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A Course in English Phonetics and
Phonology
for Indonesian Students
Rima Andriani Sari

Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani
Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra
I Wayan Pastika
I Nyoman Suparwa
JAUDAR PRESS
2017
i
Rima Andriani Sari
Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani
Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra
I Wayan Pastika
I Nyoman Suparwa
A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology
for Indonesian Students
Surabaya: JAUDAR PRESS, 2017
Vii+100 hlm
ISBN 978-602-6691-187
Hakcipta pada pengarang
Dilarang mengutip sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini dengan cara apapun,
termasuk dengan cara penggunaan mesin fotokopi, tanpa seizin dari penerbit
Cetakan Pertama, 2017
Hak penerbitan pada JAUDAR PRESS, Surabaya

Desain cover : Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra
Layouter : M. Fikri Amrullah, S.Pd
ii
Preface
A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students is a

course book, the objectives of which are 1) to improve Indonesian students’
knowledge related to the sounds of English, and 2) to introduce the students
to English phonetic and phonological analysis.
Chapter One presents an overview of the fields of phonetics and phonology,

distinguishing between both fields and their position within linguistics, as
well as introducing the terms and symbols used in phonetics and phonology.
Chapter Two introduces the organs of speech, while Chapter 3 distinguishes
between voiced and voiceless sounds, describing place and manner of
articulation. Chapter 4 introduces the English vowels, while Chapters 5, 6, 7,
and 8 explain the consonants that occur in English. Suprasegmental sounds
are discussed in Chapter 9. At the end of every chapter, there is a set of
performance exercises.
This book has been designed as a result of collaborative teamwork between

Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha and Universitas Udayana. Each member
incorporated ideas and contributed materials to each chapter.
We would like to thank the DPRM Ministry of Research, Technology, and

Higher Education of Indonesia for granting the research: Grant No.
104/UN48.15/LT/2016 and Grant No. 221/UN48.15/LT/2017.
iii
Course Syllabus
No. Topic Learning Experience/Activities
1 Introduction to Phonetics and 1. become acquainted with the technical terms to be
Phonology used in the fields of phonetics and phonology
2. distinguish between phonetics and phonology and
their position within linguistics
3. know the symbols used in phonetics and
phonology
2 The Speech Organs 1. know the different organs of speech
2. know the function of each organ in the production
of speech sounds
3. know the different production of sounds
3 Manner of Articulation, Place 1. know the manner of articulation
of Articulation and Voicing 2. know the place of articulation
3. distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds
4 The English Vowels
4.1 English Short Vowels 1. learn the production of English short vowels
2. listen to examples of words containing short
vowels
3. practice pronouncing words containing short
vowels
4. provide words containing short vowels in all
positions and transcribe them
4.2 English Long Vowels 1. learn the production of English long vowels
2. listen to examples of words containing long vowels
3. practice pronouncing words containing long
vowels
4. provide words containing long vowels in all
5 English Plosives 1. learn the production of English plosives
2. listen to examples of words containing English
plosives
iv
3. practice pronouncing words containing English
plosives
4. provide words containing English plosives in all
6 English Fricatives 1. learn the production of English fricatives
fricatives
fricatives
4. provide words containing English fricatives in all
7 English Affricates and English
Nasals
7.1 English Affricates 1. learn the production of English affricates
affricates
affricates
4. provide words containing English affricates in all
7.2 English Nasals 1. learn the production of English nasals
nasals
nasals
4. provide words containing English nasals in all
8 English Approximants 1. learn the production of English approximants
approximants
approximants
4. provide words containing English approximants in
v
all positions and transcribe them
9 Suprasegmental sounds; Stress

and Intonation
11.1 Stress 1. practice different stress patterns
2. provide examples of stress patterns in simple and
complex sentences
11.2 Intonation 1. distinguish the different intonation patterns of
English
2. provide examples of the different intonations in
English
vi
Table of Contents
Cover ..........................................................................................................i
Preface .........................................................................................................iii
Course Syllabus ...........................................................................................iv
Chaper-1
Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology ................................................1
A. Phonetics ..........................................................................................1
B. Phonology ........................................................................................5
C. Transcription....................................................................................9
Chapter-2
The Speech Organs .....................................................................................13
A. The Speech Organs ..........................................................................13
B. The Production of Sounds ................................................................ 21
Chapter-3
Voicing, Place of Articulation, and Manner of Articulation ....................23
A. Voicing .............................................................................................23
B. Place of Articulation ........................................................................24
C. Manner of Articulation ....................................................................27
Chapter-4
The English Vowels ....................................................................................35
A. English Short Vowels .......................................................................38
B. English Long Vowels ......................................................................40
Chapter-5
English Plosives ..........................................................................................43
A. The English Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b] ......................................43
B. The English Plosives [t] and [d] ......................................................47
C. The English Plosives [k] and [g] .....................................................51
Chapter-6
English Fricatives .......................................................................................57
A. The English Fricatives /f/ and /v/ ....................................................57
B. The English Fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ ...................................................60
C. The English Fricatives /s/ and /z/ ....................................................63
D. The English Fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ ....................................................65
E. The English Fricatives /h/ ............................................................... 68
vii
Chapter-7
English Affricates and English Nasals ......................................................73
A. The English Affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ ...................................................73
B. The English Nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/ .................................................76
Chapter-8
English Approximants& Lateral ................................................................ 83
A. The English Approximants /r/, /w/, and /y/ .....................................83
B. The English Lateral /l/ .....................................................................87
Chapter-9
Suprasegmental sounds; Stress and Intonation ........................................91
A. Stress ............................................................................................... 92
B. Sentence and Phrase Stress .............................................................95
C. Intonation .........................................................................................96
References ...................................................................................................99
viii
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS
AND PHONOLOGY
Course Objectives:
After learning the topic, the students are expected to be able to:
1) understand the technical terms used in the fields of phonetics and
phonology
2) distinguish between phonetics and phonology and their position within
linguistics
3) know the symbols used in phonetics and phonology
A. Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of the inventory of all speech sounds that humans are
capable of producing (Katamba, 1989). In other words, phonetics is the study
of the actual sounds of a language produced by humans, or the sounds that
come from our mouths. In more detail, phonetics is the science concerned
with all aspects of human speech. In this sense, in phonetics, human speech
is described and investigated. In addition, how our speech organs produce
sounds is also explored and explained. In the case of phonetics, not all
sounds produced by humans are considered speech, for example, whistling,
burping, laughing, and spitting. Phonetics also deals with the properties of
speech sounds as they travel in the air or are transferred from the speaker's
mouth to the listener‟s ears. Phonetics is also concerned with how we
perceive and interpret speech and how we recognise its structural elements as
A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 1

certain linguistic symbols or signs. Phonetic transcriptions are written using
the square brackets symbol [ ].
There are three major branches of phonetics:
1) Articulatory phonetics: The study of how sounds are produced.
2) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the acoustic characteristics of speech,
which looks at the physical properties of speech sounds, such as
frequency, duration, and intensity. The study of acoustic phonetics
requires laboratory instruments or, nowadays, computer software. One
example of software which can be used is ELAN, where we can see the
frequency and time intervals of the sounds produced.
Figure 1.1 Analysing sounds using ELAN
3) Auditory phonetics: The study of speech perception, or the way sounds

are heard and interpreted.
Why do we need to study phonetics? First of all, speech is the most
important means of communication. Second, when we learn a foreign
language, for example, as Indonesians learn English, we may face some
problems. These problems may be, for example, difficulties in pronouncing
2 | Rima Andriani Sari; Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani; Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra;
I Wayan Pastika; I Nyoman Suparwa
certain sounds and in hearing words or utterances. When we mispronounce
words, it may lead to misunderstanding. Furthermore, as learning a foreign
language is also part of intercultural communication, mispronunciation may
also cause awkward situations. Let‟s look at the following situations:
a) Two people met during their holiday. One day, they had dinner together
in a fancy restaurant:
Philip : What would you like to eat?

Hu : I‟d like to eat some soap.
Philip : Excuse me?

b) At the playground:
Sara : How old is Sofia?

