introduced in provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and
Varanasi.
 Also known as Permanent Settlement System.
  Zamindars were recognized as owner of the lands. Zamindars were
given the rights to collect the rent from the peasants.
 The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the
share belongs to Zamindars and 10/11 of the share belongs to East
India Company.

Ryotwari System

 Ryotwari System was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820.

 Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay, parts of
Assam and Coorgh provinces of British India.
 In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the
peasants. British Government collected taxes directly from the
peasants.
 The revenue rates of Ryotwari System were 50% where the lands
were dry and 60% in irrigated land.

Mahalwari System

 Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during the period of

William Bentick.
 It was introduced in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra,
Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British India.
 The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both the Zamindari
System and Ryotwari System.
 In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal
comprises one or more villages.
 Ownership rights were vested with the peasants.
 The villages committee was held responsible for collection of the
taxes.
 Revolt of 1857

Causes for Revolt of 1857

British Expansionist Policies

 Annexation policy
 Doctrine of lapse
 Restrictions on Royal families (Subsidiary alliance)

Economic Exploitation

 High land revenue

 Heavy Taxation
 Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products
 Destruction of traditional handicrafts industry
 Heavy Mechanization & Huge drain of wealth
 Karl Marx remarked in 1853, “It was the British intruder who
broke up the Indian handloom & destroyed spinning-wheel.
England began with depriving the Indian cottons from the
European market; it then introduced twist into Hindustan and in the
end inundated the very mother country of cotton with cottons”

Socio-Cultural Reasons

 Racial overtones and a superiority complex by British towards the

native Indians
 Government’s decision to tax mosque & temple lands
 Legislative measures, such as the Religious Disabilities Act, 1856,
which modified Hindu customs, for instance declaring that a
 change of religion did not debar a son from inheriting the property
of his heathen father
 The attempts at socio-religious reform such as abolition of sati,
support to widow-remarriage and women’s education were seen by
a large section of the population as interference in the social and
religious domains of Indian society by outsiders
 To the religious Hindu of the time, crossing the seas meant loss of
caste. In 1856 Lord Canning’s Government passed the General
Service Enlistment Act which decreed that all future recruits to the
Bengal Army would have to give an undertaking to serve
anywhere their services might be required by the Government
which caused resentment.

Political Exploitation

 Zamindars, the traditional landed aristocracy, often saw their land

rights forfeited with frequent use of a quo warranto by the
administration.
 Low salaries + Low prospects of promotion + abolition of foreign
bhatta
 The Indian sepoy was equally unhappy with his emoluments
compared to his British counterpart.
 A more immediate cause of the sepoys‘dissatisfaction was the
order that they would not be given the Foreign Service allowance
(Bhatta) when serving in Sindh or in Punjab.
 The annexation of Awadh, home of many of the sepoys, further
inflamed their feelings.

Immediate Reasons

 The reports about the mixing of bone dust in Atta (flour) and the
introduction of the Enfield rifle enhanced the sepoys‘growing
disaffection with the Government.
  The cartridge of the new rifle had to be bitten off before loading
and the grease was reportedly made of beef and pig, the sepoys felt
their religion was in grave danger
 The greased cartridges did not create a new cause of discontent in
the Army, but supplied the occasion for the simmering discontent
to come out in the open

Beginning of Revolt of 1857

 Started by Mangal Pandey on 29th march 1857, refusing to use

greased rifle cartridges (Greased composed of fat taken from beef
& pig) & killing his officer at Barackpore, Bengal
 Mangal Pandey was hanged & his regiment disbanded with sepoy
guilty of rebellion punished
 A chain reaction started & in May 1857, at Meerut 85 sepoys were
sentenced imprisoned for refusing to use greased cartridges
 Hence sepoys break out in open rebellion; shot their officers;
released fellow sepoys & headed Delhi.
 Next Morning, Army captured Delhi & proclaimed Mughal king
Bahadur Shah Jafar, Emperor of India
 But real power lied with general Bakht Khan who had led the
revolt of Bareilly troops and brought them to Delhi

Famous Leaders of the Revolt

Kanpur Revolution led by Nana Shaheb with the help of his

lieutenants Tatya Tope & Azimulla
Lucknow By Beghum of Avadh, Hazrat Mahal, with the help of
peasants, zamindars & sepoys
Jhansi By Rani lakshmi bai (Widowed queen of Gangadhar rao)
along with Tatya tope
Bihar Led by Kunwar singh (a ruined zamindar)
Bareilly By Khan Bahadur
Faizabad By Maulvi Ahmadullah

Suppression of Revolt

 The British captured Delhi on September 1857 after prolonged and

bitter fighting
 Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner & was exiled to Rangoon where
he died in 1862
 Thus the great House of Mughals was finally and completely
extinguished
 Finally Revolt came to an end in 1858 with British victory & Lord
canning proclaimed peace over India

Causes of Failure of Revolt of 1857

 Revolt failed to embrace whole India

 only 1/10th of Indian population & 1/4th of Indian area came under
its impact
 Different sections of society like moneylenders, educated men &
merchants were against the revolt
 Superiority of British resources viz. Rifles, Communication,
Transport etc.
 Lack of proper plan & strategy to move ahead with the movement
 The electric telegraph kept the commander-in-chief informed about
the movements and strategy of the rebels.

Points of Prominence

 1857 revolt Shook the very foundation of British Government

 Led to Hindu – Muslim unity
 Common man rose to fight against the government which imparted
the consciousness of belonging to one country among people
 Racial hatred and suspicion between the Indians and the English
was aggravated
Who Said What about 1857 Revolt

British Historians - A Mutiny, due to the use of greased cartridges.

Disraeli (Opposition Leader) - A national revolt rooted in deep mistrust.
V D Savarkar- First War of Independence.
S B Choudhary - Civil Rebellion.
R C Majumdar - Neither “first” nor “national” nor ‘a war of
independence”.
S X Sen - An effort by the conservative elements to turn the clock back
Marxists - A soldier-peasant struggle against foreign and feudal bondage
Malleson - Sepoy Mutiny

Impact of the Mutiny

In August 1858. the British Parliament passed ail Act. which put an end
to the rule of the Company. The control of the British government in
India was transferred to the British Crown.
-A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of State, was
made responsible for the government of India.
- The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of
Viceroy, who was also the representative of the monarch.
-Marked the end of British Imperialism & Princely starts where assured
against annexation. Doctrine of lapse was withdrawn
- After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule.
-far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of
while soldiers in the army.
-Total expense of the suppression was borne by Indians
Social and Religious Movements

• India in the 19th century witnessed a series of reform movements

undertaken in various parts of the country which were oriented toward a
re-structuring of the Indian society along modem lines.
• Impact of modern Western culture soon gave birth to a new awakening
in India.
• Western conquest exposed the weakness and decay of Indian society.
• Thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and
for ways and means of removing them.
• While large number of Indians refused to come to terms with the West
and still put their faith in traditional Indian ideas and institutions, others
gradually came to hold that modern Western thought provided the key to
the regeneration of their society.
• They were impressed in particular by modem science and the doctrines
of reason and humanism.
• The new social groups-the capitalist class, the working class, the
modern intelligentsia-demanded modernisation since their own interests
demanded it.
• Attempts to explore India’s past by the first generation of British rulers
helped to sharpen educated classes’ consciousness of their own
existence.
• Early reformers were groping to find suitable answers. But the agenda
for the modernization was not set by the western influence because the
logic for reform was sought to be located within India’s past.
 HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS/ BENGAL RENAISSANCE

• Reform movements which took deep roots within Bengal have often
been also termed as Bengal Renaissance.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterji and Bipin Chandra Pal referred to
developments in the 19th century Bengal as a period of Renaissance.
• It may not be proper to compare European Renaissance with
developments in Bengal as the context was entirely different and the
patterns not too similar.
• The features which were referred to while talking of a Bengal
Renaissance may be clubbed under three major categories, i.e. historical
rediscovery, linguistic and literary modernization and socio-religious
reforms.

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

• Raja Rammohan Roy from Bengal was the most notable reformer of
the modern times.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in 1772 in Radhanagar in Burdwan
districtin West Bengal and died in Bristol in England.
• He is considered as the first ‘modern man’ as he was the pioneer of
socio-religious and political reformmovements in modern India.
• He studied numerous languages – Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English,
French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, etc. in order to study the various religious
scriptures in their original.
• He believed in monotheism i.e. doctrine of the unity of God-head and
opposed idol-worship.
• In 1803 he published a Persian treatise named ‘Tuhfat-ul Muwahidin’
or ‘A Gift to Monotheists’ wherein he explains his concept of
monotheism.
• He was among the first to bring political questions in the ambit of
public debate.
• His Atmiya Sabha, founded in 1814, discussed important social and
political questions of the time. In 1828, its enlarged edition was called
the Brahmo Sabha which was renamed Brahmo Samaj later on.
• He started touching upon many burning social issues of the time
including the widely-prevalent practice of becoming sati.
• He rallied support to the efforts of William Bentinck (Governor
General) for abolition of this custom and wrote extensively for the
cause.
• In 1829, the custom of sati was formally abolished. He also condemned
polygamy and many other forms of subjugation of women.
• Roy was also an advocate of modern education. He opened an English
school as well as a Vedanta college (1825).
• He was a firm believer in the concept of one God. He was opposed to
idolatry and found Upanishads as the basis of true Hinduism.
• He wished to purify Hinduism by removing all kinds of evils that had
crept into it over centuries.
• After Roy’s death in 1833, the Brahmo Samaj started getting
disorganized.
Debendranath Tagore
• Brahmo Samaj was given a definite shape and popularized beyond the
city of Calcutta under the leadership of Debendranath Tagore who
joined in 1842.
• A year later, he wrote Brahmo Covenant. This Covenant was a
statement of the creed of the Samaj and made a list of the duties and
obligations of its members.
Keshab Chandra Sen
• Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84) who joined the Samaj in 1858 took
the activities of the Samaj beyond Bengal and into UP, Punjab, Madras
and Bombay.
• Keshab Chandra Sen radicalized the Samaj by attacking caste system,
underlining women’s rights, promoting widow remarriage and raising
the issue of caste status of Brahmo preachers which was earlier reserved
for Brahmans.
• He laid stress on universalism in religion.
• His radicalism brought him into opposition with Debendranath.
• In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj
(headed by Debendranath) and the Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by
Keshab Chandra).
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar
• Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, a Bengali reformer actively raised the
issues related to women.
• He was an active proponent of education of girl child as he believed
that lack of education was the real cause underlying all their problems.
• With the help of an Englishman named Bethun, he set up many schools
devoted especially to girl child.
• He forcefully attacked child marriage and polygamy.
• He was a strong advocate of widow remarriage.
• It was due to his active mobilization of support that the Widows’
Remarriage Act was passed in 1856 legalizing all widow remarriages.
He arranged many such remarriages.
• He set a personal example when his son Narayan also married a
widow.
Ramakrishna Mission
• During the late 19th century, another notable reform movement in
Bengal, which soon spread to other parts of the country, was the
Ramakrishna Mission.
• The movement began under an ascetic and priest Gadadhar Chatterjee
or Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-86).
• He preached universality of all religions and favoured preserving
beliefs and rituals of Hinduism.
• Among his important disciples was Narendra Nath or Swami
Vivekananda who accepted Ramakrishna as his guru in 1885.
Swami Vivekananda
• He spread the message of spiritual Hinduism in America and Europe
during his tour of 1893-97.
• He established Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 and set up a Math at
Belur.
• He died at a young age of forty in 1902.
• Vivekananda was opposed to degeneration in religion, manifold
divisions, caste rigidities, practice of untouchability, superstitions etc.
• He pointed out that the present condition of Hindus was due to their
ignorance which was helped by their being a subject race.
• He attempted to establish Hindu spiritual supremacy vis-à-vis the
selfish civilization of the West.
• He believed that India had to learn work ethics, forms of organization
and technological advances from the West.
Arya Samaj
• The most profound reform movement which can be also termed as
revivalist movement in the late 19th century India was the Arya Samaj.
• It started in the western India and the Punjab, and gradually spread to a
large part of the Hindi heartland.
• It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati (1824-83).
• In 1875, he wrote Satyarth Prakash (or the light of truth) and in the
same year founded the Bombay Arya Samaj.
• The Lahore Arya Samaj was founded in 1877. Subsequently, Lahore
became the epicentre of the Arya movement.
• Dayanand opposed a ritual-ridden Hindu religion and called for basing
it on the preaching of the Vedas. Only Vedas, along with their correct
analytical tools, were true.
• He attacked puranas, polytheism, idolatry and domination of the
priestly class.
• He adopted Hindi for reaching out to the masses.
• He also opposed child marriage.
• He was fiercely opposed to multiplicity of castes which he thought was
primarily responsible for encouraging conversion of lower castes into
Christianity and Islam.
• After Dayanand’s death in 1883, the Samaj lay scattered.
• Most important attempt to unite the Samaj and its activities was the
founding of the Dayanand Anglo Vedic Trust and Management Society
in Lahore in 1886.
• In 1886, this society opened a school with Lala Hansraj as its principal.
However, some leaders of the Samaj like Munshi Ram (Swami
Shraddhanand), Gurudatt, Lekh Ram and others were opposed to Anglo
Vedic education.
• They argued that the Arya Samaj’s educational initiative must focus on
Sanskrit, Aryan ideology and Vedic scriptures and should have little
space for English learning.
• This militant wing thought that Dayanand’s words were sacrosanct and
his message in Satyarth Prakash could not be questioned.
• While the moderate wing led by Lala Hansraj and Lajpat Rai pointed
out that Dayanand was a reformer and not a rishi or sadhu.
• Conflicts also arose over the control of the DAV Management Society.
• These differences finally led to a formal division of the Arya Samaj in
1893 when Munshiram broke away along with his supporters to initiate a
gurukul-based education. Therefore, after 1893 the two wings of the
Arya Samaj were – DAV group and Gurukul group.
• Munshi Ram and Lekh Ram devoted themselves to popularizing of the
teachings of the Vedas and began an Arya Kanya Pathsala at Jalandhar
to safeguard education from missionary influence.
• In 1902, Munshi Ram founded a Gurukul at Kangri in Haridwar. This
institute became the centre of the gurukul education wing of the Arya
Samaj in India. It was here that Munshi Ram adopted sanyas and became
Swami Shraddhanand.
• The two wings of the Arya Samaj, i.e. DAV wing and the Gurukul
wing had differences on the question of education but were united on
important political and social issues of the time.
• The Arya Samaj as a whole opposed conversion of Hindus to Islam
and Christianity and therefore advocated re-conversion of recent
converts to Hinduism. This process was called shuddhi.
• They also advocated greater usage of Hindi in Devanagari script.
• In the 1890s, the Arya Samaj also raised the issue of cow slaughter and
formed gaurakshini sabhas (or the cow protection societies) for
protection of cows.
• The Arya Samaj led a prolonged movement against untouchability and
advocated dilution of caste distinctions.

