Geology

• Literally means the study of the Earth and its:

– surface features,
– what causes earthquakes and tsunamis, and why volcanoes form
and erupt.
• About minerals, which form the building blocks of rocks,
and how rocks are made and destroyed.
• About Earth’s fascinating history, the variety of life forms
which have roamed the surface over the millennia, and
the dramatic changes that have happened over Earth’s
long history
• http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/geology.html
 Earth as a System
• December 1968: The first time people got a
glimpse of the whole Earth through Apollo 8
– (astronauts took pictures of the Earth as they traveled
to and from the Moon)
– The Earth looks like a small blue and white marble in a
sea of black space.
– from that far away, its easy to see all the Earth’s parts:
the living things, the air, the water, the ice, and
the rocks - are connected.
– Everything on Earth is in the same boat floating
through space - a system.
The Earth as viewed from the Moon during the Apollo 8
mission.
Earth System Science.
"From space we can view the Earth as a
whole system, observe the net results of
complex interactions, and begin to
understand how the planet is changing in
response to natural and human influences,"
NASA explained in a 2003 report.
Five parts of the Earth system:
• Each part has its own collection of materials and
processes but all interact with each other
• The atmosphere
• The biosphere
• The geosphere
• The cryosphere
• The Exosphere
 • The lowest part, extends
up from the Earth
• Is wheretoallseveral
surface the living
things,
hundredfrom single-celled
kilometers, is
Five parts of the Earth system: bacteria to plants
home to clouds andand
• includes all minerals,
animals
weather
rocks, molten rock,
• Each part has its own collection of materials and
issediments,
processes but all interact• withtheeach and
frozen soils
part
other of the
(although there are
Earth system and
important living
• The atmosphere • includes
The snow,
factors
components
and sealike
glaciers,
outside
to soils
ice the Sun and
the
as
planet,
well)
• The biosphere solar system, which have
an impact on the Earth
• The geosphere system

• The cryosphere
• The Exosphere
 Surface and Interior of Earth

• Earth, the largest and densest rocky planet, was formed

about 4.5 billion years ago.
– Four layers of Earth’s Interior:
 Surface and Interior of Earth

• Earth’s surface have many different types of features

– It is unique from the other planets because it is the only one
which has liquid water in such large quantities.
– Water forms some features of Earth's surface such as rivers,
oceans, beaches and lakes.
– Earth’s outer layer move slowly by plate tectonics forming
mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes
 Earth’s Layer and Moving Plates

• The main force that shapes Earth’s

surface over time: The movement of Earth's
outer layer by the process of plate tectonics.
– Movements deep within the Earth, which carry
heat from the hot interior to the cooler surface,
cause the plates to move very slowly on the
surface, about 2 inches per year.
A map of Earth's tectonic plates. Plate boundaries are shown in
red. Learn more about the geologic features related to Earth's
tectonic plates at This Dynamic Planet.
 What Is an Earthquake?

• "The ground seemed to twist under us like

a top while it jerked this way and that, and
up and down and every way,"
-written by a person describing the experience
of being in the large 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, CA.
 What Is an Earthquake?
• happens as large blocks of the Earth’s crust move
suddenly past one another because of the force
of plate tectonics.
• Blocks of the Earth’s crust meet at cracks called faults.
(Sometimes those pieces do not slide smoothly past one another. )
• There can be friction along the fault – jagged edges that snag
the blocks of rock – which makes it difficult for blocks to move
past each other. (Sometimes they get stuck together temporarily. When
the pieces of rock overcome the snags, energy is released.)
• The release of energy causes shaking at the ground surface.
• Focus: The location inside the Earth where
an earthquake begins
• Epicenter: The point at the Earth’s surface
directly above the focus
 The strongest shaking happens at the epicenter.
 Each year, more than a million earthquakes occur
worldwide.
 Most of these are so small that people do not feel the shaking.
 But some are large enough that people feel them, and a few of
those are so large that they cause significant damage.
This diagram shows an earthquake along a fault. The focus of
the earthquake is where the energy is released underground.
The epicenter is the spot on the Earth’s surface directly above
the focus.
USGS and NPS
Effects of Earthquakes
• damages to things like buildings, bridges, and roads.
• Can cause landslides and mudslides
• If a large earthquake happens under the ocean it can
cause a tsunami – a giant ocean wave or series of waves.
Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
• Scientists can figure out whether an
earthquake is likely to happen in a place by
studying plate tectonics, the
faults underground, and the history of the
area’s earthquakes.
• But earthquakes can not be forecast ahead
of time.
 What Is a Mineral?
• Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
• non-living, solids made of atoms of elements
• Two main ways minerals grow:
– atoms bond together into mineral crystals when
magma below Earth’s surface and lava above cools
– Dissolved elements in water crystallizes as water
evaporates away; the atoms get very close to each
other and may bond together to form solid minerals.
Amethyst crystals from Brazil