Maria : She is sick.
Sara : What happened to her?
Maria : I don‟t understand.
Sara : You said she is sick.
Maria : Oh, sorry, I mean she is six years old, not sick.
c) Two friends met each other at the parking lot:

John : Hi, where have you been?
Pedro : I went to the doctor.
John : What did he say?
Pedro : I have to go to the hospital.
John : Why?
Pedro : They have to taste my blood.
John : No! What do you mean?
Pedro : They have to find out if I suffer from anaemia.
John : Oh, you mean test!
So, in order to avoid mispronunciation, which is also a way to avoid

misunderstanding, phonetics will teach us how to correctly produce sounds.
In this sense, how to properly pronounce words or how words are supposed
to be pronounced is the task of phonetics. Besides, as learners of a foreign
language, we can also correct our own pronunciation mistakes.
B. Phonology
Phonology deals with the sound systems of a language or the patterns of
sounds, particularly the different patterns of sounds in different languages.
Phonology is also concerned with patterns of sounds within a language.
Every language has different sound systems. Indonesians, from birth, are

exposed to Indonesian phonological systems and learn to produce the
distinctive sounds which exist in the Indonesian language. When we were
small, our parents did not teach us, for example, what we had to do with our
lips or our tongue, or how we should treat the air that comes out of the lungs
in order to produce a „p‟ or an „l‟. In short, they did not say: “Well, Baby, I
will now tell you how to produce an „l‟. Bring the tip of your tongue to the
alveolar ridge and then let the air go through the sides of the tongue.” No,
they did not teach us how to produce sounds in that way. In learning our
native language, we did not have to think about how to pronounce certain
sounds. We naturally adapt, or our speech organs naturally adapt themselves,
to our native language.
“ Baby...bring the tip of the tounge between your

lower teeth and upper teeth. Like this!”
When we learn English as a foreign language, there are some speech
sounds which do not exist in Indonesian phonological systems.
Consequently, we may have some difficulties in pronouncing certain sounds
or in understanding the meaning of words. For this reason, we often replace
certain sounds that we find hard to pronounce. Our difficulties in producing
certain English sounds are due to the different phonological systems in
English and Indonesian.
Phonology is concerned with which sounds mark differences within a
language or which sounds mark a difference in meaning between two words.
The sounds that can mark differences within a language are called phonemes.
In this sense, a phoneme is a phonic segment which can differentiate
meaning. Phonemic transcriptions are indicated by using a slash / /. In order
to check whether a phonic segment is a phoneme, we need to look at
minimal pairs. A minimal pair is a pair of words where there is only a single
phonological difference between both words. Take, for example, the
following set of words in English:
park-bark
pig-big
push-bush
tin-din
town-down
tip-dip
sip-zip
sap-zap
sink-zinc

From the set of words, we can see that /p/ and /b/ are two different
phonemes, since the two phonic segments are the only different elements
within the set of words, and they can therefore differentiate meaning. A
similar situation can be observed in the case of /t/ and /d/, while different
meanings are also highlighted by the difference between /s/ and /z/.
Phonology also deals with sounds that do not mark any difference in a
language, in the way that they do not result in any difference in meaning.
Sounds that do not mark any difference in meaning are called allophones.
Examples of allophones are also found in English. For example, phonic
segments „p‟, „t‟, and „k‟ are aspirated when they are placed in the initial
syllable of a word. On the other hand, they are unaspirated after /s/. Let‟s
take a look at the following examples:
[ph] as in pot
put
pen
[th ] as in top
tap
test
[kh ] as in kick
can
could
[p] as in spot
spit
split
[t] as in stop
stink
station
[k] as in scan
scramble
skew
C. Transcription
When we deal with phonetics and phonology, we need to familiarise
ourselves with phonetic transcription. In English, the spelling of words is not
always the same as how the words are pronounced. Let‟s take a look at the
following words:
breath peak
/ɛ / /i/
has speak
/z/ /s/
Even though the words „breath‟ and „peak‟ both contain „ea‟, the „ea‟ in
„breath‟ and in „peak‟ have different sounds. The sound of „ea‟ in „breath‟ is
/ɛ/ and in „peak‟ it is /i/. A similar situation can be seen in the words „has‟
and „speak‟. In both words, there is an „s‟. Yet, the „s‟ in the word „has‟ is
pronounced /z/, while in „speak‟ the sound is /s/. Therefore, with phonetic
transcription, we can distinguish the sounds of vowels and consonants.
What we have to keep in mind is that phonetic symbols are unique and
they are consistent across languages. For instance, the sound /ɛ/ in every
language is the same. In order words, if you learn a new language, and you

can read phonetic symbols or the phonetic alphabet, then you will know how
the words in that language are pronounced.
The following is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), taken from
International Phonetic Association (2015).
10 | Rima Andriani Sari; Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani; Putu Eka Dambayana
Suputra; I Wayan Pastika; I Nyoman Suparwa
Not all consonants and vowels available in the chart exist in English.
What we see in the chart are consonants and vowels that are found across
languages. There are two different types of transcriptions. The first is
phonemic transcription, using the slash / / as a sign. Phonemic transcription
is more general and is usually used in dictionaries. It shows how words are
pronounced in general. The second is phonetic transcription. Phonetic
transcription is more specific. It shows how individual speakers pronounce
words, using [ ] as a sign.
Exercise
1. What is phonetics concerned with?

2. What differentiates phonology from phonetics?
3. How do you check whether or not a phonic sound can differentiate
meaning?
4. Give three sets of words that only differ in one phonological element.
5. Give two sets of words that have different sounds but do not differentiate
meaning.
6. How important is transcription in phonetics and phonology?
7. Give examples of words that have the same spelling but different sounds.

CHAPTER-2
THE SPEECH ORGANS
Course Objectives:
1. know the different organs of speech
2. know the function of each organ in the production of speech sounds
3. know the different production of sounds
A. The Speech Organs

Now that we have learned about the study of sounds, let‟s learn about
how we produce speech sounds. In producing speech sounds, we use the
speech organs. They are also known as vocal organs. The speech organs
include three parts of the human body: the lungs, the vocal folds, and, most
importantly, the articulators (Harmer, 2001, p. 28). The explanation below
is based on the order of where we start producing sounds.
1. The Lungs
The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in humans and many
animals. The lungs pump the air in and out of the body through the mouth or
the nostrils. The airflow is the most important requirement for producing
speech sounds. As you can see in Figure 2.1, the lungs have two parts: right
and left. The air is pushed out by the lungs through the trachea (or the
windpipe) to the larynx. Inside the larynx, we find the vocal folds.

Larynx
Trachea
Right lung Left lung
Diaphragm
Figure 2.1: The lungs
2. The Vocal Folds
Everyone has two vocal folds in their larynx. The vocal folds (also called the
vocal cords) are like a pair of lips placed horizontally from front to back
(Roach, 2009, p. 28). They are joined in the front, but can be separated at the
back. The opening between them is called the glottis. The glottis is
considered to be in an open state when the folds are apart, and when the folds
are pressed together, the glottis is considered to be in a closed state.
front
Vocal folds
Glottis
Arytenoid
cartilages
back
Figure
: 2.2 The vocal folds
The opening of the vocal folds takes two different basic positions (Yule,
2006, p. 46):
1. When the vocal folds are spread apart, they do not vibrate. The air
from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in
such a position are called voiceless sounds. In English, some
consonants are voiceless.
2. When the vocal folds are drawn together, they touch each other or
nearly touch. The pressure of the air coming from the lungs makes
them vibrate. Sounds produced in such a way are called voiced
sounds. In English, all the vowel sounds and some consonants are
voiced.

Wide apart Narrow glottis
Nearly touching Tighly closed
Figure 2.3: Vocal cords in open and closed positions
It has been said by many experts that voiced and voiceless sounds can
be felt physically if you place your fingertip on the top of your Adam‟s apple
and then produce sounds, such as Z-Z-Z-Z or G-G-G-G. These are voiced
sounds since you can feel some vibration. Now, if you make the sounds S-S-
S-S or K-K-K-K, these are voiceless sounds, meaning there is no vibration.
3. The Articulators
j
c
e
f d
a
i
g
b
k
h
l m
Figure 2.4: Human Speech Organs
a. Lips
b. Teeth
c. Alveolar ridge
d. Hard palate
e. Soft palate
f. Oral cavity
g. Epiglottis
h. Vocal folds
i. Pharynx
j. Nasal cavity
k. Tongue tip

l. Tongue blade
m. Tongue back
Seven of the articulators shown above are the main ones used in speech
(Roach, 2009, pp. 9-10). They are:
1. The pharynx, which is a tube just above the larynx. Women and men
have different pharynx lengths. Women have a length of about 7 cm,
while it is about 8 cm for men. At its top end, the pharynx is divided into
two: one part is the back of the oral cavity and the other is the beginning
of the way through to the nasal cavity. You can see the back of the
pharynx if you look in your mirror with your mouth open.
2. The velum or soft palate is at the back of your mouth. It allows air to
pass sometimes through the nose and sometimes through the mouth. In
speech, it is often raised so that the air cannot escape through the nose.
The other important thing about the velum is that it is one of the
articulators that can be touched by the tongue.
3. The hard palate can be found at the top of the mouth, which is why it is
often called the „roof of the mouth‟. It has a smooth curved surface.
4. The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate. Its
surface is rough and it is covered with little ridges. You can feel this with
your tongue.
5. The tongue is a very important articulator. It can be moved into many
different position and different shapes. Experts usually divide the tongue
into five different parts: tip, blade, front, back, and root.
front back
blade
tip
root
Figure 2.5: Sub-divisions of the tongue
The shape and the position of the tongue are especially important for the
production of vowel sounds, which we will discuss in Chapter 4.
6. The teeth are divided into two: the upper and lower teeth. They are
located immediately behind the lips. When the tongue is in contact with
the upper side teeth, many speech sounds are produced.
7. The lips are also divided into two: the upper and lower lips. They are
important in speech. The upper and the lower lips can be pressed together
to produce the sounds [p] and [b]. The lips are brought into contact with
the teeth when we produce sounds [f] and [v], or we can make the lips
rounded to produce vowels like [u] or [o]. The lips can take different
shapes and positions. Therefore, lip-rounding is considered as a major