PRARTHANA SAMAJ
• The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram
Pandurang.
• It was an off-shoot of Brahmo Samaj.
• It was a reform movement within Hinduism and Justice M.G. Ranade
and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, also ran the Deccan Education Society.
• Several members of the Prarthana Samaj had earlier been active in the
Paramhansa Mandali.
• This Samaj denounced idolatry, priestly domination, caste rigidities
and preferred monotheism.
• It also concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage,
widow remarriage and uplift of women and depressed classes.
• Apart from Hindu sects, it also drew upon Christianity and Buddhism.
• It sought truth in all religions.
• Drawing inspiration from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the medieval
period, Ranade sought to establish the concept of one compassionate
God.

PARAMHANSA MANDALI
• Many important reform movements arose during the 19th century
western India.
• Reformers like KT Telang, VN Mandalik and RG Bhandarkar glorified
India’s past.
• There were some who led a direct attack on social evils like caste
system and encouraged widow remarriage, e.g., Karsondas Mulji and
Dadoba Pandurang. They formed Manav Dharma Sabha in 1844 and
Paramhansa Mandali in 1849.
• The Mandali carried its activities secretly.
• Its members took a pledge that they would abandon all caste
distinctions.
• The Mandali declined after 1860 as its membership and activities lost
secrecy.

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
• Madam H.P. Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in the
Unites States in 1875 and later Colonel M.S. Olcott joined her.
• In 1882 they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar.
• The members of this society believe that a special relationship can be
established between a person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer,
revolution.
• The theosophical movement came to be allied with Hindu renaissance.
• The society believes in re-incarnation, Karma and draws from the
philosophy of the upanishads and Samkhya, yoga and vedanta schools of
thought.
• After the death of Olcott in 1907 Annie Besant was elected as its
President. She had joined the society in 1889.
• The society under Besant concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and
its ancient ideas and in order to provide Hindu religious instruction.
• She founded the Central Hindu University at Varanasi in 1898 which
was later developed into the Benaras Hindu University by Madan
Mohan Malaviya.

YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT

• Its founder was Henry Vivian Derozio, who taught at the Hindu
college between 1826 and 1831.
• His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement as the
Young Bengal Movement.
• The movement attacked old traditions and decadent customs,
advocating women’s rights and education and educating the public on
the current socio-economic and political questions through press and
public associations.
• They carried on public agitation on public questions like freedom of
the press, trial by jury and protection of peasants, etc.

OTHER REFORM MOVEMENTS IN BRIEF

• In Western India Prof D.K. Karve took up the cause of widow
remarriage and in Madras Veerasalingam Pantulu made Herculean
efforts in the same direction.
• Prof. Karve opened a widow’s home in Poona in 1899. He set up the
Indian Womens University at Bombay in 1916.
• B.M. Malbari started a crusade against child marriage and his efforts
were crowned by the enactment of the age of consent Act, 1891.
• In 1849 J.E.D. Bethune founded a girl’s school in Calcutta.
• All India women’s conference was organised in 1936.
• Radha Soami Satsang was founded by Tulsi Ram.
• Deva Samaj was founded by Shiva Narain Agnihotri.
• Nadwah-ul-ulama was founded by Maulana Shibli Numani in 1894 in
Lucknow.
• Justice movement was started in 1915-16 by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair
and P. Tyagaraja Chetti in Madras. It was against the predominance of
the Brahmins in education, government services and politics.
• Ezhava movement was launched by Sri Narayan Guru. He started the
movement of untouchable Ezhava against the Brahmin dominance in
Kerala. He rejected the caste system and developed the concept of one
caste, one religion and one God for mankind. His disciple Ayappan
made it into no religion, no caste and no God for mankind.
• In Kerala, the Nairs started movement against the dominance of
Nambudari Brahmins. C.V. Raman Pillai organised the Malyali
Memorial. He wrote a novel Martanda Verma to show the military glory
of the Nairs. Padmanabha Pillai founded the nair service society in 1914.
• In 1873, Satya Sodhak movement was launched by Jyotiba Phule in
Maharashtra to save the lower castes from the Brahmins. He wrote
‘Gulamgiri’ and ‘Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak’. His theory of
exploitation of lower castes was focused on cultural and ethnic factor
rather than on political and economic one.
• The Mahars were organised by Gopal Baba Walangkar in late 19th
century against Brahmins in Maharashta. Baba Bhim Rao Ambedkar
became their leader in the 20th century. Under his leadership the Mahars
started burning Manusmriti and tried to break with the Hinduism.
• In 1932 Gandhiji founded the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Ambedkar founded the Scheduled Castes Federation.
REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG MUSLIMS
• There was a sense of loss of power among educated and elite Muslims
of India. This happened mainly because of-
• Transfer of power from Mughals to British, and
• Replacement of Persian by English as the language of employment and
advancement in the new bureaucracy.

Farazis Movement
• The movement of the Farazis which arose among the peasants of early
19th century Bengal advocated return to pure Islam.
• They followed the teachings of Shah Walliullah of Delhi (1703-63)
who had, a century earlier, talked about regaining purity of Islam and
objected to infiltration of non-Islamic customs among Muslims.
• Founding leader of the Farazis, Shariat Ullah (1781-1839) preached
religious purification and advocated return to the faraiz, i.e. obligatory
duties of Islam, namely – kalimah (profession of faith), salat (or namaz),
sawn ( or rozah), zakat (or alms to poor) and Hajj. He also preached
tawhid or monotheism.
• Another movement which arose among Muslims of Bengal was the
Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah under the leadership of Titu Mir who was
initiated by Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi. This movement also talked about
return to past purity.
• Another movement which was more concerned about the decline in
power of the ulema class (Muslim priestly class) arose at Deoband in the
United Provinces.
• Delhi School of Islamic Thought was derived from the Delhi College
(currently Zakir Husain College) which had begun imparting a parallel
education – Islamic as well as English.
• Beginning 1830s, the college helped to foster a modern consciousness
in the Muslim community.
• The revolt of 1857 and consequent crackdown by the British forces
ended this intellectual excitement. However, the urge for modernization
could easily be felt among a section of Muslims.

The Wahabi Movement

• The Muslims lost their political power with the replacement of the
Mughals by the East India Company.
• The spread of Christianity and the Western culture were viewed as a
threat to Islam. They resisted English education and remained aloof from
Western influences.
• The Wahabi movement was introduced in India by Syed Ahmed of Rae
Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Wahabi movement aimed at the purification of Islam and to return
to the simplicity of religion.
• In India the Wahibis did not restrict to the religious reforms only.
• They aimed at the replacement of the British rule by the rule of the true
believers.
• The Wahabi movement took the nature of the political revolt.

Sayyid Ahmad Khan

• According to Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-98) modern education was
the most important path for improvement in the condition of Indian
Muslims.
• He called for the study of European science and technology.
• In 1866, he formed the British Indian Association.
• He stayed in England for more than a year during 1869-70.
• On his return, he asked his Muslim brethren to adopt some positive
features of the English society like its discipline, order, efficiency and
high levels of education.
• He pointed out that there was no fundamental contradiction between
Quran and Natural Science and the new circumstances demanded
dissemination of English language within an Islamic context.
• He founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in
1875 which went on to become the most important seminary for modern
higher education among Muslims.
• At the elementary level, students followed the standard government
curriculum in a carefully constructed Islamic environment. In 1878, the
college classes were also started and non-Muslims were also enrolled.
• In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded also the Mohammadan Anglo
Oriental Educational Conference.
• The Muslim graduates of Aligarh who numbered 220 during 1882-
1902, provided lot of excitement to the Muslim intellectual world and in
due course of time provided an able and modern leadership to the
community.
The Deoband School
• The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband
Moovement. It was a revivalist movement whose twin objectives were:
• To propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koranand
the Hadisand.
• To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.
• The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to
impart a political and intellectual content to the religious ideas of the
school.
• The liberal interpretation of Islam created a political awakening among
its followers.
Ahmadiya Movement
• The Ahmadiya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahamad of
Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889, who began his work as a defender of
Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian
missionaries.
• In 1889, he claimed to be Masih and Mahdi and later also to be an
incarnation of the Hindu god Krishna and Jesus, returned to earth.
• The movement was really a heresy well within the bounds of Islam as
Ghulam Ahamad, though he called himself a minor prophet, regarded
Muhammad as the true and great prophet whom he followed.
• The Ahmadiya movement based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the
principles of at universal religion of all humanity.
• Ghulam Ahmad was greatly influenced by western liberalism
theosophy, and the religious reform movements of the Hindus.
• The Ahmadiyas opposed Jihad or sacred war against non-Muslims and
stressed fraternal relations among all people.
• The movement spread western liberal education among Indian
Muslims and started a network of schools and colleges for that purpose.
Ahrar Movement
• It was a movement founded in 1910 under the leadership of Maulana
Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali
Khar and Mazhar-ul-Haq in opposition to the loyalist policies of the
Aligarh movement.
• Moved by modern ideas of self-government its members advocated
active participation in the nationalist movement.

SIKH REFORM MOVEMENT

Nirankaris
• Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855) was the founder of this movement of
purification and return.
• In 1840s he called for the return of Sikhism to its origin and
emphasized the worship of one God and nirankar (formless).
• Such an approach meant a rejection of idolatry and also prohibition of
eating meat, drinking liquor, lying, cheating, etc.
• It laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the
establishment of Khalsa by Guru Gobind Sing at Anandpur and this
separated them from the Namdaris.

