Unit AS 2: Further Physical and Inorganic Chemistry and Introduction to

Organic Chemistry

Content Paragraph Observation

2.12 Qualitative 2.12.1 Gas tests
analysis
H2 gives a ‘pop’ with a burning
splint
O2 relights a glowing splint
Cl2 bleaches damp litmus/universal
indicator paper
CO2 bubble through limewater;
limewater turns cloudy/milky
SO2 turns potassium dichromate
(VI) solution from orange to
green/turns potassium
manganate (VII) solution form
purple/pink to colourless
HCl white fumes/smoke with
stopper from bottle of
concentrated ammonia
solution/glass rod dipped in
concentrated ammonia solution
NH3 white fumes/smoke with
stopper from bottle of
concentrated hydrochloric
acid/glass rod dipped in
concentrated hydrochloric acid

2.12.2 Flame colours

Li+ Crimson
Na+ Yellow/Orange
K+ Lilac/Pink through cobalt glass
Ca2+ Brick red
Ba2+ Green
Cu2+ Green-blue/Blue-green

2.12.3 SO42- make a solution and add dilute

HCl/HNO3 followed by a
solution of Ba2+ ions – forms a
white precipitate

HCO3-/CO32- add dilute HCl to form

colourless gas which turns lime
water cloudy/milky; make a
solution and add a solution of
Mg2+ ions – CO32- forms a white
precipitate, no effect on HCO3-

5
 Hal- make a solution and add dilute
nitric acid followed by silver
nitrate solution, then note the
following:

Cl- white precipitate, soluble in

dilute ammonia solution

Br- cream precipitate, soluble in

concentrated ammonia solution

I- yellow precipitate, insoluble in

concentrated ammonia solution

2.12.4 Ba2+ yellow precipitate with a

solution of potassium chromate,
soluble in hydrochloric acid to
give a yellow solution

Cu2+ blue precipitate on addition of a

few drops of dilute ammonia
solution which dissolves in
excess of the ammonia solution
to form a dark/deep blue
solution

NH4+ heat with dilute sodium

hydroxide; the gas given off
gives white fumes/smoke with
stopper from bottle of
concentrated hydrochloric
acid/glass rod dipped in
concentrated hydrochloric acid

Fe2+ and Fe3+ add dilute sodium hydroxide

solution; Fe2+ gives a green
precipitate and Fe3+ gives a
rust/brown precipitate

Al3+, Mg2+ and 1. add a few drops of dilute

Zn2+ sodium hydroxide solution.
Al3+, Mg2+ and Zn2+ all form a
white precipitate. The Al3+ and
Zn2+ precipitates are soluble in
excess of the sodium hydroxide
solution; the Mg2+ precipitate is
insoluble in excess of the
sodium hydroxide solution

6
 2. add a few drops of dilute
ammonia solution. Al3+, Mg2+
and Zn2+ all form a white
precipitate. The Zn2+
precipitate is soluble in excess
of the ammonia solution; the
Al3+ and Mg2+ precipitates are
insoluble in excess of the
ammonia solution

Fe3+ add potassium thiocyanate

solution and a blood red
solution is formed

7
Unit A2 2: Analytical, Transition Metals, Electrochemistry and
Further Organic Chemistry

Content Paragraph Observation

5.3 Volumetric 5.3.1 Recall the colour of the aqueous complexes of:
analysis
Ca2+/Mg2+ using edta: eriochrome black T turns from
red to blue
I2 with S2O 2-
3
using starch: add the thiosulphate
solution until the solution is straw coloured and then
add starch; turns from blue-black to colourless
-
Fe2+ with MnO4 : no indicator required the solution
changes from colourless to pink

5.8 Oxidation 5.8.1 Recall the colour of the aqueous complexes of:
states
Cr3+ green
Cr(VI) (CrO 2-
4
) yellow
Cr2O 2-
7
orange
Mn2+ pink
Fe2+ green
Fe3+ yellow/orange
Co2+ pink
Ni2+ green
Cu2+ blue
V2+ violet
V3+ green
V(IV) (VO2+) blue
+
V(V)(VO 2) yellow
5.8.2 Qualitative detection tests using the formation of
precipitates of the hydroxides with NaOH(aq) and
NH3(aq) and, where appropriate, their subsequent
dissolution:
Cr3+ green-blue precipitate soluble in
excess sodium hydroxide
solution
Mn2+ white precipitate slowly turning
brown/black on standing;
insoluble in excess sodium
hydroxide/ammonia solution
Fe2+ green precipitate; insoluble in
excess sodium hydroxide/
ammonia solution
Fe3+ rust/brown precipitate;
insoluble in excess sodium
hydroxide/ammonia solution