criterion for describing vowel sounds. The lips may have the following
positions (Roach, 2009, p. 15):
a. Rounded: When we pronounce certain vowels, our lips may be
rounded, a position where the corners of the lips are brought towards
each other and the lips are pushed forwards. The resulting vowel from
this position is a rounded vowel, for example, [ʊ].
b. Spread: The lips can be spread. In this position, the corners of the lips
are moved away from each other (e.g. when we smile). The vowel that
we articulate from this position is an unrounded or spread one, for
example, [i].
c. Neutral: The lips are said to be in a neutral position when the lips are
not rounded or spread. For example, in English [ɑ:] (as in when we
say “e” in hesitation) is a vowel with neutral lips.
rounded
spread
neutral
Figure 2.6: vowel lip postures
B. The Production of Sounds
When we produce sounds, the air goes out of the lungs, through the
trachea, and then through the mouth or nose. The position of the vocal cords
can be open or closed. When we articulate certain sounds, there are three
major questions that need to be considered. First, what is the position of the
vocal cords? Are they closed or open? If the vocal cords are closed, the air
coming out of the lungs will push the closed vocal cords, causing them to
vibrate. The sounds then produced are called voiced sounds. However, when
the vocal cords are open, the air comes out of the lungs, and moves freely
through the vocal folds. In this case, the vocal cords will not vibrate. The
sounds then produced are called voiceless sounds.
Second, what is the position of the velum? Is it closing off the entrance
to the nose or leaving it open? When the velum is securely attached to the
back of the throat, letting no air out through the nose, then the air will pass
through the mouth or the oral cavity. In such a case, the sounds produced are
called oral sounds. On the other hand, when the velum does not connect to
the back of the throat and lets the air pass through the nose, then the sounds
produced are called nasal sounds.
Third, is there any obstruction of the air which comes from the lungs by
any of the articulators? If the sounds produced are not obstructed by any of
the articulators, and the air comes out freely through the mouth, then the
sounds produced are called vowels. On the contrary, the case may be that the
air flowing from the lungs is obstructed by parts of the articulators, for
instance, the obstruction is caused by contact with certain parts of the mouth
with another part. For example, in producing the sounds [p] and [b], the air
which comes out from the lungs is obstructed by the two lips being in tight
contact with each other. Therefore, the air does not come out freely from the
mouth. The airstream is then released when the mouth is open.

Exercises
1. Draw the human speech organs and name the articulators. Don‟t look
at the book when you do this.
2. How can you differentiate between voiced and voiceless consonants?
What are some examples of the sounds?
3. Which articulators are important in producing vowels, and which
articulators are important in producing consonants?
4. State the three positions of the lips in producing different sounds.
5. Which of the following words normally end with voiceless sounds
and which end with voiced sounds? Put a tick on the space:
map ___ cab ___ make ___
sun ___ staff ___ drive ___
bush ___ mud ___ cloth ___
6. What is the position of the lips when we say the sounds [u] and [i]?
CHAPTER-3
VOICING, PLACE OF
ARTICULATION, AND MANNER
OF ARTICULATION
Course Objectives:
1) distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds
2) know places of articulation
3) know manner of articulation
When we talk about consonant sounds, there are different methods of

categorising them: voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.
The sounds are named based on this particular order: first, whether the sound
is voiced or voiceless, second, its place of articulation, and third, its manner
of articulation.
A. Voicing
As we have seen in Chapter 2 regarding the human speech organs, the
vocal folds play an important role in making voiced and voiceless sounds.
The opening of the vocal folds takes two different basic positions (Yule,
2006, p. 46).

B. Places of articulation
In the production of speech sounds, the organs in the upper mouth
can be described as places of articulation (also points of articulation), and
those in the lower part of the mouth are the articulators. The term „places of
articulation‟ is also used to name the location inside the mouth at which the
constriction takes place.
Consonant sounds are categorised based on places of articulation,
manner of articulation, and voicing. To describe the places of articulation of
most consonant sounds, we can start at the front of the mouth and work back.
Below are the seven places of articulation (Yule, 2010, pp. 28-30), based on
the order from the front part of the mouth.
Bilabials
Bilabials or bilabial sounds are produced by pressing the upper and
the lower lips together. These sounds are [p], [b], [m], and [w], as in
the initial sounds of the words put, back, mother, and woman.
Labiodentals
Labiodentals are produced by pressing the upper teeth and the lower
lip together. The sounds produced are [f] and [v], as in the initial
sounds of the words photo and very.
Dentals
Dentals are produced by placing the tongue tip behind the upper front
teeth. The sounds corresponding to this are [ð] and [Ɵ], which can be
found in the initial sounds of the words thick and they.
Alveolars
An alveolar sound is produced by putting the front part of the tongue
on the alveolar ridge. The sounds produced are [t], [d], [tʃ], [dʒ], [n],
[l], [s], and [z]. These sounds are found in the initial sounds of the
words time, die, champ, judge, now, lamp, say, and zip.

Palatals
If you feel the roof of your mouth, just behind the alveolar ridge, it
feels hard. This is called the hard palate or the palate. Sounds
produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (also
alveo-palatals). The sounds are [ʃ], [ʧ], [ʒ], [ʤ], and [j]. Examples of
[ʃ] and [ʧ] are the initial sounds in the words shave and chips. The
sound represented by the symbol [ʒ] is not very common in
English, but it can be found as the middle sound in words like
treasure and pleasure. The palatal [ʤ] can be found in the initial
sound in words like jam and gem, even though they have a
different spelling of “j” and “g”. One other voiced palatal is the [j]
sound, used at the beginning of words like you and yet.
Velars
The production of velar sounds is made by placing the back of the
tongue against the velum. The velum is the soft part beyond the hard
palate, which is why it is also called the soft palate. Velar sounds are
represented by the symbols [k], [ɡ], and [ŋ]. The sound [k] occurs in
the initial sounds of kid and car. The sound [ɡ] appears in the initial
sound of get and give. The last velar, represented by the symbol [ŋ],
is normally spelled as the two letters “ng.” This sound is only found
in the middle or final position in words such as sing and tongue.
Glottal
This sound is produced without any movement of the tongue or other
parts of the mouth. This sound is produced in the glottis, which is the
space between the vocal cords and the larynx. It is the sound [h]
which occurs at the beginning of have and house.
C. Manner of Articulation
Consonants may also be grouped according to how the sounds are
produced. This is called the manner of articulation. English has six groups of
consonant sounds: stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides
(Crane, 1981; Yule, 2010, pp. 31-33).
Stops or plosives
The manner of articulation of stop or plosive sounds is produced by
the complete „stopping‟ of the airstream and then abruptly letting it
go. Air pressure from the lungs builds up and is suddenly released in
a sharp burst of sound. Of all the sounds we have learned, the sounds

[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [ɡ] are all produced by some form of
„stopping‟ the air stream (very briefly) and then abruptly letting it go.
Fricatives
The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f],
[v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ] involves almost blocking the air
stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As
the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced, and the
resulting sounds are called fricatives. If, for example, you put your
palm in front of your mouth when producing fricative sounds, you
will feel the stream of air being pushed out. The usual pronunciation
of the word flash begins and ends with the fricatives [f] and [ʃ].
Affricates
The manner of articulation of affricate sounds is produced by
combining a stop and a fricative. Therefore, there is a brief stopping,
followed by an obstructed release, which results in some friction.
There are two affricate sounds in English: the sounds [ʧ] and [ʤ]. For
example, these sounds occur at the beginning of the words champ and
joy.
Nasals
The manner of articulation of nasal sounds is produced by lowering
the velum and allowing the airstream to flow out through the nose to
produce nasal sounds. Most sounds are produced in the oral cavity or
mouth, with the velum raised, preventing the airflow from entering
the nasal cavity. However, sounds may also be produced in the nasal
cavity or nose. The velum is lowered, and the air stream is allowed to
flow out through the nose, with the resulting sounds described as
nasals. The sounds are [m], [n], and [ŋ]. The words man, knocking,
and name begin and end with nasals.
Liquids
Liquids are formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of
the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of
the alveolar ridge. The initial sounds in lamp and run are described as
liquids. In this sense, [l] and [r] are categorised in these sounds. An
[l] sound is produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar
ridge and allowing air to escape over each side of the tongue. The [r]
sound is formed by curling the tip of the tongue up behind the
alveolar ridge and flipping it forward and backward without actually
touching the alveolar ridge.
Glides
The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They occur at the
beginning of wet, why, young, and yes. These sounds are produced
with the tongue in motion (or „gliding‟) to or from the position of a
vowel, and they are sometimes called semi-vowels. In some
approaches, the liquids [l] and [r] and glides [w] and [j] are combined
into one category called “approximants.”
Glottal stops
The glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the
space between the vocal folds (the glottis) is closed completely (very
briefly) and then released, e.g. when we say oh oh! Between the first

oh and the second oh, we typically produce a glottal stop. You can
also produce a glottal stop if you try to say the words butter or bottle
without pronouncing the “tt” part in the middle.
Having described the details of voicing, the places, and the manner of
articulation of English consonant sounds, we can summarise the basic
information in Table 3.1. Along the top of the chart are the different labels
for places of articulation and under each one are the labels –V (=voiceless)
and +V (=voiced). Also included in the table, on the left-hand side, is a set of
terms used to describe the manner of articulation.
Table 3.1: The English Consonants

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
- -
-v +v -v +v v +v -v +v v +v -v +v -v +v
Stops p b T d k g
Fricatives f v θ ð S z ʃ ʒ h
Affricates ʧ ʤ
Nasals m n ŋ
Liquids lr
Glides w j
From the chart, we can then name sound [p], for example, as a voiceless
bilabial stop, sound [ʒ] as a voiced palatal fricative, and sound [l] as a voiced
alveolar liquid.
Exercises
1. Try to pronounce the initial sounds of the following words and
identify the place of articulation of each one (e.g. bilabial, alveolar,
etc.):
(a) cool ________
(b) cherry _______
(c) phonetic _______
(d) goal ________
(e) help _______
(f) know _______
(g) morning _______
(h) page ________
(i) trip _________
(j) shapeless ________
(k) street ________
(l) thumb________
2. Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the

following words (e.g. stop, fricative, etc.):
(a) chain ______
(b) face ______
(c) male _______
(d) cranberry ______
(e) jumper ______
(f) sit ________
(g) dozen ______
(h) lost ______
(i) windy _______

3. Which of the following words normally end with voiceless (−V)
sounds, and which end with voiced (+V) sounds?
(a) song ______
(b) buzz______
(c) bright ______
(d) push ______
(e) crap______
(f) read ______
(g) dine ______
(h) smock ______
(i) seem ______
4. How can you differentiate between voiced and voiceless sounds?