Namdharis
• It was founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) in 1857, who in 1841
became a disciple of Balak Singh of the Kuka movement.
• The movement was founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru
Gobind Singh’s founding of the Khalsa with the requirement of wearing
the five symbols but instead of the sword the followers were supposed to
carry a stick.
• The movement required the followers to abandon the worship of gods,
idols, tombs, trees, snakes, etc. and abstain from drinking, stealing,
falsehood, slandering, backbiting, etc.
• Further the consumption of beef was strictly forbidden as protection of
cattle was important.
 Singh Sabha
• To strengthen Sikhism, a small group of prominent Sikhs led by
Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian Singh founded the Singh
Sabha of Amritsar on October 1, 1873.
• The objectives of the Sabha were to restore Sikhism to its pristine
purity, to publish historical religious book and periodicals, to propagate
knowledge, sing Punjabi, to return Sikh apostles to their faith and to
involve Englishmen in educational programme of the Sikhs.
• Later the Singh Sabha Amritsar was emulated by a new organization,
the Lahore Singh Sabha more democratic in nature.
• After a while, the Singh Sabhas were overwhelmed by other
organisation such as Khalsa Diwani and in 1920, by a struggle for
control over Sikh places of worship.

Gurudwara Reform Movements

• Before 1920 the Sikh Gurudwara were governed by the Udasi Sikh
mahants, who treated the Gurudwara offerings and other income of the
Gurudwaras as their personal income.
• The British government supported these mahants as a counterpoise to
the rising tide of nationalism among the Sikhs.
• Matter came to such a pass that the priest of the golden temple issued a
hukmnama (injunction) against Ghadarites, declaring them renegades,
and then honored General Dyer, the butcher of Jalianwala massacre with
a saropa.
• The Gurudwara Reform Movement launched an agitation for freeing
the Gurudwaras from these corrupt mahants and for handing over the
Gurudwaras to a representative body of Sikhs.
• Under the growing pressure of the nationalist and Gurudwara agitators,
the Gurudwaras came under the control of an elected committee known
as the Shiromani Gurudwara Prablandhalk Committee, in November
1920.
• The movement for liberation of Gurudwaras soon turned into Alkali
movement, which later on got divided into three streams, namely
moderate nationalist reformers, pro-government loyalists and political
organ of Sikh communalism.

PARSI REFORM MOVEMENT

• The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by
Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee in 1851 with funds provided by
K.N. Kama.
• Furdunji Naoroji became its President and S.S. Bengali its secretary.
• Naroji Furdunji edited in 1840s the Fam-i-Famshid, a journal aimed at
defending the cause of Zoroastrianism.
• He also wrote a number of pamphlets and published the book Tarika
Farthest in 1850.
• All these events led to the formation of a socio-religious movement
designed to codify the Zoroastrian religion and reshape Parsi social life.
• In 1851 a small group of educated Parsis formed the Rahnumai
Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsi Reform Society)
• In 1850 Bengali started publishing a monthly journal Jagat Mitra and
the Jagat Premi in 1851.
• The sabha’s journal Rast Goftar was the main voice of the movement.
• The leaders criticized elaborate ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and
funerals and opposed infant marriage and the use of astrology.
• But the activities of the sabha divided the Parsis into two groups: those
who advocated radical change and those who wished only limited
altercations in rituals and customs, organized under the Raherastnumi
Mazdayasnan in opposition to the radicals.
 SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT AND PERIYAR E.V.
RAMASWAMY
• Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy, a great social reformer took an active part in
the anti-liquor movement and Vaikam Satyagraha in 1924.
• He was the leader of the self-respect movement. It was a popular
movement, which occurred in Tamil Nadu in 1925.It had two aims:
• Demanding the sanction of more concessions and privileges (which
would cause discrimination against the Brahmins) to surpass Brahmins
in education and social status.
• Achieving ‘Swayam Maryada’ or self-respect.
• This movement formed a part of the many social reforms occurred
during that period.
• Its main approach was to improve upon the socio-economic conditions
of the low castes Tamils. Later it had profound implications.
• The main objectives of this movement were inculcation and
dissemination of knowledge of political education; Right to lead life
with dignity and self-respect and do away with the exploitative system
based on superstitions and beliefs.
• Abolition of the evil social practices and protection of women rights.
Establishment and maintenance of homes for orphans and widow and
opening of educational institutions for them.
• This movement gained popularity in no time and became a political
platform.
• He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis of the entire
Hindu social fabric of caste.
• He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to
propagate his ideals.
• In 1938 the Tamil Nadu Women’s Conference appreciated the noble
service rendered by E.V.R. and he was given the title “Periyar”.
• On 27th June 1970 by the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned
with the title “Socrates of South Asia”
 IMPACT OF REFORM MOVEMENTS
• These reformist played a prominent role in the social life of the 19th
century.
• One may mention such names as Pandita Ramabai in western part,
Sister Subbalaksmi in Madras and Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain in Bengal.
• Reform movements helped the growth of a modern middle class which
was conscious of its rights.
• Some Indian reformers also protested British attempts to pass those
laws which they thought interfered with their religion and society.
• This was evident in the case of the Age of Consummation of marriage
by raising the age of consent from 10 to 12.
• Some of these reform movements, by raising issues which were in
conflict with interests of other communities or were revivalist in nature,
also worked towards polarization along communal lines.

Tribal and Peasant Movement

PEASANT REVOLT
• The Permanent Settlement made the zamindar the owner of the land,
but this land could be sold off if he failed to pay the revenue on time and
this forced the zamindars and the landlords to extract money from the
peasants even if their crops failed.
• The peasants often borrowed money from the moneylenders, who were
also called mahajans.
• The impoverished peasants could never pay back this borrowed
money. This led to many hardships like extreme poverty and were
forced to work as bonded labourers. Hence the lower and exploited
classes often attacked their exploiters.
• Failure to pay by the zamindars also meant that the land would be
taken away by the Britishers. The British then auctioned the land to the
highest bidder, who often came from the urban areas.
• The new zamindars from the urban areas had little or no interest in the
land. They did not invest money in seeds or fertilizers to improve the
fertility of the land but only cared to collect as much revenue as they
could. This proved destructive for the peasants who remained backward
and stagnant.
• To get out of this situation, the peasants started producing commercial
crops like indigo, sugarcane, jute, cotton, opium and so on. This was the
beginning of commercialisation of agriculture.
• The peasants depended on merchants, traders and middlemen to sell
their produce during harvest time. As they shifted to commercial crops,
food grain production went down. Less food stocks led to famines. All
these forced the peasantry to revolt.
• Peasant movements varied in nature:
– Prior to the commencement of mass movements of the freedom
struggle, these peasant movements were localized based on religion,
caste and social consciousness.
– Later on, some secular trends were observed in these movements
which became national level mass movements resulting in formation of
platforms such as Kishan Sabha, Congress Socialist Party, etc.

Some of the important peasant revolts are discussed below:

The Mappila Uprisings (1836-1854)

• The Mappilas were the Muslim cultivating tenants, landless labourers
and fishermen of Malabar region.
• British occupation of Malabar region and their new land laws along
with the atrocities of the landlords (mainly Hindus) led the Mappilas to
revolt against them in 1836.
Farazi Movement (1838-1848)
• This was the first ever no-tax campaign against the British Government
led by Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian.
• Their band of volunteers fought heroically with the armed group of
Indigo planters and zamindars.
• It brought together all the cultivators of Bengal against the tyranny and
illegal extractions by the landlords.

Wahabi Movement (1830’s-1860’s)

• The leader of the movement was Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly
who was greatly influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia
and Shah Waliullah, a Delhi saint.
• The movement was primarily religious in its origin.
• It soon assumed the character of a class struggle in some places,
especially in Bengal. Irrespective of communal distinctions, peasants
united against their landlords.

Indigo Revolt (1859-1860)

• The peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands by the European
factory owners which exploded into a revolt in Govindpur village of
Nandia district in Bengal under the leadership of Digamber Biswas and
Vishnu Biswas.
• Others who played an important role included Harish Chandra
Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra
and Michael Madhusudan Dutta.
• As a result the government appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860
and removed some of the abuses of the indigo cultivation.
The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions (1770-1820s)
• The establishment of British control over Bengal after 1757 led to
increase in land revenue and the exploitation of the peasants.
• The Bengal famine of 1770 led peasants whose lands were confiscated,
displaced zamindars, disbanded soldiers and poor to come together in a
rebellion. They were joined by the Sanyasis and Fakirs.
• The Faqirs were a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants in
Bengal.
• Two famous Hindu leaders who supported them were Bhawani Pathak
and a woman, Devi Choudhurani. They attacked English factories and
seized their goods, cash, arms and ammunition.
• Maznoom Shah was one of their prominent leaders. They were finally
brought under control by the British at the beginning of the 19th century.
• The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the periods of
1770-1820s.
• The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal
which caused acute chaos and misery.
• However, the immediate cause of the rebellion was the restrictions
imposed by the British upon pilgrims visiting holy places among both
Hindus and Muslims.

Pabna Agrarian Unrest

• Peasants unrest broke out due to the efforts of the zamindars to
enhance rent beyond legal limits & prevent the tenants from acquiring
occupancy right under Act X of 1859.
• As a result in May 1873, an agrarian league was formed at Yusuf Shahi
Pargana in Pabna district of East Bengal to resist the zamindari
oppression.
• Like the Indigo Revolt, the Pabna Movement was non-communal
despite the fact that majority of the zamindars were Hindus and the
peasants from Muslim background.
• However, many newspapers of the region, like Hindu Patriot and
Anand Bazar, being pro-landlord, opposed the peasant’s limited
demands and even tried to portray it as a communal struggle of Muslim
tenants against Hindu zamindars.
• This movement led by Ishan Chandra Roy, Shambhu Pal and Khoodi
Mollah lasted till 1885, when the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 was
passed.

Deccan Riots
• A major agrarian revolt occurred in Pune and Ahmednagar districts of
Maharashtra in 1875 due to the difficulty which the peasants faced in
paying land revenue in the Ryotwari System.
• Peasants were forced to look towards the money-lenders, mostly
Marwaris and Guajratis for the payment of revenue.
• The money-lenders began to tighten the grip on the peasants and their
lands.
• In December 1874 peasants organised a social boycott to money-
lenders & other outsiders.
• The boycott soon transformed into agrarian riots and the peasants
started attacking the houses and shops of these money-lenders which
soon spread to other areas of the region.
• Though this revolt had localized character and limited objectives with
no anti-colonial features, it got supports of the intelligentsia of
Maharashtra.
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha led by Justice Ranade rallied with the
peasants’ cause.
• With the passing of the Deccan Agriculturist Relief Act of 1879, the
movement came to an end.

Uprising of Vasudev Balwant Phadke

• Vasudev Balwant Phadke, an educated clerk, raised a Ramosis
peasants force during 1879, and organized social banditry on a large
scale.
• He was deeply stirred by the devastation caused in western India by the
famine of 1876-77.
• He was arrested in 1880 and died three years later (1883) in prison.

Champaran Satyagraha
• This satyagraha formed the base of the transition of peasant movement
from a localized one to mass movement.
• The cultivation of indigo on tinkathia system was in existence in
Champaran earlier.
• In the 20th century, with the declining market of indigo in the face of
synthetic dyes, the planters were now willing to release the farmers from
their irksome crop, but only by recurring increase in revenue and other
dues.
• In 1917, Gandhiji offered civil disobedience in Champaran on the
persuasion of Raj Kumar Shukla.
• The Government ordered an enquiry involving men like Rajendra
Prasad and J. B. Kriplani and recording statements of peasants.
• Ultimately, the first experiment of Mahatma Gandhi in India succeeded
with the abolition of the tinkathia system.

Kheda Satyagraha
• Again led by Gandhiji, this Satyagraha was directed against the distress
of the Kunbi Patidars peasants of Kheda in Gujarat.
• It was well-supported by leaders like Indu Lal Yagnik and Vallabbhai
Patel.
• Gandhiji urged the peasantry to withhold the revenue.
• At the end, Gandhiji withdrew the movement in 1918, with the
government passing orders that revenue should be recovered only from
those peasants who could pay.