Crystals of the mineral Pyrite from Peru

 Types of Minerals
• To date, over 2000 minerals have been found, and
every year new ones are discovered; divided into
different groups based on their chemistry:
• Common Minerals on the Earth's crust:
• Silicate minerals: The most common mineral containing
silica and oxygen; form when molten rock cools, either
at or near the Earth's surface or deep underground.
• Non-silicate minerals: form when magma cools or
when water evaporates away leaving mineral crystals
behind, or when other minerals decompose.
 What's That Mineral?
• Spotting minerals is fun! There are many different types of minerals, each with a different name and a special set
of characteristics. So, if you find a mineral that you do not recognize, you can use the characteristics described
below with an mineral identification book to help you figure out what its name is!
• Shape
Different types of minerals have different shapes because of the special arrangement of atoms within them. Many
minerals have crystal shapes. There are six different groups of crystal shapes. Some minerals do not look like
crystals, either because the crystals are too small to see without a microscope or because they have been broken.
When a mineral forms, the crystals start out very small but, if there is room, they can grow to be very large. Often
there are so many crystals growing in the same little space that none have room to become large.
• Luster
Luster is the way light is reflected by the surface of a mineral. The shiny surface of metals is called metallic luster.
Other minerals have a glassy, pearly, or dull (earthy) luster.
• Color
Minerals can be very beautiful colors. However, if you are trying to identify a mineral, remember that the same
type of minerals can have different colors. For instance, the minerals quartz can be found in many colors including
pink, purple, white, or black.
• Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral when it is powdered and it is often different from the color of the whole mineral.
Minerals that come in different colors usually have the same color streak. To powder a little bit of a mineral, you
can rub it against a small white piece of porcelain called a streak plate. You can’t measure streak with every
mineral because some are too hard to powder against the streak plate.
• Hardness
The harder a mineral is, the less likely it is to be scratched. Check out Mohs hardness scale, which is used to
describe the hardness of minerals.
• Cleavage
Minerals that have cleavage will break in a certain direction where the bonds between atoms are not strong.
• Fracture
Minerals that do not have cleavage will fracture when they are broken. If the fracture has a smooth curved surface
it is called a conchoidal fracture, otherwise most minerals fracture irregularly.
These three crystals of the mineral quartz show how the same
type of mineral can have different colors! The pink sample is called
rose quartz and the dark sample is called smoky quartz. Notice how
these samples do not look like crystal shapes because they have
fractured.
 Rock and the Rock Cycle
• Rocks are always on the move through the rock cycle
• Types
– sedimentary rocks
– igneous rocks
– metamorphic rocks
• All rock (except for meteorites!) on Earth today is made of
the same stuff as the rocks that dinosaurs and other
ancient life forms walked, crawled or swam over.
• rocks are recycled into other rocks via the tectonic plates
Structural Geology
 What is structural geology
The study of the forms of the Earth’s crust and the
processes which have shaped it
• analysis of displacement and changes in shape of
rock bodies (strain)
• reconstruct stress that produced strain
 Structural Deformation

Rocks deform when

stresses placed upon
them exceed the rock
strength
• Brittle deformation (e.g.
fractures)
• ductile deformation (e.g.
folds)
 Driving Forces

• Plate tectonics – plate convergence and ridge spreading

• Deep burial of sediments
• Forceful intrusion of magma into the crust
• Meteorite impacts
 Evidence of Crustal Deformation