9
 Co2+ blue precipitate; insoluble in
excess sodium hydroxide
solution; soluble in excess
ammonia solution forming a
yellow solution
Ni2+ green precipitate insoluble in
excess sodium hydroxide
solution; soluble in excess
ammonia solution to form a
blue solution

Cu2+ blue precipitate; insoluble in

excess sodium hydroxide
solution; soluble in excess
ammonia solution to form a
dark/deep blue solution

5.8.3 V2+ violet

V3+ green

V(IV) VO2+) blue

V(V)(VO 2 ) yellow

5.8.5 Chrome alum green solution; violet crystals

10
 A LEVEL CHEMICAL TESTS YOU SHOULD KNOW!
CATIONS

Name/formula Colour of precipitate with dilute NaOH

Iron (II) ions /Fe2+ Dark green
Iron (III) ions /Fe3+ Red-brown
Copper(II) ions /Cu2+ Blue

Name/formula Test Result

Ammonium/ NH4+ Add dilute NaOH, warm Gas produced (NH3) turns litmus red
OR makes white fumes with conc HCl

ANIONS

Name/formula Test Result

Carbonate ion/ CO32- Add dilute acid Fizzes/bubbles- bubble gas into
limewater which goes milky
Sulfate ion/ SO42- Add acidified BaCl2 White ppte (acidify first to
eliminate possibility of CO32-
which also makes a white ppte.

Name/formula Addition of acidified Addition of dilute Addition of conc.

AgNO3 NH3 solution NH3 solution
Chloride ion/ Cl- white ppte dissolves n/a
Bromide ion/ Br- cream ppte ppte remains dissolves
Iodide ion/ I- yellow ppte ppte remains ppte remains

FLAME COLOURS

Name/formula Colour of precipitate with dilute NaOH

K+ lilac
Na+ Yellow/orange
Li+ red
Ca2+ orange-red/brick red
Cu2+ blue
Ba2+ Green (apple)

GASES

Name/formula Test Result

Oxygen, O2 Insert glowing splint in test-tube of gas Re-lights
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Bubble into limewater Turns milky
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 Brown colour, test with litmus or UI Turns red (acidic gas)
 Hydrogen, H2 Insert lit splint into test-tube of gas Burns with squeaky pop

ORGANIC

Functional Group Test Result

C=C (unsaturated) Add bromine water Brown solution
decolourises
-OH (hydroxy group) Add PCl5 White misty fumes

INDICATORS

Name Colour in acid Colour in alkali

Methyl orange red yellow
phenolphthalein colourless pink


The table below shows the typical reactions of different functional groups and how they can be
identified.

Homologous Typical reactions Identification

series

Alkanes Comb stion

C-C
Electrophilic s bstit tion/free radical s bstit tion​ with Br​2
or Cl​2​ (forms halogenoalkanes)
Cracking​ (forms short chain alkenes and alkanes)

Alkenes Electrophilic addition: React with bromine

C=C - Steam (forms alcohols) water:​ Decolorises in the
- Hydrogen halides (forms halogenoalkanes) presence of C=C.
- Halogens (forms dihalogenoalkanes)
- Hydrogen (forms alkanes)
O idation​ with H​+​/MnO​4​-​ (forms diols)
Addition pol merisation​ (forms polymers)
Comb stion

Haloalkanes N cleophilic s bstit tion: React with AgNO​3​(aq),

C-F/ C-Cl/ - Hydrolysis (forms alcohols) test precipitate with
C-Br/ C-I - Reaction with ethanolic cyanide (forms nitriles) NH​3​(aq):
 - Reaction with ammonia (forms primary amines) AgCl​ - white ppt soluble
in dilute NH​3​(aq)
Elimination​ of hydrogen halide using ethanolic hydroxide AgBr​ - cream ppt soluble
ions (forms alkenes) in concentrated NH​3​(aq)
AgI​ - yellow ppt insoluble
in NH​3​(aq)

Alcohols Comb stion React with H​+​/Cr​2​O​7​2-​:

-OH Colour change from
S bstit tion​ with halogenating agents (forms
orange​ to ​green​ in the
halogenoalkanes)
presence of primary and
O idation​ with H​+​/Cr​2​O​7​2-​ (forms carbonyls and carboxylic secondary alcohols (no
acids) change for tertiary
Deh dration​ using an acid catalyst (forms alkenes) alcohols).