Kisan and Eka Movements (Awadh)

• The grievances of the peasantry and the outbreak of the First World
War instigated the problems and misery of the peasants to a new height.
• During this period, sharp increase in the price of food grains,
benefiting middlemen and money-lenders and the government’s
encouragement to talukdari and zamindari increased the peasants’
problem in Uttar Pradesh.
• The members of Home Rule League, Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra
Narayan Dwivedi, with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya, started
organising the peasants of Uttar Pradesh into Kishan Sabhas in 1918.
• The U.P. Kisan Sabha demonstrated considerable activity, and by June
1919 had established at least 450 branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
• Towards the end of 1919, first signs of grass-root level were evident in
the reports of a Nai-Dhobi band (a form of social boycott) on an estate in
Pratapgarh district.
• These movements started moving towards a religious character when a
Maharashtrian Brahman, Baba Ramchandra initiated the process of
organising peasants against the zamindars. He wandered around as a
Sadhu, quoting verses from the Ramcharitmanas to awaken the
peasantry to a sense of dignity.
• In June 1920, Ramchandra persuaded Gauri Shankar Mishra and
Jawahar Lal Nehru to visit the village and to see the living condition of
the tenants. Thus, the peasant movement got associated with the national
movement.
• But, differences in the group led to the formation of Awadh Kisan
Sabha at Pratapgarh in October 1920.
• A marked feature of the Kisan Sabha movement was the participation
of both high as well as low caste peasants.
• The pattern of activity involved the looting of bazaars, houses,
granaries and clashes with the police. These activities were not carried
out by recognized Kisan Sabha activitsts, but by local figures, Sadhus,
holy men and disinherited ex-proprietors.
• The government tried to uproot the movement with the Seditious
Meetings Act and Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.
• But, the discontent surfaced again in the districts of Hardoi, Bahraich
and Sitapur under the new banner i.e., Eka movement. It was purely
religious in nature and soon developed its own grass-root leadership in
the form of Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders who were not
particularly inclined to accept the discipline of non-violence of the
Congress.
• The Eka movement also included many small zamindars, discontent
with the British agrarian policy. By March 1922, however, severe
repression in the part of the authorities succeeded in bringing the Eka
movement to its end.
Bardoli Satyagraha
• It was one of the important satyagrahas fully based on the Gandhian
method of struggle.
• It started in 1928 at Bardoli in Surat district, it incorporated both the
land owning peasants as well as the low caste untouchables and tribes
like Kali-praja (dark people).
• These tribes were given the name of Ranipraja (inhabitants of the
forest).
• When the Bombay government announced an enhanced revenue by
22% in spite of the fall in the prices of cotton, the followers of Gandhiji,
like the Mehta brothers persuaded Vallabbhai Patel to organize a
sustained no-revenue campaign.
• Skillful use of caste associations, social boycott, religious appeals and
bhajans made Bardoli Satyagraha a national issue which forced the
government to reach a settlement on the basis of a judicial enquiry and
return of the confiscated lands.
 TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
• The tribal groups were an important and integral part of Indian life.
• Before their annexation and subsequent incorporation in the British
territories, they had their own social and economic systems. These
systems were traditional in nature and satisfied the needs of the tribals.
• They also enjoyed independence regarding the management of their
affairs. The land and forests were their main source of livelihood. The
forests provided them with basic items which they required for survival.
• The tribal communities remained isolated from the non-tribals.
• The British policies proved harmful to the tribal society. This
destroyed their relatively self-sufficient economy and communities.
• The tribal groups of different regions revolted against the Britishers.
• These movements were basically directed to preserve the tribal identity
which was thought to be in danger due to intrusion of external people
affecting the social, political and geo-economical position of the tribes.
• These movements were mostly violent, isolated and frequent.
Factors Responsible for Tribal Movements
• Resentment of the tribes against the extension of the British rule to
their areas.
• The introduction of general administration & laws in their areas which
were considered by them as intrusions into the traditional political
system of the tribal community.
• Reaction against the penetration of tribal areas by peoples from plains
in form of money lenders, traders, contractors etc.
• Protection given to the outsiders in tribal areas by British government.
• The tightening of British control over their forest zones, creation of
reserved forests and attempts to monopolize forest- wealth through curbs
on the use of timber and grazing facilities.
• The activities of Christian missionaries in their areas were looked upon
by them as anti-religious and hence resented.
• British attempts to suppress certain tribal traditions and practices like
infanticide, human sacrifices etc hurted the tribal social beliefs.
• The British colonialism devoid the tribal people of their traditional
economic set up and hence they were forced to serve as menial
labourers, coolies in plantation, mines and factories.
• However, not all outsiders were targeted as enemies. The non-tribal
poor and service castes were spared and sometimes seen as allies.
• The movements began normally when the tribes felt oppressed and had
no alternatives but fight. This led to clashes with the outsiders and
colonial authorities.
• The tribes organised themselves for an armed resistance.
• Generally there was one or other religious leaders-Messiahas whom the
tribes looked as divine power who could end up their sufferings & hence
followed them.

Some of the important movements are discussed below:

Bhil Uprising
• The Bhils were largely concentrated in Khandesh (present day
Maharashtra & Gujarat). Khandesh came under British occupation in
1818.
• The Bhils considered them as outsiders. On the instigation of
Trimbakji, rebel minister of Baji Rao II they revolted against the
Britishers.
• Their struggle lasted for thirty years which was finally suppressed after
large scale military operations combined with conciliatory measures.
The Kol Uprising
• The Kols of Singhbhum in the Chhotanagpur area enjoyed autonomy
under their chiefs but the entry of the British threatened their
independence.
• Later the transfer of tribal lands and the coming of moneylenders,
merchants and British laws created a lot of tension. This prompted the
Kol tribe to organise themselves and rebel(1831-1832).
• The impact was such that the British had to rush troops from far off
places to suppress it.
The Santhal Rebellion
• The area of concentration of the Santhals was called Daman-i-Koh or
Santhal Pargana.
• It extended from Bhagalpur in Bihar in the north to Orissa in the south
stretching from Hazaribagh to the borders of Bengal.
• They cultivated their land and lived a peaceful life which continued till
the British officials brought with them traders, moneylenders, zamindars
and merchants.
• They were made to buy goods on credit and forced to pay back with a
heavy interest during harvest time. As a result, they were sometimes
forced to give the mahajan not only their crops, but also plough,
bullocks and finally the land.
• Very soon they became bonded labourers and could serve only their
creditors.
• The peaceful tribal communities revolted (1855-57) under the
leadership of Sidhu and Kanu were Santhal rebel leaders.
• The British government started a major military campaign to suppress
the rebellion.
• Sidhu was killed in August 1855 and Kanhu was arrested in 1856.
• It was one of the most deadly suppressed rebellions of Indian history.
• A separate Santal Pargana district was created cutting from the parts of
Birbhum (Jamtara and Deoghar) and Bhagalpur districts.
Jaintia and Garo Rebellion Rebellion
• After the First Anglo-Burmese War, the British planned the
construction of a road connecting Brahmaputra Valley (present day
Assam) with Sylhet (present day Bangladesh).
• The Jaintias and the Garos in the North-Eastern part of India (present
day Meghalaya) opposed the construction of this road which was of
strategic importance to the British for the movement of troops.
• The Jaintias tried to stop work and soon the unrest spread to the
neighbouring Garo hills. Alarmed, the British burnt several Jaintias and
Garo villages.
• The Jaintias leader U Kiang Nongbah was captured and publicly
hanged and the Garo leader Pa Togan Sangma was defeated by the
British.
Rampa Rebellion
• The hill tribes, Koya and Khonda Dora of Rampa region of
Chodavaram revolted in March 1879 against the depredation of the
government supported zamindars and the new restrictive forest
regulations.
• It was led by Tomma Sora who was later shot dead by the Police.
• The authorities launched military campaigns against the rebellious
people and several other ways were used for suppression of the
movement.
Munda Rebellion
• The Mundas traditionally enjoyed certain rights as the original clearer
of the forest which was not given to the other tribes. But this land system
was getting destroyed in the hands of the merchants and moneylenders
long before the coming of the British.
• When the British actually came into these areas they helped to destroy
this system with a rapid pace when they introduced contractors and
traders. These contractors needed people to work with them as
indentured laborers.
• This dislocation of the Mundas at the hands of the British and their
contractors gave birth to the Munda Rebellion.
• The most prominent leader of this rebellion was Birsa Munda who
encouraged his tribe people to keep the tradition of worshipping of the
sacred groves alive. This move was very important to prevent the
Britishers from taking over their wastelands.
• He attacked Police Stations, Churches and missionaries.
• The rebels were defeated and Munda died in prison soon after in 1900.
But his sacrifice did not go in vain. The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act of
1908 provided some land ownership rights to the people and banned
bonded labour of the tribal.
Khonda Dora Uprisings
• It was also against the colonial exploitation which was led by a
religious leader Korra Mallaya who claimed to be an Avatar of the
Pandavas.
• Large scale police suppression ended the revolt.
Bastar Rebellion
• Tribal resentment against the imposition of forest laws and feudal
system led to the rise of the revolt of the tribes of Jagdalpur region in
modern Chhattisgarh.
• The rebels disrupted communication system, attacked symbols of
colonial power and tried to seize Jagdalpur town.
• The British military operation in 1910 suppressed the rebellion.
Tana Bhagat Movement
• In the second decade of the 20th century, Tana Bhagat movement
started initially in a religious form but later transformed into a political
one under the impact of the Indian National Congress.
• This movement was centred on the Oran tribes of Chhotangapur in
Jharkhand.
• The resistance of the local grievances and problems was amalgamated
with the National movement.
• There were a number of these Bhagat movements like that of Jatra
Bhagat, Balram Bhagat, Gau Rakshini Bhagats, and even woman Bhagat
named Devamenia.
• These movements were local in character inside and national outside.
• Internally it was called as movements for Kurukh dharma or the real
religion which emphasized on celibacy and pure living, devoid of meat,
liquor etc.
• Externally, it was under the impact of the Congress, holding
demonstration, Satyagrahas, Dharanas etc.
• Like other tribal movements, the British government acted harshly on
these rebels. They were imprisoned and their properties were seized.
Forest Satyagraha
• Just like the Tana Bhagat movements, these forest satyagrahas were
widespread acquiring political character under the influence of the
Congress and national movements.
• During the Non-cooperation movement, the Chenchu tribals of Guntur
district of Andhra Pradesh started a strong forest satyagraha.
• Though these movements were inspired by the Congress, it often
surpassed the limit of Gandhian process of satyagraha.
• Like other movements of the phase, stress was laid on righteous and
virtuous living in conformation with the Gandhian method

The Indian National Congress

Political Associations Before 1885
Association of Landholders: Landholders Society (1837), Bengal
British India Society (1843). In 1851,
the two were merged to form the British Indian Association.
Bombay Association and Madras Native Association Were
established in 1852. They sent petitions
suggesting changes in EIC’s charter to end company’s monopoly of
salt and indigo.
Associations like Poona Sarvjanik Sabha were established to promote
reform and political consciousness.
1876— Indian Association was founded in Calcutta by Surendranath
Banerjee, & Anand mohan Bose Madras
Mahajan Sabha and Bombay Presidency Association were established
in 1884.
In December 1883, the Indian Association of Surendra Nath
Banerjee& Anand mohan Bose decided to invite prominent public
men and associations to discuss questions of general concern. This
was referred to as the National Conference (in 1883) and is described
as the ‘dress rehearsal’ for the Indian National Congress (INC).

-National Conference & Indian National Union (by A.O Hume in

1884) merged to form the Indian National Congress in 1885

Aims and Objectives of Congress

- Promotion of friendship amongst the countrymen
- Development and consolidation of feeling of national unity
irrespective of race, caste, religion or provinces
- Formulation of popular demands and presentation before the
Government through petitions.
- Training and organization of public opinion.
- Consolidation of sentiments of national unity
- Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems
- Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest
Indian National Congress

-The First meeting of the INC was organized by A 0 Hume at

Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit College on 28th
December 1885 (Bombay). Its first President was W C Banerjee. It
was the first organized expression of the Indian National
movement on an all-India scale.
- Hume’s main purpose in encouraging the foundation of the congress
was probably to provide a “safety valve” to the growing discontent
among the educated Indians

The Methods of Work

-Early Congressmen had faith in peaceful and constitutional agitation.