5. Draw the English consonant chart and compare it to the consonant
chart of Bahasa Indonesia.
6. Name the following sounds based on their order:
(a) [g]
______________________________________________
(b) [f]
______________________________________________
(c) [Ɵ]
______________________________________________
(d) [r]
______________________________________________
(e) [d]
_____________________________________________
(f) [s]
_____________________________________________
(g) [ð]
_____________________________________________
(h) [ʃ]
_____________________________________________
(i) [n]
_____________________________________________

CHAPTER-4
THE ENGLISH VOWELS
Course Objectives:
1) learn the production of English short vowels
2) listen to examples of words containing short vowels
3) practice pronouncing words containing short vowels
4) provide words containing short vowels in all positions and transcribe
them
5) learn the production of English long vowels
6) listen to examples of words containing long vowels
7) practice pronouncing words containing long vowels
8) provide words containing long vowels in all positions and transcribe
them
While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or

obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively
free flow of air. They are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we
consider the way in which the tongue influences the shape through which the
airflow must pass. To talk about a place of articulation, we think of the space
inside the mouth as having a front versus a back and a high versus a low
area. Thus, in the pronunciation of heat and hit, we talk about „high front‟
vowels because the sound is made with the front part of the tongue in a
raised position.

In contrast, the vowel sound in hat is produced with the tongue in a
lower position, and the sound in hot can be described as a „low back‟ vowel.
The next time you are facing the bathroom mirror, try saying the words heat,
hit, hat, and hot. For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for
the last two, your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open
wider. (The sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically contain lower
vowels). See how to pronounce vowels [i], [u], and [a] in Figure 4.1. Pay
attention to the tongue position.
Figure 4.1: Tongue position in producing vowels [i], [u], and [a]
The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English (e.g. „high

front‟) is usually based on their position in a chart, like the one shown in
Figure 4.2 (based on Ladefoged, 2006), which provides a means of
classifying the most common vowel sounds. Following the chart, Table 4.1
contains a list of the major vowels, with examples of familiar words in order
to illustrate some of the variations in spelling possible for each sound.
Front Central Back

Close u
i 1 8
2
7 o
Close-mid e
Open-mid ɛ 3 6 ɔ
4 5 ɑ
Open a
Figure 4. 2: The primary cardinal vowels
Table 4.1: List of the major vowels

Front vowels Central vowels Back vowels
[i:] bead, beef, key, me [ə] above, oven, support [u:] boo, move, two,
[ɪ] bid, myth, women [ʌ] butt, blood, dove, you
[e] bed, dead, said tough [ʊ] book, could, put
[æ] bad, laugh, wrap [ɔ] born, caught, fall,
raw
[ɑ] Bob, cot, swan

It has become traditional to locate cardinal vowels on a four-sided
figure (a quadrilateral of the shape seen in Figure 4.2). The design used here
is the one recommended by the International Phonetic Association. The
vowels in Figure 4.2 are called primary cardinal vowels, which are the most
familiar vowels to speakers of most European languages; there are other
cardinal vowels (secondary cardinal vowels) that sound less familiar.
Cardinal vowels are printed within square brackets [ ] in order to distinguish
them clearly from English vowel sounds. As you can see from Table 4.1,
vowels can be categorised into short and long vowels, which we will discuss
in separate subchapters.
English Short Vowels
English has a large number of vowel sounds, and the first ones to be
examined are the short vowels. The symbols for the short vowels are: [i], [e],
[æ], [ʌ], [ɒ], and [u]. Short vowels are only relatively short; as we shall see
later, vowels can have quite different lengths in different contexts. Each
vowel is described in relation to the cardinal vowels (Roach, 2009).
ɪ
ʊ
e
ʌ
ɒ
æ
Figure 4.3: English short vowels
The lax high front vowel [ɪ] that occurs in bit, pin, and fish is produced in the
closed front area of the mouth. When compared with the cardinal vowel [i],
the vowel [ɪ] is more open and nearer to the centre. The lips are slightly
spread.
The mid front vowel [e], which is found in bet, men, and yes, is a front vowel
between cardinal vowel no. 2 [e] and no. 3 [ε]. The lips are slightly spread.
The low front vowel [æ] that occurs in bat, man, and gas is a front vowel.
However, it is not quite as open as cardinal vowel no. 4 [a]. The lips are
slightly spread.
The open-mid back vowel [ʌ] which exists in cut, come, and rush is a central
vowel. In Figure 4.3, we can see that it is more open than the open-mid
tongue height. The position of the lips is neutral.
The low back vowel [ɒ] which can be found in pot, gone, and cross is not
quite fully back. It is between open-mid and open in tongue height. The lips
are slightly rounded.
The lax high back vowel [ʊ] which is, for examples, found in put, pull, and
push is the nearest vowel to the cardinal vowel [u]. However, it can be seen
that [ʊ] is more open and nearer to the centre. The lips are rounded.
The last short vowel is the schwa [ə]. It is a central vowel that is a very
familiar sound in English. It can be found in the first syllable of the words
about, oppose, and perhaps.

When you are familiar with these vowels, you have learned a way of
describing, classifying, and comparing vowels. For example, we can say that
the English vowel [æ], as in cat, is not as open as cardinal vowel no. 7 [a].
We have now looked at how we can classify vowels according to their
tongue height and their frontness or backness. There is another important
variable of vowel quality, which is the lip-position. Although the lips can
have many different shapes and positions, we will, at this stage, consider
only three possibilities. These are:
i) Rounded, where the corners of the lips are brought towards each other and
the lips are pushed forward. This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel
no. 8 [u].
ii) Spread, with the corners of the lips moved away from each other, as for a
smile. This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel no. 1 [i].
iii) Neutral, where the lips are not noticeably rounded or spread. The noise
most English people make when they are hesitating (written 'er') has a
neutral lip position.
English Long Vowels
There are five long vowels in English. These are the vowels which
tend to be longer than the short vowels in similar contexts. It is necessary to
say "in similar contexts" because, as we shall see later, the length of all
English vowel sounds varies significantly according to their context (such as
the type of sound that follows them) and the presence or absence of stress.
To remind you that these vowels tend to be long, the symbols consist of one
vowel symbol plus a length mark made of two dots [:]. Thus, we have [ i:],
[ɜ:], [a:], [ɔ:], and [u:]. We will now look at each of these long vowels
individually.
i: u:
ɔ:
ɜ:
ɑ:
Figure 4.4: Long English vowels
The five long vowels are different from the six short vowels
described previously, not only in length but also in quality. If we compare
some similar pairs of long and short vowels, for example [i] with [i:], or [u]
with [u:], or [æ] with [ɔ:], we can see distinct differences in quality (resulting
from differences in tongue shape and position, as well as lip position) and
length. For this reason, all the long vowels have symbols which are different
from the short vowels. You can see that the long and short vowel symbols
would still all be different from each other even if we omitted the length
mark, so it is important to remember that the length mark is used not because
it is essential, but because it helps learners to remember the length
difference.