• Folding of strata
• Faulting of strata
• Tilting of strata
• Joints and fractures
 Evidence of Crustal Deformation

• Folding of strata
• Faulting of strata
• Tilting of strata
• Joints and fractures
 Evidence of Crustal Deformation

• Folding of strata
• Faulting of strata
• Tilting of strata
• Joints and fractures
 Evidence of Crustal Deformation

• Folding of strata
• Faulting of strata
• Tilting of strata
• Joints and fractures
 Applications of structural geology
• subsurface exploration for oil and gas
• mining exploration
• geotechnical investigations
• groundwater and environmental site
assessment
 Geological structures
• Geologic bed contacts
• Primary sedimentary structures
• Primary igneous structures
• Secondary structures
 Fundamental Structures

Three fundamental types of geologic structures:

• bed contacts
• primary structures - produced during deposition
or emplacement of rock body
• secondary structures - produced by deformation
and other process after rock is emplaced
 Bed Contacts

Boundaries which separate one rock unit from

another
• two types:
1. Normal conformable contacts
2. Unconformable contacts (‘unconformities’)
 Conformable Bed Contacts

Horizontal contact between rock units with no

break in deposition or erosional gaps
• no significant gaps in geologic time

Book Cliffs,
central Utah
 Unconformable Contacts

Erosion surfaces representing a significant break

in deposition (and geologic time)
• angular unconformity
• disconformity
• non-conformity
 Angular Unconformity

Bedding contact which discordantly cuts across

older strata
• discordance means strata are at an angle to each other
• commonly contact is erosion surface
Formation of an angular unconformity
 Disconformity
Erosional gap between rock units without
angular discordance
• example: fluvial channel cutting into
underlying sequence of horizontally
bedded deposits
 Nonconformity

Sedimentary strata overlying igneous or metamorphic rocks

across a sharp contact
• example: Precambrian-Paleozoic contact in Ontario
represents a erosional hiatus of about 500 ma

Grand Canyon, USA

 Structural Relations

The structural relations between bed contacts

are important in determining:
1. presence of tectonic deformation/uplift and;
2. relative ages of rock units
• principle of original horizontality
• principle of cross-cutting
• principle of inclusion
 Principle of Original Horizontality

Sedimentary rocks are deposited as essentially horizontal layers

• exception is cross-bedding (e.g. delta foresets)
• dipping sedimentary strata implies tectonic uplift and tilting or folding
of strata
 Principle of Cross-cutting

Igneous intrusions and faults are younger than

the rocks that they cross-cut

Mafic dike cutting across older sandstones

 Cross-cutting Relations

Often several cross-cutting relationships are

present
• how many events in this outcrop?
 Principle of Inclusion

Fragments of a rock included within a host rock

are always older than the host
 Fundamental Structures

Three fundamental types of structures:

• bed contacts
• primary structures
• secondary structures
 Primary Sedimentary Structures

Structures acquired during deposition of sedimentary

rock unit

Stratification - horizontal bedding is most common

structure in sedimentary rocks
Primary Sedimentary Structures

Cross-bedding - inclined stratification recording

migration of sand ripples or dunes
 Primary Sedimentary Structures

Ripples - undulating bedforms produced by

unidirectional or oscillating (wave) currents
Ripple marks
 Primary Sedimentary Structures
Graded bedding - progressive decrease in grain size
upward in bed
• indicator of upwards direction in deposit
• common feature of turbidites
 Primary Sedimentary Structures
Mud cracks - cracks produced by dessication of
clays/silts during subaerial exposure
 Primary Sedimentary Structures
Sole marks - erosional grooves and marks formed by
scouring of bed by unidirectional flows
• good indicators of current flow direction
 Primary Sedimentary Structures
Fossils – preserved remains of organisms, casts or moulds
• good strain indicators
• determine strain from change in shape of fossil
• relative change in length of lines/angle between lines
 Primary Igneous Structures
Flow stratification
• layering in volcanic rocks produced by
emplacement of successive lava sheets
• stratification of ash (tephra) layers
 Primary Igneous Structures
Flow stratification
• layering in volcanic rocks produced by
emplacement of successive lava sheets
• stratification of ash (tephra) layers
 Primary Igneous Structures