- Prayers & petitions were the instruments.
- Congress sessions lasted only for three days a year. had no
machinery to carry on the work in the interval.
- They believed in the goodness of the British nation and believed that
all would be well if the British could be acquainted with the true slate
of affairs in India. Deputations of Indians were sent to inform the
British public
- In 1889, a British Committee of INC was founded.

The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress

continued to be loyal to the British crown.
 The years 1906-1916 which witnessed Swadeshi Movement, raise
of militant nationalism (Extremism) and the Home Rule
Movement.
 The period from 1917 to 1947 known as the Gandhian era.
Major Causes of Indian National Movements (1885 – 1905)
Politica Approx. all India for the 1st time was under single
l Unity administration
Wester Spread the concepts of liberty, equality freedom &
n nationalism
educati English educated Indians led the national movement &
on organized it
Press Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused
the national consciousness
Admini  Arranged Delhi Durbar at Famine time
stratio  Vernacular press act
n of  Arms Act
Lytton  Uniform salt tax
Others  Development of Communication and Transport brought
Indians Closer
 Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth
Century
 Economic & Political Exploitation by the British
 Racial Discrimination
 Ilbert Bill controversy

Swadeshi Movement

It began as a anti-partition agitation in Bengal and boycott was first

suggested by Krishnakumar Mitra in Sanjivni in 1905. The boycott of
British products was followed by the advocacy of swadeshi and to buy
indigenously produced goods as a patriotic duty.

Stages of Swadeshi Movement

1905-1909— Movement confined lo Bengal & launched as a protest
movement.
1909-1910—Countrywide spread of movement & launching of anti
colonial movement
1910-1911—Swadeshi movement merged with revolutionary terrorist
movement of 1st phase & led to foundation of numerous secret
associations.

-To encourage indigeneous industries, some Swadeshi Enterprises were

setup viz. Calcutta Potteries, Bengal Chemicals and Bengal Lakshmi
Cotton Mills.
Swadeshi melas or lairs were held for selling handicrafts
-Charkha (spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for
country’s economic self-sufficiency.
-The ‘Carlyle Circular’ withdrew giants and scholarships to educational
institutions. Hence, Nationalist educational institutes were founded, e.g.
Bengal Technical Institute, Bengal National College and School with
Aurobindo Ghosh as its Principal

-Rabindranath Tagore called for the observance of raksha-bandhan as a

symbol of brotherhood
-A large number of volunteer bodies or Samitis were founded.
Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded by Ashwini Dint was the
largest.

-Anushilan Society had two branches. Pulin Das led the Dacca branch.
Birendra Ghosh and Jatin Banerjee led the Calcutta Branch.

Moderate-led Anti-Partition Movement (1903-05)

- Under Surendranath Banerjee, K.K.Mitra. Prithwish Chandra Kay.

Methods
- Public meeting, petitions, memoranda, propaganda through newspapers
and pamphlets.
Movement under Extremists (1905-08)

- Led by Tilak. Bipin Chandra Pal. Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh.
- The political extremists demanded self-government for India, not under
British tutelage or British
Paramountcy (as the Moderates wished), but by severing all British
connections, and wiping off British influences.

Methods

Boycott of foreign cloth and other goods, public meeting and

- Processions, forming corps of volunteers or samitis.
- Use o( traditional popular festivals and melas for propaganda.
- Emphasis on self-reliance or atma shakti.
- Launching programme of swadeshi or national education, swadeshi or
indigenous enterprises.
- Initialing new trends in Indian painting, songs, poetry, pioneering
research in science.
- Call for boycott of schools, colleges, councils, government service, etc.
- The students of Bengal played a prominent part. They practiced &
propagated Swadeshi.
- Remarkable aspect was the involvement of women.
- Many prominent Muslims including Abdul Rasul, Liaquat Hussain.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad also joined the movement
- Tilak played the leading role in spreading the movement lo the rest of
the country.

Impact of Swadeshi Movement

- Swadeshi movement was stepping stone of Nationalist movement.

which led to beginning of organized political movement in India.
- Rise of Neo-Nationalists
- Surat split
- Revival of indigenous industries
- Boycott of foreign goods Cultural
- Revival & emergence of nationalist art & literature
- Concept of national education Regional Variations
- Bihar and United Provinces were quiet
- B C Pal in Madras led Vande Matram Movement.
- Lala Lajpal Rai and Ajit Singh led the movement in Punjab
- Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharni Sabine
- Savarkar founded the Mitra Mela
- Tilak was imprisoned for 6 years in Mandalay jail and was released in
1914.

Failure of Swadeshi Movement by 1908 .

- Severe government repression.

- Lack of effective organization of all leaders
- Spin in nationalist ranks
- The Swadeshi leaders refrained from rallying the peasants.
- Narrow social base.

Acts Passed by the Government to Suppress the Movement

- Seditious meetings Act (1907)

- Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1008)
- Indian Newspapers (Incitement lo Offences) Act (1908)
- Explosive Substances Act (1908)
- Indian Press Act (1910)

The Moderates and the Extremists

The Moderates

The Congress programme during the first phase of the Freedom

Movement (1885-1905) was very moderate.
- It demanded mild constitutional reforms. economic relief,
administrative reorganization and protection of civil rights.
- A strong point made by the nationalists during this phase was about the
economic drain of India.
- Political methods of the moderates were constitutional agitations
within four walls
- Moderates believed that the british people & parliament wanted to be
just lo India but did not know the true state of affairs.

The other important demands were:

- Organisation of the provincial councils,

- Simultaneous holding of examinations for the I.C.S in India and
England.
- Reconstitution of the Indian Council, 1892
- The separation of (he judiciary from the executive, and the repeal of
the Arms Act,
- The appointment of Indians to the commissioned ranks in the Army,
- The reduction of military expenditure etc.
- Indianisation of higher grades of the administrative services on
economic, political & moral grounds
- During the first twenty years (1885-1905) there was practically no
change in the Congress programme.
The leaders were cautious in their demands. They did not want to annoy
the government and incur the risk of suppression.
To pacify them, the government was forced to pass the Indian Councils
Act, 1892 but the moderates raised the slogan No taxation without
representation.
The Extremists

Ideological Basis of Extremism

Attachment to rationalism and western ideals had almost alienated the

‘Liberal’ (Moderate) school from the masses in India.
Socio-religious reform also influenced the extremists ideology
Movements like Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple, Swami
Vivekananda Swami Dayananda, and the Arya Samaj founded by him
with a strong emphasis in
native pride, played a vital role in the birth o( extremist philosophy.
They derived inspiration from their traditional cultural values wanted to
have relations with other countries in terms of quality and self-respect.
They opposed the Moderates who were considered by them to be servile
and respectful to the British.
They gave a call for passive resistance in addition to Swadeshi &
boycott.

-Social Reform Movements like Arya Samaj and Theosophical Society

gave impetus to political radicalism. The political radicals derived
inspiration from their traditional cultural values.
- There were three groups of extremists— The Maharashtra Group
(headed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak), The Bengal Group (represented by B
C Pal and Aurobindo) and the Punjab group (led by Lala Laipat Rai,)
- Aurobindo published New Lamps for Old in the indu Prakash in 1853-
94. It was the first systematic critique of the Moderates
- Tilak resented any interference by an alien government into the
domestic and private life of the people. He quarreled with the reformers
over the Age of Consent Bill in 1891.
- Tilak asserted, Swaraj is My Birth Right and I will have it’. He was
also the editor of the Maratta (English) and the Kesari (Marathi)
Reasons for the Emergence of Extremists

1. Realization that the true nature of British rule was exploitative

2. International influences and events, which demolished the myth of
while/European supremacy. These included —
- Abyssinia’s (Ethiopia) victory over Italy.
- Boer Wars (1899-1802) in which the British faced reverses.
- Japan’s victory over Russia (I905).
- Nationalist movements worldwide.
3. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of Moderates.
4. Reactionary policies of Curzon such as the Calcutta Corporation Act
(1899). the Official Secrets Act (1904), the Indian Universities Act
(1904) and partition of Bengal (1905).
5. Existence of a militant school of thought and the emergence of a
trained leadership.

Differences between the Moderates & the Extremists Moderates.

Constituted of zamindars and upper middle classes in towns. Believed

that the movement should be limited to middle class intelligentsia and
that the masses were not yet ready for participation in political work.
Inspired by western liberal thought and European history.

Professed loyalty to the British Crown, believed in England’s

providential mission in India believed and that political
connections with Britain to be in India’s social. political and cultural
interests. Demanded constitutional reforms and share for Indians in
services and insisted Oil the use of constitutional methods only.

Extremists.

Constituted of educated middle and lower middle classes in towns and

had immense faith in the capacity of masses to participate and to make
sacrifices. Inspired by Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu
traditional symbols. Believed that political
connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India
and rejected ‘providential mission theory’ as an illusion.

Demanded swaraj as the panacea for India ills. Did not hesitate to use
extra constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance to
achieve their objectives.

Conflict and Surat Split

Tilak was unpopular with the Moderate group of Bombay. At the

Calcutta Congress 11906) Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo wanted
Tilak to become the President of the Congress. But the Moderates were
in no mood to accept him. P Mehta. MM Malaviya and Gokhale were
heckled and booed.
Ultimately a compromise was hurriedly made and the agreeable
resolutions on the partition of Bengal.
Swadeshi and Boycott were phrased and they secured a smooth passage
in the open session. With the foundation of the Deccan Sabha.
the division between the Extremists and the Moderates in Maharashtra
was complete. The Congress split in 1907 at Surat under the
presidentship of Rash Behari Ghosh.

Morley-Minto Reforms

- Numbers of elected members in Imperial and Provincial Legislate

- Councils increased—elected non-officials still in minority.
- Separate electorates introduced for Muslims.
- Elected non-officials to be elected indirectly—thus elections introduce
for the lust time.
- Legislatures could pass resolutions, ask questions an supplementary.
vote separate items of the budget. No responsibility entrusted to the
legislators
- One Indian to be on viceroy’s executive council.
- Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderate
and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Home Rule Movement

After Tilak’s return, having served sentence of six years in Mandalay, he

tried securing the readmission of himself and other
Extremists into the Indian National Congress. With the need being felt
for popular pressure to attain concessions, disillusionment with Morley-
Minto Reforms and wartime miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to
assume leadership.
The Home Rule League was pioneered on lines of a similar movement
in Ireland.

Objective

The objective of Home Rule League was

- Self Government for India in British Empire

- “Work for National Education. Social & Political reforms.
Tilak linked up the question of swaraj with the demand for the formation
of linguistic states and education in vernacular. He also used Home Rule
lo put an end to caste feeling among the common people and advocated
abolition of untouchability.
- Tilak (April) and Annie Besant & S. Subramaniam Iyer (September)
established Home Rule Leagues in 1916.
- Tilak’s League was lo work in Maharashtra. Karnataka. Central
Provinces and Berar and Annie Besant’s in the rest of India
- Annie Besant set up the newspapers— New India. Commonweal and
Young India (1916)
- Tilak published —Mahratta & Kesari
- Jamnadas Dwatkadas. Shankarlal Banker. Indulal Yagnik. George
Arundale. B P Wadia and L P Ramaswamy Iyer were in Besant’s
League.
- Home Rule Movement declined after Besant accepted the proposed
Montford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain lo light the movementd.

Methods

- Create public opinion in favour of Home Rule through public meeting,

also organising discussions, reading rooms propaganda through public
meetings, newspapers. pamphlets, posters, etc.
- Positive Gains Emphasis shifted to the masses permanently
organizational link established between town and country prepared a
generation of ardent nationalists, influenced Moderate-Extremist reunion
at Lucknow (1916)
- Lucknow Session-1916 (Presided by Ambika Charan Mazumdar )
Lucknow Pact 119(6) was signed between the INC and the Muslim
League.
The main provisions (a) Principle of separate electorates was accepted,
(b)Demand for a representative government and Dominion Status for
India.

Results

- The movement marks the beginning for attainment of Swaraj

- It discredited moderates of INC and created condition for readmission
of Neo-Nationalists in 1916
- Montague Declaration of 1917—Greatest political achievement
Education Programme
Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha

The 1919 sedition Committee headed by Justice Rowlatt, led to the

Rowlatt Act (18 March 1919) whereby war time restrictions of civil
rights were to he made permanent by
a) System of special courts
b) Detention without trial for 2 years maximum
c) Greater police powers.