Exercises
1. Using the descriptive labels introduced for vowel classification, say what
the following cardinal vowels are:
a) [u] b) [e] c) [a] d) [i] e) [o]
2. Draw a vowel quadrilateral and indicate the correct places for the
following English vowels:
a) [ʌ] b) [æ] c) [i] d) [e]
3. Write the symbols for the vowels in the following words:

a) bread b) rough c) foot d) hymn
e) pull f) cough g) mat h) friend
4. Write the symbols for the long vowels in the following words:
a) broad d) learn g) err
b) ward e) cool h) seal
c) calf f) team i) curl
5. Write the symbols for the diphthongs in the following words:

a) tone d) way g) hair
b) style e) beer h) why
c) out f) coil i) prey
CHAPTER-5
ENGLISH PLOSIVES
Course Objectives:
1. understand the production of English plosives
2. listen to examples of words containing English plosives
3. practice pronouncing words containing English plosives
4. provide words containing English plosives in all positions and transcribe
them
English plosives are the types of consonants produced by forming a

complete obstruction to the flow of air out of the mouth, increasing the air
pressure in the mouth, and then suddenly releasing the pressure. Plosives are
also called stops because the air coming out of the mouth is stopped or
blocked briefly by the articulators. There are three types of English plosives:
the bilabial plosives [p] and [b], the alveolar plosives [t] and [d], and the
velar plosives [k] and [g].
A. The English Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b]

When producing the sound [p], the flow of air coming out of the lungs is
stopped or restricted by the two lips. The channel to the nasal cavity is closed
by the velum. Then, the pressure of air in the mouth is abruptly released. The
[p] sound is produced when the vocal folds do not vibrate. Thus, the sound
[p] is called a voiceless-bilabial-plosive/stop. The term „voiceless‟ refers to
the state of the vocal folds, „bilabial‟ indicates the point of articulation, and

„plosive/stop‟ shows the manner of articulation. The production of [p] is
shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: The production of [p]
In English, the voiceless-bilabial-stop [p] is distributed in all word

positions. It can be found in initial, middle, and final positions. The
following examples show us the distribution of sound [p] in words or
syllables:
pick captain stop

put option lamp
pull spilt keep
paint spell map
pack space nap
In English, the phoneme /p/ can be pronounced differently depending on
the distribution of the sound. Let‟s take a look at the following diagram.
/p/
[ph] [p]
The voiceless-bilabial-plosive is aspirated in the initial position of a syllable
or when it is in the stressed position. Aspiration is defined as an interval of
air heard between the end of the voiceless plosive and the following vowel.
The symbol used to show that there is an aspiration is [ h]. Aspirated [ph] can
be found, for instance, in the words pick, put, pull, pack, and pen: [phɪk],
[phʊt], [phʊl], [phæk], and [p hɛn]. However, when /p/ does not occur at the
beginning of a syllable or is found in an unstressed syllable, then /p/ is
unaspirated. The unaspirated [p] can be found in space, option, spill, spell,
lamp, and keep: [speɪs], [ɒpʃən], [spɪl], [spɛl], [læmp], and [ki:p]. So, we can
say that the relationship between [ph] and [p] is an allophonic relationship.
The next bilabial plosive is [b]. In order to produce [b], the two lips
form a complete obstruction to the flow of air. The air pressure increases in
the mouth, and then the air is abruptly let out. It is almost the same as the
production of [p]. The only difference is the state of the vocal folds. When
producing [p], the vocal folds do not vibrate, whereas the production of [b]
requires the vocal folds to vibrate. Therefore, sound [b] is called a voiced-
bilabial-plosive/stop. The production of [b] can be seen in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: The production of /b/
The voiced-bilabial-stop [b] is distributed in all word positions. It can

also be found in initial, middle, and final positions of words and syllables.
The following words show the distribution of sound [b] in words or
syllables:
bank abroad grab

break about snob
born label flab
bad abuse rib
block table garb
The phoneme /b/ is also pronounced differently. The phoneme /b/ can be
pronounced [b] as in break, born, bad, label, abuse, and abroad: [breɪk],
[bɔːn], [bɛd], [leɪbəl], [əˈbyuz], and [əˈbrɔːd]. However, it can be devoiced
when it is in the final position and followed by silence, for instance, at the
end of an utterance. That is, the [b] sound loses its voiced characteristic. The
symbol used to show devoiced [b] is [ ]. The phonetic transcription for
devoicing is a small circle below the relevant symbol. The allophonic
relationship between [b] and [ ] can be seen in the following diagram:
/b/
[b] [ ]
Devoicing bilabial stop [b] can be found, for example, in phrases like the lab,
a big crab, and clerical garb: [ðə; læ ], [ə bɪg kræ ], and [klɛrɪkəl gɑr ].
B. The English Plosives [t] and [d]
The production of sound [t] involves the tip of the tongue touching the
alveolar ridge, which is the ridge just behind the upper front teeth. Thus, the
air that comes out from the lungs is completely blocked by the tip of the
tongue, which is in tight contact with the alveolar ridge. At the same time,
the velum closes the passage to the nasal cavity, stopping the air flowing
through the nose. When sound [t] is produced, the vocal folds vibrate. The
name of sound [t] is a voiceless-alveolar-plosive/stop. The production of [t]
can be seen in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3: The production of /t/
The voiceless-alveolar-stop [t] in English can be found in all word

positions. It is distributed in the initial, middle, and final position of words
and syllables. The following set of words show the distribution of [t].
take potato put

taxi attack hat
tool dirty bet
ticket button thought
total disturb beat
The phoneme /t/ can also be pronounced differently, depending on its

position in the syllables. Phoneme /t/, for instance, can be pronounced as [t]
or [th]. The allophonic relationship can be shown by the following diagram:
/t/
[th] [t]
Similar to /p/, phoneme /t/ will be aspirated, or pronounced [th], when it is in

the initial position of a syllable or in the stressed position. The aspiration is
found in words such as take, taxi, tool, tap, top, and potato: [theɪk], [thæksɪ],
[thu:l], [thæp], [thɒp], and [pəˈtheɪtəʊ] However, when /t/ does not occur at
the beginning of a syllable or is found in an unstressed syllable, then the /t/ is
unaspirated. The unaspirated [t] can be found in party, dirty, button, and
distance: [pɑːtɪ], [dɜːtɪ], [bʌtən], [dɪstəns], and [ɛntə].
The other alveolar stop is [d]. The production of sound [d] is almost the
same as the production of sound [t]. The only difference is the state of the
vocal folds. In order to produce the [d] sound, the vocal folds need to vibrate.
Hence, sound [d] is called a voiced-alveolar-stop. The production of sound
[d] can be seen in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: The production of /d/

The voiced-alveolar-stop [d] is distributed in all word positions. In
English, it can be found in the initial, middle, and final positions, as can be
seen in the following set of words:
dumb redo dead

done body bride
die educate gold
dust lady guide
dinner undo lid
Phoneme /d/ is also pronounced differently. It can be devoiced [ ] when

it is in final position and followed by silence, as in the end of an utterance.
Therefore, [d] and [ ] are said to have an allophonic relationship.
/d/
[d] [ ]
Phoneme /d/ pronounced as [d] can be found in the words dog, dark,
diagram, double, and pardon; [dɒɡ], [dɑːk], [daɪəɡræm], [ˈdʌbəl], and
[pɑrdn]. In the following phrases, /d/ is pronounced as [
so good [səʊ gʊ ]
some food [sʌm fu: ]
red blood [rɛd blʌ ]
C. The English Plosives [k] and [g]
In producing [k], the air that comes out from the lungs is completely
blocked by the back part of the tongue touching the velum. At the same time,
the velum closes the passage through to the nasal cavity, preventing the air
from flowing through the nose. Then, the air is abruptly released. When
sound [k] is produced, the vocal folds do not vibrate. Therefore, the name of
sound [k] is a voiceless-velar-plosive/stop. The production of sound [k] is
shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: The production of /k/

The voiceless-velar-stop [k] can be found in all word positions. It may
occur in the initial, middle, and final positions. The distribution of [k] can be
seen in the following list of words:
keep locker like
kind taken click
king parking tank
key circle pick
karate calculate prank
Like /p/ and /t/, in English, phoneme /k/ can also be pronounced
differently. It becomes aspirated [kh] when it is at the beginning of a syllable
or in the stressed position.
/k /
[kh] [k]
For example, aspirated [kh] is found in keep, kind, king, key, and karate:
[khi:p], [khaɪnd], [khɪŋ], [khi:], and [khəˈrɑːtɪ], while unaspirated [k] can be
seen in locker, taken, parking, and circle: [lɒkə], [teɪkən], [pɑːkɪŋ], and
[sɜːkəl]. We can say that [k] and [kh] have an allophonic relationship.
The other velar stop is [g]. The production of sound [g] is the same as
the production of [k], where the back part of the tongue touches the velum
and the velum blocks the channel through the nasal cavity. However, while
in the production of [k] the vocal folds do not vibrate, in producing sound
[g], the vocal folds have to vibrate. Hence, sound [g] is called a voiced-velar-
plosive/stop. The production of [g] can be seen in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6: The production of /g/
The voiced-velar-stop [g] exists in all word positions. It can be found in

the initial, middle, and final positions, as can be seen in the following
examples:
good logo flog
grab struggle slug
great degree wag
gap regular egg
guest login flag
Phoneme /g/ can also be pronounced differently when /g/ occurs in the
final position and is followed by silence. In this case, when the sound exists
at the end of an utterance, then /g/ is devoiced. Therefore /g/ can be
pronounced as [g] or [ ]. In this case, devoicing is indicated in a phonetic
transcription by a small circle above the relevant symbol:

/g/
[ g] [ ]
Phoneme /g/ is pronounced as [g] can be found in goat, gone and begin.
It is pronounced as [ and can be seen in the following phrases:
My dog [maɪ dɒ ]
The red bag [ðə rɛd bæ ]
A big bug [ə bɪg bʌ ]
Exercise
1) Please check the place of articulation of the consonants in the following
sets of words. You are going to circle the words which do not have a
consonant with the place of articulation for that set:
bilabial Purple Comb crack beyond lid

alveolar thumb distance turtle breath yawn
velar Grab Book leader crab walk
2) Write the phonetic symbols for the following words:

a. pan
b. pot
c. bread
d. grab
e. pancake
f. try
g. dragon
h. pick
i. dirty
j. can
3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each
picture:
a.
b.

c.
4) Give examples of words containing the following sounds:
a. Voiceless bilabial stop

b. Voiced bilabial stop
c. Voiceless alveolar stop
d. Voiced alveolar stop
e. Voiceless velar stop
f. Voiced velar stop
CHAPTER-6
ENGLISH FRICATIVES
Course Objectives:
1. understand the production of English fricatives
2. listen to examples of words containing English fricatives
3. practice pronouncing words containing English fricatives
4. provide words containing English fricatives in all positions and
transcribe them
A. The English Fricatives /f/ and /v/

The sound [f] is produced by impeding the flow of air, where the lower
lip is elevated to touch the upper teeth so that a friction sound is produced. In
other words, we create friction by raising the lower lip when it touches the
upper teeth. At the same time, the velum closes the nasal cavity in order to
prevent the flow of air going through the nose. When the sound [f] is
produced, the vocal folds do not vibrate. So, the sound [f] is called a
voiceless-labiodental-fricative. The production of [f] can be seen in Figure
6.1.