Pillow lavas - record extrusion and quenching of

lava on sea floor
 Importance of Primary Structures
1. Paleocurrents - determine paleoflow directions
2. Origin – mode of deposition, environments
3. Way-up - useful indicators of the direction of younger beds in
stratigraphic sequence
4. Dating - allow relative ages of rocks to be
determined based on position, cross-cutting
relations and inclusions
5. Strain indicators - deformation of primary
structures allows estimates of rock strain
 Secondary Structures
Secondary structures - deformation structures
produced by tectonic forces and other stresses in crust
Principle types:
• fractures/joints
• faults/shear zones
• folds
• cleavage/foliation/lineation
 Fractures and Joints
Fractures – surfaces along which rocks have
broken and lost cohesion
Joints - fractures with little or no displacement
parallel to failure surface

• indicate brittle deformation of rock

Fractures and Joints
 Faults

Faults - fracture surfaces with appreciable

displacement of strata
• single fault plane
• fault zone - set of associated shear fractures
• shear zone - zone of ductile shearing
 Shear Zones

Shear zone - zone of deformed rocks that are more

highly strained than surrounding rocks
• common in mid- to lower levels of crust
• shear deformation can be brittle or ductile
 Fault Terminology
Hanging wall block- fault block toward which the fault
dips
Footwall block - fault block on underside of fault
Fault plane – fault surface
 Fault Slip
Slip is the fault displacement described by:
• direction of slip
• sense of slip
• magnitude of slip
 Fault Types
Dip-slip faults - slip is parallel to the fault dip
direction
normal
reverse
thrust
 Fault Types
Normal fault - footwall block dispaced up
 Fault Types
Reverse (thrust) fault - footwall block displaced
down
 Fault Types

Strike-slip – fault slip is horizontal, parallel with

strike of the fault plane
• right-handed (dextral)
• left-handed (sinistral)
 Fault Types
Oblique slip – Combination of dip- and strike-
slip motion
• dextral-normal
• dextral-reverse
• sinistral-normal
• sinistral-reverse
 Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
 Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
 Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
 Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
 Folds
Folds – warping of strata produced by
compressive deformation
• range in scale from microscopic features to
regional-scale domes and basins
• indicators of compression and shortening
 Fold Terminology
Hinge (Axial) plane - imaginary plane bisecting fold limbs
Hinge line - trace of axial plane on fold crest
Plunge - angle of dip of hinge line
horizontal fold axis
plunging
fold axis
 Fold Terminology

Anticline - convex in direction of youngest beds

Syncline - convex in direction of oldest beds
Antiform - convex upward fold (stratigraphy
unknown)
Synform - concave upward fold
Anticline / Antiform?
 Syncline
Synform?
 Fold Terminology
Synformal Anticline - overturned anticline
Antiformal Syncline - overturned syncline
 Fold Terminology
Monocline - step-like bend in strata
 Foliation and Cleavage
Foliation - parallel alignment of planar fabric elements within a rock
Cleavage - tendency of rock to break along planar surface cleavage is a
type of foliation
• resemble fractures but are not physical discontinuities
 Foliation and Cleavage
Foliation - parallel alignment of planar fabric elements within a rock
Cleavage - tendency of rock to break along planar surface cleavage is a
type of foliation
• resemble fractures but are not physical discontinuities
 Lineations
Lineation - sub-parallel to parallel alignment of elongate linear
fabric elements in a rock body
• e.g. slickenlines and grooves on fault plane surface
 Structural analysis
Involves three steps
1. Descriptive or geometric analysis
2. Kinematic analysis
3. Dynamic analysis
 Geometrical analysis
Measurement of the 3-dimentional orientation
and geometry of geological structures

simplified into:

• lines
• planes
lines or linear geological structures

• liniation
– any linear feature observed in a rock or on a
rock surface
– any imaginary line – such as a fold axis
 Orientation of linear structures
LINES
Trend – azimuth direction measured clockwise from north
360°
Plunge – angle of inclination of line measured from the
horizontal (0 - 90°)
 Examples of linear structures