This Act authorized the Government to imprison any person without

trial and conviction of the court of law.
- This law also enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas
Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
- Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha intended to mobilize public opinion against
the Act.
- It was first countrywide agitation by Gandhi & marked the foundation
of Non Cooperation Movement.
- During March & April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable
political awakening in India. There were hartals, strikes, processions &
demonstrations.
- On April 13-1919 (Baisakhi Day). Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and
Satyapal were addressing a peaceful rally in Jallianwala Bagh when
General Dyer ordered for the infamous massacre

- The Hunter Commission’s report on the Punjab disturbances was

described by Gandhi as a ‘white wash’.
- Tagore returned his knighthood in protest.
- Sardar Udham Singh who took the name of Ram Mohammed Singh
murdered Dowyer in England
Mahatma Gandhi

The Earlier Phase South Africa: (a) 1907 Satyagraha against compulsory
registration and passes for Indians (b) 1910 Satyagraha against
immigration restrictions, derecognition of non- christian Indian
marriages while deciding the cases of new entrants and 3% tax on ex-
indentured labourers.
Literary Influences on Gandhi: John Ruskin's Unto the Last,, Emerson,
Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, the Bible and the Bhagvad Gita.

Appeal of Gandhi:

I) He was already a leader of action who had achieved results in South

Africa
2) The social composition of Indians in S. Africa made him an all India
figure while the Lal-Bal- Pal, trio were essentially regional leaders
3) The doctrine of a hi ms a mediated internal differences contributing to
a joint nationalist struggle.
4) Gandhis social Utopia was a critique o( Industrialism appealed to
those alienated by it.
5) The use of the Indian idiom (eg Ram Rajya) helped in communication
6) Rumours greatly enhanced his stature.

Gandhi in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda

The story of Champaran (Bihar) begins in the early 19th century when
European planters had involved the cultivators in agreements that forced
them to cultivate indigo in 3/20th of their holdings (Tin-Kathia). But
when indigo became unremunerative, the European planters imposed
higher taxes to compensate their losses in the international trade at that
lime.
Gandhi (in July 1917) was successful in abolishing the Tin-Kathia
system and refund was made to the cultivators in wages.
In Ahmedabad (March 19/18) the dispute was between the null owners
and workers over the ‘plague bonus’ which the former wanted to
withdraw once the epidemic was over. The workers troubled by inflation
wanted adequate compensation.
Gandhi initially persuaded the mill owners and workers to agree to
arbitration by a tribunal but the mill owners withdraw alter commitment.
Gandhi then advised the worker to go on strike &he under look hunger
strike after which the mill owners were pressurized into accepting the
tribunal award of 35 percent increase in wages.

The peasants of Kheda district (1917-1918) were in extreme distress due

to a failure of crops and the government ignored their appeals for the
remission of land revenue. The peasants of Kheda were already hard
pressed because of plague, high prices and drought.
Appeals and petition having tailed Gandhi advised the withholding of
revenue and asked the peasants to fight unto death.
After the Government directed that revenue should be recovered only
from those peasants who could pay. the movement was withdrawn.

- Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike Ahmedabad (1918) for the
mill wage hike of workers
- His first Civil Disobedience movement was the Champaran Satyagraha
- His first all-India .Satyagraha was the Rowlatt Satyagraha
- His first Non-Cooperation Movement was the Kheda Satyagraha
Khilafat and the NCM
During the First World War, Turkey was allied with Germany and
Austria against the British.
The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual
leader, Khalifa, so naturally they sympathized with Turkey, After the
War, the
British removed the Khalifa from power and fragmented Turkey. Hence,
the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India for the restoration of
the Khalifa’s position.
The demands were Khalifa’s control should be retained over the Muslim
sacred places.
After the post-war territorial adjustments, the Khalifa should be left with
sufficient territories.

Khilafat Movement in India

The Khilafat issue was not directly linked with politics in India but the
Khilafat leaders (Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad. Hakim Ajmal Khan &
Hasrat Mohani) were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi
saw in this, an opportunity to bring about
Hindu-Muslim unity against the British

The publication of the terms of the Treaty with Turkey, which were very
harsh, and also the publication of the Hunter Committee Report on
‘Punjab disturbances’ in May 1920 infuriated the Indians.
Thus at one level Indian political situation also merged with the issue of
Khilafat.

Initially the Khilafat Leaders limited their actions to meetings, petitions,

and deputations in favour of the Khilafat.
Later a militant trend emerged, demanding an active agitation such as
slopping all cooperation with the British.

The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad. The meeting was

attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat leaders.
In this meeting a programme of non-cooperation towards the
government was declared.
This was to include
- boycott of titles conferred by the Government,
- boycott of civil services, army and police, i.e. all government jobs.
- non-payment of taxes to the Government.
- August I, 1920 was fixed as the dale to start the movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

- It was the 1st Mass based political movement under Gandhi.

- The Movement was launched as per resolution of Calcutta session &
ratified in Nagpur session Dec 1920.

Anti-Rowlatt Agitation. Jalianwala Bagh tragedy, Khilafat. Movement,

General economic, distress during & after the war were the reasons of
Non-Cooperation Movement

- The Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the Non-Cooperation

Movement
- The main emphasis of the movement was on boycott of schools,
colleges, law courts and advocacy of the use of Charkha.
- There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C R Das and
Motilal Nehru gave up their legal practice.
- Thereafter, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth and boycott of the
forthcoming visit of the Prince of Wales in November, 1921;
popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress
volunteers.
- Swaraj or self-rule, Redressal of Punjab wrongs & Khilafat issue were
demanded through Non-Cooperation Movement
- Non-Cooperation Movement progressed powerfully from January 1920
to Early February 1922.
- From November 192 I, a shift towards radicalism was visible. Gandhi
decided to launch a no-revenue campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass
civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and
association.
- The attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri
Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of UP, on February 5, 1922. changed the
whole situation. Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Non-
Cooperation Movement.

Spread of NCM

United Provinces became a strong base of the Gandhian Non-

Cooperation Movement. Organised non-cooperation was an affair of
cities and small towns In
the countryside the movement got entangled with the kisan movement.
The peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdars but also, against
merchants with
widespread agrarian-riots under the leadership of Baba Ram Chandra In
late 1 921, ‘Eka’ movement started.
Demand was conversion of produce rents into cash

Punjab

Akali movement for reform and control of the Gurudwaras got closely
identified with non-cooperation. Udasi Sikh Mahants, who managed
Gurudwaras, had issued Hukumnamas against Ghadrites & honoured
Dyer. Akalis were led by
Kartar Singh Jhabbar, Master Tara Singh and Baba kharak Singh (head
of SGPC).

The Shrromani Gurudwara Prabandha Committee was founded by the

Shiromam Akali Dal

Maharashtra

Non-cooperation remained relatively weak because the Tilakites were

unenthusiastic about Gandhi. Non-Brahmins too felt
that the Congress was a Chitpavan-led affair

Andhra
The Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra
delta area Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and
combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Temple Entry for Ezhavas and Pulayas was led by Sri Narayan Guru,
NK Asan and TK Madhavan. In 1 924, Vaikom Satyagraha in
Travancore was led by KP Kesava Menon

Revolutionary Terrorism

The youth had participated actively in the Swadeshi movement in the

hope and belief that Extremist methods of agitation such as boycott and
passive resistance would take the national movement out of its elitist
groove.
The inability of the Extremist leadership to adequately analyze the
weaknesses of the movement and their failure to suggest new ways out
of the impasse further strengthened revolutionary ideas of assassination
and dacoities. Brutal repression of the Swadeshi movement by the
Government too added to the trend of revolutionary terrorism. The youth
drew inspiration from Irish nationalists and the Russian Nihilists.

Ideology
Assassinate unpopular officials, thus strike terror in hearts of rulers and
arouse people lo expel the British physically, based on individual heroic
and not by mass-based countrywide struggle

Bengal

1902 First revolutionary groups in Midnapore and Calcutta (The

Amushilan Samiti)
1906 Yugantar & Sandhya in Bengal, and Kal in Maharastra.
1908 Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempt to murder Muza-
ffarpur Judge. Kingsford. Alipore conspiracy ease involving Aurobindo
Ghosh. Barindra Kumar Ghosh and others. 1912 Bomb thrown at
Viceroy Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal.
Anushilan Committee (a secret society) whose Dhaka section had 500
branches.
Sandhya, Yugantar — newspapers advocating revolutionary activity.

Punjab

Revolutionary activity by Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh, Aga Haidar Syed
Haidar Raza. Bhai Parmanand. Lalchand ‘Falak’.Sufi Ambaprassad.
Abroad
1905 Shyamji Krishnavarma set up Indian Home Rule Society and India
House and brought out journal The Sociologist in London.
1909 Madan Lai Dhingra murdered Curzon-Wyllie; Madame Bhikaji
Cama operated from Paris and Geneva and brought out journal Bande
Mataram

Maharashtra

1879 Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke.

1890 Tilak’s attempts to propagate militancy among the youth through
Shivaji and Ganapati festivals, and journals Kesri and Maharatta.
1897 Chapeker brothers assassinated two unpopular British Officials
Rand, the plague commissioner of Poona and Ll. Ayerst.
1899 V.D Savarkarand his brother Ganesh organized a secret society
Mura Mela. They were co-accused in Nasik and Gwalior Conspiracy
cases)
1904 Mitramela and Abhinav Bharat were merged.
1909 Jackson. District Magistrate of Nasik was assasinated.

The 2nd Phase of Revolutionary Terrorism

Influences on Revolutionary Terrorism

- Upsurge of working class trade unionism after the war: the
revolutionaries wanted to harness the revolutionary
potential of the new emergent class for nationalist revolution
- Russian revolution 1917
- Newly sprouting communist groups with their emphasis on Marxism.
socialism & proleterial
- Journals extolling the self sacrifice of revolutionaries
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
It was founded in September 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi under the
leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad. They were also influenced by
socialist ideas.
Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) Sachin Sanyal.
Jogesh Chatterjee and Ramprasad Bis mil founded Hindustan
Republican Army (HRA) at Kanpur in October 1924. it aimed at
organising an armed revolution and establishing ,; Federal Republic of
the LISA with a government
elected on the basis of adult franchise. Sachin Sanyal wrote Bandi
.Jivan’. Hindustan Republican Army was later renamed Hindustan
Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Important action of
Hindustan Republican Army was Kakori
Robbery (August 1925)

Miscellaneous

- - Bhagat Singh, Azad & Rajguru shot dead Saunders, the police official
responsible for the lathicharge in Lahore.

- Bhagat Singh and B K Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative

Assembly on 8 April 1929 to protest against the passage of the Public
Safely Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill, The objective was not to kill but
to make the deal hear.

- Bhagat Singh wrote: Why I Am An Atheist.

- Jatin Das (Sept, 1929) died alter a prolonged fast in jail

- Alter raiding Chittagong Armoury Surya Sen proclaimed the formation

of Provisional Revolutionary Government and the Indian Republican
Army, which fought at Jalalabad.

- Bina Das fired point blank at the governor whle receiving her degree at
the convocation.
- Kalpana Datta was arrested and tried along with Surya Sen.
- Udham Singh assassinated General Dowyer

Famous Conspiracy Cases

- Muzzafarpur Conspiracy— Attempt on Kingsford, Judge of

Muzaffarpur by Prafful Chaki & Khudi Ram Bose in 1908

- Alipore Conspiracy Case— Aurobindo Ghosh arrested

- Delhi Conspiracy Case (1911)— Sanchin Sanyal and Rash Behari

Bose were accused of attempting to assassinate Lord Hardinge

- Kanpur Conspiracy Case (1924)— British government started the case

against four communists-Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A.Dange, Shaukat Usmani
and Nalni Gupta. The government alleged that the Communists wanted
to deprive the British King of the sovereignty of British India.

- Kakori Conspiracy Case— On August 9, 1925, ten revolutionaries held

up the 8-Down train from Saharanpur to Lucknow ai Kakori and looted
its official railway cash. Asfaqullah Khan. Rumprasad Bismil and
Roshan Lehri were hanged.