Figure 6.1: The production of /f/
The voiceless-labiodental-fricative can be found in all positions, such as

in the initial, middle, and final positions. Below are some examples of words
containing the fricative [f] sound:
fast refuse reef

fit prefer belief
phone reform deaf
photograph define enough
food perform rough
The voiceless-labiodental fricative has no allophones. Orthographically,

the [f] sound can be spelled in three different ways: 1) „f‟, as in the words
fast and fit, 2) „ph‟, as in the words phone and photograph, and 3) „gh‟, as in
the words enough and rough.
Next, we are going to discuss the fricative [v]. This fricative consonant
is called the voiced-labiodental-fricative. In order to produce [v], the lower
lip also touches the upper lip and creates friction when the pressure of
airflow is released through the narrow space between the lower lip and the
upper teeth. It is a voiced sound because the vocal folds vibrate. The
production of [v] can be seen in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: The production of /v/
The voiced-labiodental-fricative is found in all positions, such as in

the initial, middle, and final positions, as can be observed in the following
words:
vain never receive

vague favourite love
valid lover of
verbal favour save
velar nervous grave

The sound [v] can be spelled with the letter „v‟, as in vain and vas, or
sometimes with the letter „f‟, as in the word of.
B. The English Fricatives /θ/ and /ð/
In order to produce /θ/, we need to create friction between the tip of the
tongue and the upper teeth. In this sense, the friction is caused by the
pressure of the air going through the narrow space in the mouth, in this case,
between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. To produce the sound, you
need to stick out the tip of the tongue and placed it between the upper and the
lower teeth. It is a voiceless sound because, in producing /θ/, the vocal folds
do not vibrate. Therefore, the sound / θ / is called the voiceless-dental-

fricative. The production of / θ / can be seen in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: The production of /θ/
The voiceless-dental-fricative can be found in all positions. Here are
some words were the sound can be placed in initial, middle, or final position:
thought author width
three ethyl breath
threat python birth
thirsty either with
thump wealthy bath
The sound /θ/ is usually spelled with the letters „th‟, as in the words thought,
three, and threat.
The other dental fricative sound is /ð/. This consonant is called the
voiced-dental-fricative. In order to produce /ð/, we also need to create
friction between the tongue and the upper teeth. The friction is created
through the release of the pressure of air through the narrow space between
the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. In order to produce the sound, you
also need to stick the tip of the tongue out and place it between the upper and
lower teeth. It is a voiced sound since it requires you to vibrate the vocal
folds. The production of sound /ð/ can be seen in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: The production of / ð/
The voiced-dental-fricative can be found in initial, middle, and final

positions, as shown by the following list of words:
though brother breathe

thus neither bathe
this either clothe
their leather with
the weather booth
The sound /ð/ is spelled with the letters „th‟, as in though, thus, the, booth,
with, weather, and either.
C. The English Fricatives /s/ and /z/
In order to produce the /s/ sound, we need to raise the blade of the
tongue to touch the alveolar ridge. The stream of air is impeded and let out
through the sides of the tongue. The velum closes the nasal cavity,
preventing the air coming through that channel. To produce the sound, we do
not need to vibrate the vocal folds. Therefore, the /s/ sound is voiceless. The
/s/ sound is called the voiceless-alveolar-fricative. The production of /s/ can
be seen in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: The production of /s/

The voiceless-alveolar fricative can be found in initial, middle, and final
positions, as shown by the following list of words:
sand sensitive science

sold lesson boss
soon absolute relax
scene tasty sentence
section mason release
The sound /s/ is usually spelled with the letter „s‟, as in sand, sold, soon, and
section. However, sometimes, it can also be spelled using the letter „c‟, as in
cinema and city.
The other alveolar fricative is the sound /z/. The production of the /z/
sound is the same as the production of /s/, i.e. by touching the alveolar ridge
with the blade of the tongue and letting the air out through the sides of the
tongue. In order to produce /z/, we need to vibrate the vocal folds. Hence, the
/z/ sound is called the voiced-alveolar-fricative. The production of /z/ can be
seen in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: The production of /z/
The voiced-alveolar-fricative can be found in all positions. It may occur
in the beginning, middle, and final positions. The following are examples of
words where the /z/ sound occurs:
zoo dazzle size

zero puzzle tease
zing teaser wise
zip deposit shoes
zest buzzer wiz
The sound /z/ is usually spelled with the letter „z‟, as in zoo, zero, zip,
buzzer, and puzzle. However, it is also sometimes spelled with the letters
„se‟, as in wise, these, and because.
D. The English Fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/

In producing the /ʃ/ sound, we need to create friction by allowing the
front part of the tongue touch the alveopalatal area and letting the airstream
out through the sides of the tongue. The velum closes the nasal cavity. The
vocal folds have to vibrate. The name of sound /ʃ/ is a voiceless-alveopalatal-
fricative, the production of which can be seen in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7: The production of /ʃ/
The voiceless-alveopalatal-fricative /ʃ/ can occur in the initial, middle,

and final positions, as shown by the following list of words:
shell rashes rush

she pressure blush
shy recognition wish
shack tension wash
ship tertiary fish
The sound /ʃ/ is usually spelled with the letters „sh‟, as in shell, she, shy,
and ship. It can also be spelled with the letters „ti‟, as in nation and mention.
It is also sometimes spelled with the letters „ci‟, as in official and special.
The other alveopalatal fricative is the sound /ʒ/. The production of /ʒ/is
the same as the production of / ʃ/, i.e. by creating friction in which the
airstream is let out through the sides of the tongue while the front part of the
tongue touches the alveopalatal area. To produce the sound, we need to
vibrate the vocal folds. Thus, sound /ʒ/ is called a voiced-alveopalatal
fricative, the production of which can be seen in Figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8: The production of /ʒ/
The voiced-alveopalatal-fricative is usually found in the middle and

final positions, as shown in the following examples:
- measure beige
- eligible rouge
- vision
- visual
- closure

The sound /ʒ/ is usually spelled with the letters „su‟, as in the words
measure, visual, and closure. However, it can also be spelled with the letters
„si‟, as in the words vision and version.
E. The English Fricatives /h/

Sound /h/ is called the voiceless-glottal-fricative. It is produced by
letting the airstream freely pass the vocals folds to come out through the
mouth, but the vocal folds do not vibrate. The /h/ sound does not require the
mouth to have any specific shape. The production of /h/ can be seen in
Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9: The production of /h/
The voiceless-glottal-fricative sound /h/ is usually found in the initial
and middle positions.
hall ahead
high yahoo
hot behind
hat dishearten
hard dehydrate
The sound/h/ is usually spelled with the letter „h‟, as in the words hall,
hat, hard, ahead, and behind. However, it is also spelled with the letter „wh‟,
as in who and whom.
Exercise
labiodental fan vase pencil fried behave

dental brother zoo think cloth bath
alveolar sun zombie zero then salad
alveopalatal shampoo bush brush she horse
glottal shall house ham hand half

a. happy
b. think
c. path
d. thin
e. this

f. leather
g. exposure
h. usual
i. push
j. has
3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each picture:
a.
b.
c.
4) Name the following sounds_

a. [s]
b. [z]
c. [θ]
d. [ð]
e. [ʃ]
f. [ʒ]
g. [f]
h. [v]
i. [h]