Esterification​ with carboxylic acids or acyl chlorides

Aldehydes O idation​ with H​+​/Cr​2​O​7​2-​ (forms carboxylic acids) React with 2,4-DNPH​:
-CHO A yellow-orange
Red ction​ using LiAlH​4​ (forms primary alcohols)
precipitate is formed in
N cleophilic addition​ with HCN (forms hydroxynitriles) the presence of a
carbonyl group.
React with Tollens’
reagent: ​A silver mirror is
produced if an aldehyde is
present.
React with Fehling’s
reagent: ​The blue
solution forms a brick red
precipitate in the
presence of an aldehyde.
React with acidified
potassium
dichromate(VI): ​Orange
solution turns green.

Ketones Red ction​ using LiAlH​4​ (forms secondary alcohols) React with 2,4-DNPH​: A
RCOR’ yellow-orange precipitate
N cleophilic addition​ with HCN (forms hydroxynitriles)
is formed in the presence
of a carbonyl group.

Carboxylic Reaction with metals, alkalis or carbonates (forms a salt Test pH: ​pH less than 7
acids and inorganic products) when measured using a
-COOH pH probe.
Esterification​ with alcohols
React with a carbonate​:
Red ction​ with LiAlH​4​ (forms alcohols)
Effervescence as CO​2​ is
formed.
 Reaction with phosphorus(V) chloride (forms acyl
chlorides)
Red ction​ with LiAlH​4​ (forms aldehydes and then primary
alcohols)

Esters Acid h drol sis​ (forms a carboxylic acid and an alcohol) Generally have distinct
RCOOR’ sweet smells.
Alkali h drol sis​ (forms a carboxylate salt and an alcohol)

Amines Reaction with acids (forms a salt)

-NH​2

Nitriles Acid h drol sis​ (forms a carboxylic acid and a salt)

C≡N
Alkaline h drol sis​ (forms a carboxylate salt and
ammonia)
Red ction​ (forms primary aliphatic amines)

Arenes Electrophilic s bstit tion:

-C​6​H​5 - Halogen (forms chlorobenzene with Cl​2​ and
bromobenzene with Br​2​)
- Nitration (forms nitrobenzene)
Friedel-Crafts ​ac lation​ and ​alk lation
H drogenation​ (forms cyclohexane)

Phenol Reactions with strong bases (not acidic enough to react

C​6​H​5​OH with carbonates)
Electrophilic s bstit tion:
- Bromination using Br​2​ (forms bromophenol)

Acyl H drol sis​ with water (forms carboxylic acids and HCl)
chlorides
H drol sis​ with sodium hydroxide (forms a carboxylate salt
-COCl
and water)
Esterification​ with alcohols or phenol
Reaction with ammonia (forms an amide and HCl)
Reactions with primary amines (forms an N-substituted
amide)

Amides Acid h drol sis​ (forms a carboxylic acid and ammonium

-CONH​2 ions)
Alkali h drol sis ​(forms a carboxylate salt and ammonia or
an amine)
Red ction​ using LiAlH​4​ (forms a primary amine)
Grignard Reagents
Grignard reagents are molecules with the general formula ​RMgX​, where X is a halogen and R is
an alkyl or aryl group. They are prepared in a reflux setup by reacting a halogenoalkane with a
small quantity of magnesium in ​dry ether​.

E ample:

The produced Grignard reagent can be used to​ lengthen the carbon chain​ of another
molecule/compound.

Reaction with Carbon Dioxide

Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide. The product of this reaction is then ​hydrolysed​ to
produce halides and ​carboxylic acids​. The carboxylic acid has a carbon chain length of one more
than the initial Grignard reagent.

Step 1: The reagent adds across the COO group.

Step 2: The product from step one is hydrolysed in dilute acid.

The second step is carried out in ​dilute acid (H​3​O​+​(aq)​)​. The halide, in this case Mg(OH)Br, reacts
with the acid to produce magnesium ions, bromide ions and water.

Reaction with Carbonyl Compounds

Grignard reagents react with carbonyl compounds in a similar way to their reaction with carbon
dioxide. This reaction produces ​alcohols​.

Step 1: The reagent adds across the C=O group.

Step 2: The product from step one is hydrolysed in dilute acid.

The identity of the alcohol product depends on the​ R groups​ of the initial carbonyl compound.
Again, this reaction is useful for organic synthesis since it increases the ​length of the carbon
chain​.