- Lahore Conspiracy Case— Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Raj Guru

assassinated Saunders, a police official, al Lahore to avenge Lala Lajpat
Rai’s death. (December 1928)
- Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929)— Bhagat Singh & Batukeswar Dutt
were asked to throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on
April 8th 1929 against the passage of Public Safety Bill & Trade
Disputes Bill

Swaraj Politics and Towards COM

After the debacle of Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, a group of

leaders (No-changers: Ansari, Rajapogalachari, Kasturiranga Iyengar,
Rajendra Prasad and Vallabha bhai Patel) who still believed in Gandhian
methods advocated on continuing

Gandhian constructive rural work while another group, the Pro-changers

with such stalwarts like, Motilal Nehru. C R Das demanded Congress
participation in council politics.
The Gaya session (1922) rejected council entry. A compromise was
struck by which Pro-changers were allowed to stand for elections even
as their faith in the constructive programme was reiterated.
- Their immediate objective was ‘speedy attainment of full Dominion
Status—Swaraj’, including ‘the right to frame a constitution with
provincial autonomy.
- In the elections of 1923 the Das-Nehru group under the banner of the
Swaraj Parry emerged the single largest party in the Central Assembly,
Bombay and Bengal Councils.
- The Swarajists pursued an obstructionist strategy to defeat all
proposals for legislative enactments.
- C R Das died in 1925 and a section of Swarajists (NC Kelkar, MR
Jayakar, Lajpat Rai and Malaviya) mined responsivists. Madan Mohan
Malviya and Lala Lajpat Rai founded the independent Congress Party
and rallied the Hindus.
- In 1933. u was reorganised as Congress Nationalist Party. In 1930 the
Swarajists walked out of the Assemblies in accordance to the Lahore
resolution. The Swaraj Party now merged with the Congress as the
country began to prepare for the second round of direct mass action to
achieve complete independence.

Towards Civil Disobedient Movement

Simon Commission

In 1927 the British (Lord Birkenhead was the Secy. Of Slate) decided to
appoint a commission to recommend further
constitutional reforms. The Indian protest was on the grounds that the
commission headed by Sir John Simon was an “all white” commission.
Lord Birkenhead constantly talked of the inability of Indians to arrive at
any consensus and that the British did not find any one from among the
Indians fit enough to serve in a body that would make recommendation
about India’s political future.
The commission’s arrival in India led to a powerful protest movement in
which nationalist enthusiasm & unity reached new heights.
On 3rd February, the commissions was greeted with hartals and black
flag demonstrations.They could not carry with on will) their coalition
partners because of conflicting ideas

Nehru Report

To measure up to the challenge of the British the Report was tabled in

1928.
It remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a
constitutional framework for India complete with lists of central and
provincial subjects and fundamental rights.
-It demanded responsible government both in the center and in the
provinces. But it advocated Dominion Status and not complete
independence.
- It demanded universal adult suffrage.
- It rejected separate communal electorates. Ii proposed reservation for
the Muslims at the center and in provinces in which they were in
minority.
- The report recommended equal rights for women, freedom to from
unions. and dissociation of the state from religion in any form.
- Calcutta Session of INC in 1928 approved the report. INC now wanted
the English government to either accept or reject the recommendations
of the suggested constitution based on Dominion status. By Swaraj the
Congress leaders had so far meant the Dominion Status for India within
the ambit of British Empire.

- Irwin Offer of 1929

- Dominion Status (DS) was a natural issue of Indian constitutional
progress
- A proposed Round Table Conference (RTC) alter the publication of the
Simon Report.

-Lahore Session (Dec 1929)

Irwin talks broke down on the issue of Dominion Status, which the
British were reluctant to concede immediately.
Jawaharlal Nehru replaced Motilal Nehru as the INC President at Lahore
and the major decisions taken at Lahore session
Round Table Conference to be boycotted
Puma-Swaraj or complete independence as the main aim of Congress
Launch a programme of civil disobedience including non payment of
taxes
January 26”’ 1930 fixed as the I “ Independence day to be celebrated
everywhere.
 On December 31. 1929 the tricolour was hoisted on the banks of Ravi.

Civil Disobedience Movement

After the INC authorized Gandhiji to start CDM, he placed Eleven Point
Ultimatum to Irwin (31 Jan 1930) for
administrative reforms and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there
would be no need for agitation.
Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March on 12th
March.
Salt production had geographical limitations.
So in other parts of the country the movement included –
a) Picketing of liquor shops and auctions (b) No revenue campaign in
Bardoli © Forest Satyagrahas (d) Large scale resignation of rural
officials (e) Refusal of chaukidari lax (f) Prabhat Pheris-singing of
national songs (g) Patrikas-distribution of illegal pamphlets

11-Point Ultimatum

1. Reduce expenditure on Army & civil services by 50%

2. Introduce total prohibition.
3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D)
4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of licences.
5 . Release political prisoners
6. Accept Postal Reservation Bill
7. Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
8. Introduce textile protection

9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.

10. Reduce land revenue by 50’/r
11. Abolish salt tax

First Round Table Conference (1931)

First ever conference arranged between the British & Indians as equals
-Congress and most business leaders kept away.
- Muslim League— represented by Mohammed Ali, Agha Khan. Fazlul
Haq and Jinnah.
- Hindu Mahasabha— represented by Moonje and Jayakar.
- Liberals— represented by Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Sastri.
- Princes—represented by Akbar Hydari and Mirza Ismail, the Dewans
of Hyderabad and Mysore respectively.
With Incidents of rising violence and with majority of leading Congress
leaders behind bars Gandhiji called for rather sudden retreat. He initiated
a talk with Irwin. which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5th March
popularly called Gandh – irwin pact.

Chronology of Events in CDM

- 12 Mar, 1930—Dandi March was undertaken from Sabarmati Ashram

to Dandi.
- Apr, 1930—Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya Sen
- Jan 1931 — First Round ‘fable Conference
- 5 Mar, 1931 —‘Delhi Pact’ signed between Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi
- 23 Mar 1931 —Bhagat Singh. Rujgu ru and Sukhdev were executed.
- Mar 1931 (Karachi Congress) It accepted Delhi Pact. Civil
Disobedience Movement was withdrawn. The session also passed the
resolution for Fundamental rights and the Economic Policy.
- Sept-Dec 1931—Gandhi participated in Second Session of the Round
Table Conference
- Dec 1931—Gandhi returned and launched CDM but the movement
was brutally suppressed by force
- Apr 1934—The movement was withdrawn formally Delhi Pact
(Gandhi-Irwin Pact)
- Irwin agreed to release all political prisoners except those who were
engaged in violence.
- Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption.
- Gandhi agreed to suspend CDM and participate in 2nd of RTC.
Second Round Table Conference

Gandhi agreed to attend the second Round Table Conference scheduled

to be held m September 1931. He demanded control over defence &
foreign affairs. Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility
which was opposed by Muslim
League & the Princes. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for
Dalits which was opposed by Gandhi.
The Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand of
freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion status.

Communal Award And Poona Pact

On August 16. 1932 McDonald announced the proposal on minority
representation, known as the ‘” Communal Award” which
recommended:
- to double the existing seals in provincial legislatures.
- to retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities.
- to grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in
minority.
- to reserve 3% seats for women in all provincial legislatures except in N
WFP
- to recognize depressed classes as minority community and make them
entitled to the right of separate electrode, and
- to allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders and industrialists.
Gandhi’s objections

Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of separate

electorates to the Depressed Classes. He regarded the Depressed Classes
as an integral part of Hindu society. He thought what was required was
not protection of the depressed classes but root & branch eradication of
untouchability. He had pinned his hopes for their welfare in the firm
belief that the Hindus would do full social justice to fully integrate them
within their fold. He demanded that the depressed classes be elected
through a joint & if possible a wider electorate through universal
franchise.
To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept his viewpoint, Gandhi,
then in the Yarvada Jail, resorted to fast unto death. In an anxiety to save
his life,the Poona Pact with the following main terms was concluded
between him and Ambedkar on 25 September 1932.
- seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial
legislatures as against 71 promised by the
Communal Award & 18 % of the total in central legislature.
- Adequate representation for the depressed classes in the civil services.
- Ambedkar also accepted the principle of joint electorate.

Third RTC
Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London
(1932). The congress did not participate in it. The discussions led to the
passing of the Government of India Act. 1935.

CDM compared to NCM

- Launched to attain Puma Swaraj and not merely to remedy wrongs..
- It involved deliberate violation of law and not merely non-cooperation
- In the initial phase urban people participated but it spread to rural areas
where it gained its maximum strength.
- Little Muslim and labour participation
- Women participated on a large scale to picket shops Regional Spread
- Chittagong: 18 th April, armoury raid by Surya Sen.
- Peshawar: 23 April. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s Khudai Khidmatgar
activated the NWFP leading to rioting where the Hindu Gharwal rifles
refused to fire on Muslim masses.
- Sholapur. news of Gandhis arrest (4th May) led to working class strike
form 7 th to 17 th May.
- Darshana salt works (21 May) satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam
Saheb and Maniklal Gandhi.
- Madras: Rajagopala Chari led the March from Trichinopoly to
Vedaranniyam.
- Kerala K Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur. Central
Provinces had forest satyagrahas

Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign

Gandhiji withdrew from the Civil Disobedience Movement to focus on

Harijan welfare. After the Poona Pact Gandhi started an All India Anti-
Untouchability League and the weekly newspaper, Harijan.
Harijan welfare work by Gandhians indirectly helped to spread the
message of nationalism down to the most oppressed sections of rural
society.
Gandhi confined the Harijan Campaign to limited social reform (opening
of wells, roads, and particularly temples plus humanitarian work)
delinking it from any economic demands (though many Harijans were
agricultural labourers), and also refusing to attack caste as a whole.
The Harijan Movement was formally withdrawn in April 1934

Impact of CDM

- The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937

- The Left alternative emerged, for the Movement had aroused
expectations, which Gandhian strategy could not fulfill
- At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood,
emphasising the need to combine nationalism with radical social and
economic programmes.
- Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1
934.
- Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in
provinces like Bihar and Andhra.

Towards Quit India Movement

Following the withdrawal of the CDM, Gandhi wanted to focus upon his
village reconstruction programme and Harijan Campaign while many
other party members wanted to fight the elections. In October 1934,
Gandhi resigned from the Indian National Congress.
In the Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in November 1934,
the Congress won 45 seats out of the 75. The government announced the
holding of elections to the provincial legislatures in February 1937 under
the Government of India Act 1935 which promised provincial
autonomy.

At the Lucknow session (April 1936), the Congress decided to contest

them. The Congress framed a detailed political and economic
programme at the Faizpur session (December 1936) under the
Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Provincial Elections under the GoI Act 1935

The Congress won a massive mandate. It formed ministries in 8
provinces—Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, UP,
NWFP and Assam.
- Haripura Session (Feb 1938) declared Puma Swaraj ideal to cover
Princely States.
- Tripuri Congress (Mar 1939) favoured active participation in the
Princely States because of the federal structure of the 1935 Act and due
to assumption of office by the Congress after the 1937 elections.
- The Tripuri Session witnessed Bose vs. Sitaramyya (Gandhi’s
nominee) conflict. Bose resigned to
form the Forward Bloc.
Individual Satyagraha

With the failure of the British govt. to measure up to the demands, there
were two opinions in Congress about the launching of civil
disobedience. Gandhi fell that the atmosphere was not in favour of civil
disobedience as there were differences and indiscipline within the
Congress. However, the Congress Socialists and the All India Kisan
Sabha were in favour of immediate struggle.

Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, (the
Congress having rejected the August Offer), Gandhi decided to start the
Individual Satyagraha.
The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation
was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress wished to hamper the War
effort and this was not possible in a mass movement. Even the aim of the
Satyagraha was a limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India
supporting the War effort whole-heartedly.
On 17 October 1940 Vinoba Bhave became the first satyagrahi followed
by Nehru.

August Offer, 1940

The Viceroy (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal that included:
- Dominion Status in the unspecified future
- A post-war body to enact the constitution
- Expansion of Governor-General’s Council with representation of the
Indians,
- Establishing a War Advisory Council.
In this offer he promised the Muslim League and other minorities that
the British Government would never agree to a constitution or
government in India, which did not enjoy their support (the Muslim
League had demanded Pakistan in its Lahore session of 1940).

The Congress rejected this offer because:

- There was no suggestion for a national government and because the
demand for Dominion Status was already discarded in favour of Puma
Swaraj
- It encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League.