CHAPTER-7
ENGLISH AFFRICATES AND
ENGLISH NASALS
Course Objectives:
1. understand the production of English affricates
2. listen to examples of words containing English affricates
3. practice pronouncing words containing English affricates
4. provide words containing English affricates in all positions and
transcribe them
5. understand the production of English nasals
6. listen to examples of words containing English nasals
7. practice pronouncing words containing English nasals
8. provide words containing English nasals in all positions and transcribe
them
A. The English Affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/
The / ʧ / sound is called the voiceless-palatoalveolar-affricate. It is a

voiceless sound because, when we are producing the sound, the vocal folds
do not vibrate. The sound is produced by allowing the blade of the tongue to
touch the soft palate. It is an affricate sound since we create friction by, at
first, blocking the airstream through using the blade of the tongue to touch
the soft palate, and then the air pressure forces the blade of the tongue down

so that the air is allowed to go through a narrow space. The production of / ʧ
/ can be seen in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: The production of /ʧ/
The voiceless alveopalatal affricate can be found in the initial, middle,

and final positions, as shown in the following examples:
chill kitchen teach

chat etcher pitch
chain picture switch
check mature watch
chip culture speech
The sound / ʧ / is usually spelled with the letters „ch‟, as in the words chill,
chat, check, and teach. However, it can also be spelled using the letters „tu‟,
as in the words picture, expenditure, and mature.
The other alveopalatal affricate is the sound /ʤ/. The production of
/ʤ/ is almost the same as the production of / ʧ /, i.e. by creating friction by at
first closing the flow of the air by using the blade of the tongue to touch the
soft palate, and then, as the air pressure forces the blade of the tongue down,
the air is let go through a narrow space. The sound /ʤ/ is voiced since we
need to vibrate the vocal folds when we are producing it. Therefore, sound
/ʤ/ is called a voiced-alveopalatal-affricate, the production of which can be
seen in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: The production of /ʤ/
The voiced alveopalatal affricate can be found in all positions. It can be

placed at the beginning, middle, or final position in words, as can be seen in
the following list of examples:
jeans surgeon large
gender bludgeon wage
giant edger lodge

jib urgent garbage
jam emergency age
The sound /ʤ/ is usually spelled with the letter „j‟, as in jeans, jam, and
John. However, we can also find this sound spelled with the letters „ge‟, as in
the words gender, surgeon, and urgent. Occasionally, we also find the sound
/ʤ/ with the spelling „gi‟, as in the words giant and giraffe.
B. The English nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/
In producing the /m/ sound, we bring the two lips in contact with one
another and then let the air come out through the nose. The two lips are
blocking the air so that it does not come out through the mouth; it goes
through the nose instead, since the nasal cavity is open. The /m/ sound is
called the bilabial nasal. In order to be able to produce the /m/ sound, the
vocal folds need to vibrate. The production of the /m/ sound can be seen in
Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: The production of nasal

/m/
The bilabial nasal /m/ can be found in all positions; at the beginning,
middle, or final position. Let‟s take a look at the following words:
make moment time

mix summer name
man dummy damn
mind remove dream
money amount broom
The /m/ sound is usually spelled with the letter „m‟, as in make, month, mind,
money, and dream. It can also be spelled with the letters „mm‟, as in the
words common and summer. It is also sometimes spelled with the letters
„me‟, as in come, name, and time.
The second nasal sound found in English is the sound /n/, produced by
blocking the air with the tip of the tongue, which is in contact with the
alveolar ridge. Therefore, the air is prevented from leaving from the mouth.
At the same time, the nasal cavity is open, so the air passes through the nasal
channel and goes out through the nose. In order to produce the /n/ sound, we
also need to vibrate our vocal folds. Therefore, the /n/ sound is called an
alveolar-nasal. The production of the /n/ sound can be seen in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: The production of nasal /n/
In English, the alveolar nasal /n/ occurs at the beginning, middle, or final
position, as can be seen in the following examples:
nothing sunny spoon

night renew then
nap phonology pen
naughty piano spin
neck phoneme soon
The /n/ sound is usually spelled with the letter „n‟, as found in need, nap,
neck, none, and into. Sometimes, it is also spelled with the letters „nn‟, as in
the words scanner, beginning, and planner.
The third nasal sound is the sound / ŋ /. In order to produce the / ŋ /

sound, we need to block the air by raising the back part of the tongue against
the velum so that the air does not go through the mouth. The channel to the
nasal cavity is open, so the air then goes through the nose. We need to
vibrate our vocal folds to produce the / ŋ / sound. Thus, it is called the velar-
nasal. The production of / ŋ / can be seen in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5: The production of nasal /ŋ/
In English, the velar nasal / ŋ / can only be found in the middle or final
position. It does not occur at the beginning of words.
- singer wing
- anger sing
- linguist young
- bank bring
- angle king

The velar nasal / ŋ / is mostly spelled with the letters „ng‟, as in singer,
bingo, and wing. However, it can also sometimes be spelled with the letter
„n‟, as in the words tank, bank, and blank.
Exercise

Bilabial gum let man moon room

alveolar rainbow green fish loan then
alveopalatal chain kitchen catch chocolate lead
Velar run king bank bring blank

a. speech
b. chalk
c. jet
d. gesture
e. women
f. pump
g. nose
h. pen
i. blink
j. ring
3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each picture:
a.
b.

c.
4) Give examples of words which contain the following sounds

a. Bilabial nasal
b. Alveolar nasal
c. Velar nasal
d. Voiceless alveopalatal affricate
e. Voiced alveopalatal affricate
CHAPTER-8
ENGLISH APPROXIMANTS &
LATERAL
Course Objectives:
1. understand the production of English approximants
2. listen to examples of words containing English approximants
3. practice pronouncing words containing English approximants
4. provide words containing English approximants in all positions and
transcribe them
A. The English Approximants /r/, /w/, and /y/
In order to produce the /r/ sound, we need to bring the tip of our tongue
near the alveolar ridge and let the air out. We need to curl the tip of the
tongue near the alveolar ridge and let the air come out through the narrow
space between the tip of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The tip of the
tongue does not touch the alveolar ridge. The velum closes the nasal cavity,
so the air will not come out through the nose. The /r/ sound is voiced, since
we need to vibrate the vocal folds when we produce it. The /r/ sound is called
the alveolar approximant, the production of which can be seen in Figure 8.1

Figure 8.1: The production of approximant /r /
The alveolar approximant /r/ can be found in the initial, middle, and
final position of words, as shown in the following examples:
rent berry deer

ran terror where
rip parent hear
round scary prefer
rub paradise pour
The /r/ sound is usually spelled with the letter „r‟, as in rent, run, round, and
rub. However, it can also be spelled with double „rr‟, as in berry and curry.
The second approximant is the sound /w/. It is called the bilabial
approximant. To produce /w/, we need to shape our lips in a round position,
and the tongue creates a narrow space from which the air comes out. In more
detail, we have to purse our lips and raise the back of our tongue a little, near
the roof of our mouth. The back of the tongue does not touch any of the
vocal apparatus. The nasal cavity is closed, so the air does not come out
through the nose. In order to produce the /w/ sound, the vocal folds are
required to vibrate. The production of /w/ can be seen in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: The production of glide /w/
The bilabial approximant /w/ can usually be found at the beginning and
in the middle positions in words. Phonetically, the sound /w/ does not occur
in the final position of words even though, orthographically, it is often found
at the end of words, as in the words cow, below, low, and slow. Let‟s take a
look at the following list of words:

will away -
want toward -
wood power -
when lower -
win coward -
The sound /w/ is usually spelled with the letter „w‟ or „wh‟, as in the words
will, wood, win, when, and where.
The third approximant is the sound /y/. In order to produce the /y/ sound,
we need to bring the front part of the tongue towards the hard palate. The
front part of the tongue should be touching the palate from the beginning,
and then let the air out and drop away the tongue from the palate. To produce
the /y/ sound, we have to vibrate our vocal folds. The /y/ sound is called the
palatal approximant. The production of /y/ can be seen in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: The production of glide /y/
The palatal approximant /y/ is usually found in the initial and middle
positions. Phonetically, it does not exist at the end of words even though,
orthographically, it can be found there.
yes beyond
you view
yak future
yowl computer
yen dew
The palatal approximant /y/ is usually spelled with the letter „y‟, as in the
words you, yes, yak, and yellow. However, it can also be spelled with the
letter „i‟, as in the word view. In addition, it can be spelled with the letter „u‟,
as in future, computer, unit, and beautiful.
B. The English Lateral /l/
In producing the /l/ sound, we need to raise the blade of the tongue so
that it touches the alveolar ridge, and then let the air out through the sides of
the tongue. In order to produce /l/, we need to vibrate the vocal folds. The /l/
sound is called the alveolar-palatal-approximant, the production of which can
be seen in Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4: The pro duction of lateral /l/
The lateral sound /l/ can be found in all positions, such is in the initial,
middle, and final positions of words.
lie filler will

love silly pull
laugh bellow mill
lip tailor full
lesson talent kill
It is usually spelled with the letter „l‟ or double „ll‟, as in the words love, like,
lesson, silly, full, and will.
Exercise
1) Write the phonetic symbols for the following words.
a. will
b. lower
c. below
d. yes
e. young
f. run
g. race
h. narrow
i. smell
2) Name the following sounds.

a. [w]
b. [y]
c. [r]
d. [l]
3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each picture.
a.

b.
c.
4) Give examples of words which contains the following sounds.

a. [w]
b. [y]
c. [r]
d. [l]
CHAPTER-9
SUPRASEGMENTAL SOUNDS,
STRESS, AND INTONATION
After learning the topic, the students are expected to be able to

1) practice different stress patterns
2) provide examples of stress patterns in simple and complex sentences
3) distinguish between the different intonation patterns of English
4) provide examples of different intonations in English
From the previous lesson, we concluded that a phoneme is the

smallest unit of sound that marks a difference in meaning in a language. We
have also defined the principles of contrast. A phoneme is always a unit of
sound in a particular language. For example, we can say that English has a
/p/ phoneme and Bahasa Indonesia also has a /p/ phoneme. However, the two
phonemes may be realised differently in the either language.
Many linguists agree on categorising phonemes into segmental and
suprasegmental phonemes. The segmental phonemes are the ones we have
already talked about, i.e. the consonant and vowel segments covered in
Chapters Three and Four. Linguists also identify suprasegmental phonemes
used in a language system. They are called suprasegmental because they can
only occur with segmental phonemes. This term has tended to be
predominantly used by American writers, and much British work has
preferred to use the term „prosodic‟ instead. There has never been full
agreement about how many suprasegmental features are to be found in
speech, but pitch, loudness, tempo, rhythm, and stress are the most

commonly mentioned. In this chapter, we will discuss two of them: stress
and intonation.
Stress
In all languages, some syllables are, in some sense, stronger than
others; these are the syllables that have the potential to be described as
stressed. It is also probably true that the difference between strong and weak
syllables is of some linguistic importance in every language, since strong and
weak syllables do not occur at random. However, languages differ in the
linguistic function of such differences. In English, for example, the position
of the stress can change the meaning of a word, as in the case of „import‟
(noun) and „import‟ (verb), and so forms part of the phonological
composition of the word.
Everyone would agree that the first syllable of words like 'father',
'open', and 'camera' is stressed, while the middle syllable is stressed in
'potato', 'apartment', and 'relation'. We will mark a stressed syllable in
transcription by placing a small vertical line (') high up, just before the
syllable it relates to; the words above will thus be marked as follows:
„father po‟tato
„open a‟partment
„camera re‟lation
As we can see, the stress on the words to the left is on the first syllable, while
on the words to the right it is on the second syllable.
Stress is defined as the degree of loudness given to some syllables in
relation to others. In terms of its linguistic function, stress is often treated
under two different headings: word stress and sentence stress.
There are two ways to characterise stressed syllables that enable us to
identify them. One is to consider what the speaker does in producing stressed
syllables, and the other is to consider what characteristics of sound make a
syllable seem stressed to a listener. In other words, we can study stress from
the points of view of production or perception (Roach, 2009, p. 85). The
production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using
more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. Many
experiments have been carried out on the perception of stress, and it is clear
that many different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable
recognisably stressed. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed
syllables have one characteristic in common, which is prominence. Stressed
syllables are recognised as stressed because they are more prominent than
unstressed syllables. What makes a syllable prominent? At least four
different factors are important:
i) Most people seem to feel that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed
syllables; in other words, loudness is a component of prominence.
ii) The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence. If
one of the syllables in our "nonsense word" ba:ba:ba:ba: is made longer than
the others, there is quite a strong tendency for that syllable to be heard as
stressed.
iii) Every voiced syllable is said at some pitch; pitch in speech is closely
related to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musical
notion of low- and high-pitched notes.
iv) A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different
in quality from neighbouring vowels. If we change one of the vowels in our
"nonsense word" (e.g. ba:bi:ba:ba:) the "odd" syllable bi: will tend to be
heard as stressed.

In many languages, including English, one or more of the syllables in
every content word (i.e., every word except for function words such as to,
the, a, and of) are stressed. A stressed syllable, which can be marked by an
acute accent (´), is perceived as more prominent than an unstressed syllable,
as shown in the following examples:
pérvert (noun) as in “My neighbour is a pervert.”
pervért (verb) as in “Don‟t pervert the idea.”
sú bject (noun) as in “Let‟s change the subject.”
subjéct (verb) as in “He‟ll subject us to criticism.”
These pairs show that stress can be contrastive in English. In these cases, the
stress distinguishes nouns from verbs.
Some words may contain more than one stressed vowel, but one of
the stressed vowels will be more prominent than the others. The vowel that
receives the primary stress is marked by an acute accent. The other stressed
vowels are indicated by a grave accent (` ) over the vowels (these vowels
receive secondary stress).
rè signá tion lì nguí stics s stəmá tic
fù ndamé ntal ì ntrodú ctory rè volú tion
Generally, speakers of a language know which syllables receive primary
stress, which ones receive secondary stress, and which ones are reduced (i.e.
unstressed). It is part of their implicit knowledge of the language. It is
usually easy to distinguish between stressed and reduced syllables because
the vowel in reduced syllables is pronounced as a schwa [ə], except at the
end of certain words, such as confetti or laboratory. However, it may be
more difficult to distinguish between primary and secondary stress. If you
are unsure about where the primary stress is in a word (and you are a native
or near-native speaker of English), try shouting the word as if talking to a
person across a busy street. Often, the difference in stress will become more
apparent.
The stress pattern of a word may differ among English-speaking
people. For example, in most varieties of American English, the word
láboratòry [lǽbərətʰɔri] has two stressed syllables, but, in most varieties of
British English, it only receives one stress [ləbɔrətri]. Because English
vowels are generally reduced to the schwa or deleted when they are not
stressed, British and American vowels differ in such words. In fact, in the
British version, the fourth vowel is deleted because it is not stressed.
Sentence and Phrase Stress

When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one syllable
receives greater stress than all the others. That is, just as there is only one
primary stress in a word spoken in isolation, only one of the vowels in a
phrase (or sentence) receives a primary stress or accent. All of the other
stressed vowels are reduced to secondary stress. In English, we place
primary stress on the adjectival part of a compound noun (which may be
written as one word, two words separated by a hyphen, or two separate
words), but we place the stress on the noun when the words make up a noun
phrase consisting of an adjective followed by a noun. The differences
between the following pairs are therefore predictable:
Compound Noun: Adjective + Noun

tíghtrope (a rope for acrobatics)
tight rope (a rope drawn taut)
Rédcoat (a British soldier)
red cóat (a coat that is red)
hótdog (a frankfurter)

hot dóg (an overheated dog)
Whíte House (the President‟s house in the USA)
white hóuse (a house painted white)
Say these examples out loud, speaking naturally, and, at the same time, listen
or feel the stress pattern. If English is not your native language, listen to a
native speaker say them.
These pairs show that stress may be predictable from the morphology
and syntax. In this sense, phonology interacts with the other components of
grammar. The stress differences between the noun and verb pairs discussed
in the previous section (e.g. subject as a noun or verb) are also predictable
from the syntactic word category.
Intonation
In English, intonation may reflect syntactic or semantic differences. If we

say:
John is going
with a falling pitch at the end, it is a statement; however, if the pitch rises at
the end, it may be interpreted as a question. Similarly:
What’s in the tea, honey?
may, depending on the intonation, be a query to someone called „honey‟
regarding the contents of the tea (with falling intonation on honey) or may be
a query regarding whether the tea contains honey (with rising intonation on
honey).
A sentence that is ambiguous in writing may be unambiguous when
spoken because of differences in pitch contours, as we saw in the previous
paragraph.
Here is a somewhat subtler example. Written, sentence 1 is unclear as to
whether Tristram intended for Isolde to read and follow directions or merely
to follow him:
1. Tristram left directions for Isolde to follow.

Spoken, if Tristram wanted Isolde to follow him, the sentence would be
pronounced with a rise in pitch on the first syllable of follow, followed by a
fall in pitch, as indicated (over simplistically) in sentence 2.

In this pronunciation of the sentence, the primary stress is on the word
follow.
If the meaning is to read and follow a set of directions, the highest
pitch would come on the second syllable of directions, as illustrated (again
over simplistically) in sentence 3.

The primary stress in this pronunciation of the sentence is on the word
directions.
Exercises
1) Mark the stress on the following verbs:
a. protect
b. bellow
c. clamber
d. menace
e. festoon
f. disconnect

g. detest
h. enter
2) Mark the stress on the following nouns:

a. language
b. event
c. captain
d. jonquil
e. career
f. injury
g. paper
h. connection
3) Put stress marks on the following words (try to put secondary stress marks
on the words as well):
a. shopkeeper
b. confirmation
c. open-ended
d. eight-sided
e. Javanese
f. fruitcake
g. birthmark
h. defective
i. anti-clockwise
j. roof timber
4) Write the words in 3) using phonemic transcription, including the
stress marks.
REFERENCES
Crane, L. (1981). an introduction to llingustics. Boston: Little Brown

Company.
Fromkin, V. R. (2010). An Introduction to Language. Wadsworth: Cengage

Learning.
Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. London:

Longman.
Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology, A Practical Course,

Fourth edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

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A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students

Book · January 2017

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A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students is a

Chapter One presents an overview of the fields of phonetics and phonology,

This book has been designed as a result of collaborative teamwork between

We would like to thank the DPRM Ministry of Research, Technology, and

9 Suprasegmental sounds; Stress

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 1

Figure 1.1 Analysing sounds using ELAN

3) Auditory phonetics: The study of speech perception, or the way sounds

Philip : What would you like to eat?

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 3

Sara : How old is Sofia?

c) Two friends met each other at the parking lot:

So, in order to avoid mispronunciation, which is also a way to avoid

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 5

“ Baby...bring the tip of the tounge between your

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 7

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 9

1. What is phonetics concerned with?

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 11

A. The Speech Organs

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 13

Right lung Left lung

Figure 2.1: The lungs

2. The Vocal Folds

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 15

Nearly touching Tighly closed

Figure 2.3: Vocal cords in open and closed positions

Figure 2.4: Human Speech Organs

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 17

Figure 2.5: Sub-divisions of the tongue

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 19

Figure 2.6: vowel lip postures

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 21

When we talk about consonant sounds, there are different methods of

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 23

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 25

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 27

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 29

Table 3.1: The English Consonants

2. Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 31

4. How can you differentiate between voiced and voiceless sounds?

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 33

While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 35

The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English (e.g. „high

Front Central Back

Figure 4. 2: The primary cardinal vowels

Table 4.1: List of the major vowels

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 37

English Short Vowels

Figure 4.3: English short vowels