The Cripps Mission: March-April 1942

Under the pressure of Allies and the need for gestures to win over Indian
public opinion, the British were forced to offer reconciliatory measures.
After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British decided to send the
Cripps Mission to India for constitutional proposals, which included:
- Dominion status to be granted after the war with the right to secede
(Any province could, if it so desired, remain outside the Indian Union
and negotiate directly with Britain)
- Constitution making body to be elected from Provincial Assemblies
and Princes’ nominees alter the War
- Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British
which in effect accommodate the Pakistan Demand
- British would however, control the defence for war period.
The Congress did not want to rely upon future promises. It wanted a
responsible government with full powers and also a control over the
country’s defence. Gandhi termed the proposals as a post dated cheque
in a crashing bank. Cripps Mission failed to satisfy Indian nationalists &
turned out to be merely a propaganda device for US & Chinese
consumption.
But above all the Cripps Proposals brought in “Pakistan” through the
backdoor via the “local option” clause. Though the Cripps Mission
failed, Cripps’ proposals provided legitimacy to the Pakistan demand by
accommodating it in their provision for provincial autonomy.

Quit India Movement

In the backdrop of the failure of Cripps Mission, imminent Japanese

threat, the British attitude towards Indians who were left behind in
Burma and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien and meaningless
war, Quit India resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia
Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and “leave India in God’s
hand”.

His message was ‘Do or Die’.in the initial stages, the Movement was
based on nonviolent lines. Repressive policy of the government and
Indiscriminate arrests of the leaders provoked people to violence. (Nehru
was lodged in Almoru jail, Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in
Agha Khan ‘& palace, Poona). Further, it was the only all-India
movement, which was leader less. In many areas, the government lost all
control and the people established Swaraj.

Public Participation
- Parallel governments were established in Satara— (Prati Sarkar under
Nana Patil), Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P and Bihar.
- In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore district. This
national government had various departments like Law and Order,
Health, Education. Agriculture, etc. along with a postal system of its
own and arbitration courts.
- The Movement had initially been strong in the urban areas but soon it
was the populace of rural areas, which kept the banner of revolt aloft-for
a longer time.
- The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this
phase. Jaya Prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from
Hazaribagh Jail and organised an underground movement.
- In Bombay, the Socialist leaders continued their underground activities
under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali. The most daring act of the
underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with
Usha Mehta as its announcer.

The participation was on many levels. School & College students

remained in the forefront. women actively participated and workers went
on strikes.
Though, peasants concentrated their offence on symbols of authority,
there was complete absence of anti zamindar violence.

There were no communal clashes during the movement. Repression was

severe.

The Movement did not evoke much response from the merchant
community. In fact, most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited
heavily during the War.

The Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned
the Movement. The Communist Party of India due to its “People’s War”
line did not support the movement. The Indian Princes and the landlords
were supporting the War effort and therefore did not sympathize with
the movement.
Some Congress leaders like Rajagopalachari also did not participate.

Towards Freedom

Rajagopalachari Formula (1945)

In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed that after the termination of the
war, a Commission could be appointed for demarcating contiguous
districts in the north-west and east where Muslims were in absolute
majority. In the areas thus demarcated, a plebiscite would be held on the
basis of adult suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of
separation from Hindustan.

If the majority decided in favour of forming a separate Sovereign State,

such decision could be accepted. in case of acceptance of partition,
agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce,
communications etc.

The above terms would to be operative only if England transferred full

powers to India. Muslim League was expected to endorse the Congress
demand for independence and co-operate with it in the formation of
provisional government for the interim period.
Jinnah objected, as he wanted congress to accept two-nation theory &
wanted only Muslims of the northwest and east of India to vote in the
plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D Savarkar condemned the plan.
Shimla Conference (June-July 1945)

- Proposed by Wavell.
- Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive council with only Indian
members. The Viceroy and the Commander in chief would be the only
non-Indian members of the council
- ‘Caste Hindus’ and- Muslims would have equal representation the
executive would work within the existing constitution (i.e. not
responsible to the central Assembly) but the door was kept open for
discussions on a new constitution.
The Congress, headed by Maulana Azad, resented being characterized as
a caste Hindu organization.
Talks broke down due to Jinnah’s demand for the Muslim League to
have absolute choice in choosing all Muslim members and a demand for
communal veto, though it had ministries only in Assam and Sind.
The dissolution of the conference gave Jinnah the Communal Veto in
effect. Thereafter, the satisfaction of the League became a pre-requisite
to any major settlement.

Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946)

Members—Pethwick Lawrence (secretary of Stale), Stafford Cripps and
Alexander.
The Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan
(Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas). The Mission
reasoned that the right of communal self-determination, if conceded to
Muslims, also had to be granted to non-Muslims who formed majorities
in West Bengal and Eastern Punjab, as well as in Assam proper. The
‘truncated’ or smaller Pakistan was unacceptable to the League.
The Plan proposed
- Rejection of the demand for a full fledged Pakistan.
- For a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that
would control merely the defence, the Foreign Affairs and the
Communications, leaving all other subjects to the existing provincial
legislatures.
- Provincial legislatures would elect a Constituent Assembly.

The members would divide up into three sections— A,B & C while
electing the constitutes Assembly. All these sections would have the
authority to draw up provincial constitutions and even group
constitutions.

Section A- Non Muslim Majority provinces (Bombay, United Provinces,

Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Madras)
Section B - Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (Sind, NWFP
& Punjab)
Section C - Muslim majority provinces in North east (Bengal, Assam)
- Communal questions in Central legislature were to be decided by a
simple majority in both communities
- Provinces were to have full autonomy & residual powers
- Princely stales were no longer to be under paramountcy of British
Government.
- After the first general elections, a province could come out of a group
and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group
or union constitution
- Each group had powers to set up intermediate level legislature and
executive on their own.
The plan failed on the issue of the nature of grouping — Jinnah was for
compulsory while Nehru was for grouping only till the formation of a
constituent assembly.

On 29th July 1946 Jinnah withdrew his earlier acceptance of the plan
and fixed 16 August 1946 as Diner Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali,
Garmukteshwar were the storm centres. Communal massacre weakened
the Congress position in the NWFP.

Interim government

- Came into existence on 2nd September 1946, in accordance with

Cabinet Mission’s proposal and was headed by J L Nehru. Muslim
League refused to join it initially.
- Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join on 26 October 1946.
- 8th December 1946 — Constituent Assembly begins its session with
Liaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League as the Finance Minister
- The Interim government, obstructed by its League members and
bureaucracy was reduced to a figurehead and was unable to control the
communal carnage.
Attlee’s Announcement Prime Minister Atlee on 20 February 1947
announced that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June, 1948
and that Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell. British powers &
obligations vis-a-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of
power but these would not be transferred to any successor Government
in British India.

Partition of the country was implicit in the provision that if the

constituent assembly was not fully representative then power would be
transferred to more than one central govt.
Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan)
His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for the 3rd June Plan.
- The Plan declared that power would be handed over by 15 August
1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and Pakistan.
- Mountbatten supported the Congress stand that the princely states must
not be given the option of
independence.

-They would either join India or Pakistan

- Boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the award
was to be announced after Republic day (which was a major cause of
massacres)
- Punjab & Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups,
Hindu’s & Muslims, to vote for partition. If a simple majority of either
group voted for partition, then these provinces would be partitioned.
In case of partition, two dominions & two constituent assemblies would
be created.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

- Implemented on 15th August 1947 and Sovereignty of British
Parliament was abolished. Dominions of India and Pakistan were
created. Each dominion to have a Governor - General. Pakistan was to
comprise Sind, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East
Bengal
The Muslim League

- The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement were

followed by the formation of the All India Muslim League towards the
end of 1 906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsinul
Mulk It consisted of a group of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other
upper class Muslims.
- The factors that the helped the growth of Muslim separatism, were—
the surfacing of Hindu revivalist tendencies
during the Swadeshi movement, The British propaganda that the
partition of Bengal would benefit the Muslims and the spurt in
communal violence.
- Later, Muslim League came to be dominated by Young Turks who
nursed anti-British feelings. Britain had refused to aid Turkey in the
Balkan Wars (1911 - 12) and had rejected University Status to the
Aligarh College.
- In 1928, the Muslim League rejected the Nehru Report, as it did not
incorporate all their demands.

-This led to the estrangement of Jinnah, who called it a ‘Parting of the

Ways ‘with the Congress and formulated his infamous fourteenvpoints
(including separate-electorates, reservation of seats in the center and
provinces, reservation of jobs for Muslims, creation of new Muslim
majority provinces, etc.) which became the text of the communal
demands.

- 1939, Dec 22—The Muslim League observes the resignation of the

Congress ministries as Deliverance Day.
- 1940, March—Lahore session of the Muslim League passes the
Pakistan Resolution.
- On Dec 1943 the Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the
slogan ‘ Divide and Quit’.
Integration of States By 15 August all except Kashmir, Hyderabad and
Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession with India, and
Bhawalpur with Pakistan.
Goa was with the Portugese and Pondicherry with the French.

EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH RULE

1813 Act & the Education

1. Charles Grant and William Wilberforce, who was missionary

activists, compelled the East India Company to give up its non-invention
policy and make way for spreading education through English in order
to teach western literature and preach Christianity. Hence, the British
Parliament added a clause in 1813 charter that Governor-General-in-
Council less than one lakh for education and allowed the Christian
Missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India.
2. Act had its own importance because it was first instance that British
East India Company acknowledged for the promotion of education in
India.
3. With the efforts of R.R.M Roy, the Calcutta College was established
for imparting Western education. Also three Sanskrit colleges were set
up at Calcutta.
General Committee of Public Instruction, 1823

1. This committee was formed to look after the development of

education in India which was dominated by Orientalists who were the
great supporter of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican.
Hence, they created paramount of pressure on the British India Company
to promote Western Education. As a result, spread of education in India
got discursive between Orientalist-Anglicist and Macaulay’s resolution
come across with clear picture of British education system.

Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy, 1835

1. This policy was an attempt to create that system of education which

educates only upper strata of society through English.
2. English become court language and Persian was abolished as court
language.
3. Printings of English books were made free and available at very low
price.
4. English education gets more fund as compare to oriental learning.
5. In 1849, JED Bethune founded Bethune School.
6. Agriculture Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar)
7. Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee.
Bombay Plan: A plan for the economic development of India

Wood’s Dispatch, 1854

1. It is considered as the “Magna Carta of English Education in India”
and contained comprehensive plan for spreading education in India.
2. It states the responsibility of State for the spread of education to the
masses.
3. It recommended the hierarchy education level- At bottom, vernacular
primary school; at district, Anglo-vernacular High Schools and affiliated
college, and affiliated universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
Presidency.
4. Recommended English as a medium of instruction for higher studies
and vernacular at school level
Hunter Commission (1882-83)
1. It was formed to evaluate the achievements of Wood Dispatch of 1854
under W.W Hunter in 1882.
2. It underlined the state’s role in the extension and improvement of
primary education and secondary education.
3. It underlined the transfer of control to district and municipal boards.
4. It recommended two division of secondary education- Literary up to
university; Vocational for commercial career.

Sadler Commission (1917)

1. It was formed to study on the problems Calcutta University and their

recommendations were applicable to other universities also.
2. Their observations were as follows:
I. 12-year school course
II. 3-years degree after the intermediate stage
III. Centralised functioning of universities, unitary residential-teaching
autonomous body.
IV. Recommended extended facilities for applied scientific and
technological education, teacher’s training and female education.
Hence, we can say the British education system were influence by the
aspiration of Christian Missionaries. It was injected to ensure a cheap
supply of educated Indians to increase a number of subordinate posts in
administration and in British business concern. That’s why, they
emphasis on English as a medium of instruction and also to glorified
British conquerors and their administration

Wardha Scheme (1937)

Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir

Hussain Committee alter Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles
in the Harijan.

It centred around “manual productive work’ which would cover the

remuneration of teachers.
There was to be a seven year course through the mother tongue of the
students. It was to be centred around crafts.

Sargeant Plan of Education (1944)

It envisaged
-The establishment elementary schools and high schools
-Universal and compulsory education for all children between the age of
six and eleven
- A school course of six years was to be provided for children between
age eleven and seventeen.
- High schools were to be of two types