• Primary – flute casts, grooves, glacial striae

• Secondary – slickenlines, mineral lineations

Glacial striations on bedrock sole marks

 Examples of linear structures

• Primary – flute casts, grooves, glacial striae

• Secondary – slickenlines, mineral lineations

Grooves on fault plane Slickenlines on fault surface

 Orientation of Linear Structures
linear structures on an other planar surface:
• pitch angle
– angle from horizontal measured within the plane

Pitch
Striations angle
on a fault
plane
 Planar Geological Structures
• bedding planes and contacts
• foliation
• joint surfaces
• fault planes
• fold limbs
• fold axial planes (imaginary surface)
 Examples of Planar Structures
Bedding planes – most common
• primary depositional surface
• erosional surface

inclined bedding plane

 Examples of Planar Structures
Foliation – cleavage planes produced by
metamorphism
• common in slates and phyllites

foliated phyllite
 Examples of Planar Structures
Joint planes – planar fracture surfaces caused by
brittle failure
 Examples of Planar Structures
Fold axial plane - imaginary plane bisecting
limbs of fold
 Orientation of Planar Structures
The attitude of a plane can be established from
any two lines contained in the plane, provided
they are not parallel
 Orientation of Planar Structures
Strike – azimuth direction of a horizontal line in
a plane
Dip – angle of inclination of line measured from the
horizontal (0 - 90°)
 Orientation of Planar Structures

Appearent dip
– dip measured along a
line other than 90 to
strike
– apparent dip will
always be less than
the true dip angle
 Measurement of orientation
Strike (plane)
Trend (line)
azimuth orientation measured with a compass
 Measurement of orientation

Strike (plane)
Trend (line)
azimuth orientation measured
with a compass

Dip (plane)
Plunge (line)
inclination measured using an
inclinometer
 Measurement of Strike Direction
Right hand rule???
When your thumb (on your right hand) is
pointing in the direction of strike your fingers
are pointing in the direction of dip!!
 Measure of Dip Angle
The angle between the horizontal and the line
or plane
 Structural Data
Symbols represent different structural data
Symbols are placed on the map:
– in the exact field orientation
– where the data is measured
Standard Structural Symboles
 Exercises
• geological maps
• structure contour and structure maps
• three-point problems
• cross sections
• sterionets
 Geological Maps
• distribution of rock types and contacts
– symbols on map represent structures
(strike and dip, fold axes, faults etc.)
– map and structure symbols allow you to infer
subsurface structures
 Outcrop patterns
Outcrop patterns controlled by attitude (strike
and dip) of beds and topographic relief
 “V” Rule

• Beds dipping downstream “V” –downstream

• Beds dipping upstream “V” – upstream
 Vertical beds cut straight
Vertical oriented beds cut in a straight line
regardless of topography!!
 Horizontal beds
• layers always at the same altitude – do NOT
dip in any direction
– layered cake
 Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
 Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
 Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
 Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
 Block models
Relations between outcrop patterns and
subsurface structures

map view on bottom – cross sections in blocks on top

Bryce 3-D modeling blocks
 Structural Contour Maps
Map showing the relief of a subsurface
geological surface
– top or bottom of bedding planes, faults or folded
surface
– constructed from borehole data
 Structure Contour Maps

Structure contour lines are lines of equal elevation

• show elevation relative to horizontal datum
• values are often negative since subsurface elevations are
commonly below sea level
 Datum Surface
Datum is a horizontal reference surface
• regional stratigraphic surface
 Constructing Structural Contours
Points of equal elevation along a bed contact
• intersection of contact with topo contour
• draw structure contours through points of equal elevation
 Planar surfaces
Uniformly dipping plane – contours are parallel
 folded planar surfaces
Contours have variable spacing
 Rules of Contouring
1) contours cannot cross or bi-furcate
2) contours cannot end in the middle of the map,
except at a fault or other discontinuity
3) same contour interval must be used across the map
and elevations must be labelled
4) elevation is specified relative to datum (e.g. m above
sea level)
 Determining Dip

Dip direction and angle can be determined from structure conour maps
• measure horizontal separation X and find difference in Z
• tan  = Z/X,  = tan –1 (Z/X)
• e.g.  = tan –1 (10m/100m),  = 6°
 Three-point problem
A minimum of three points are required to
uniquely define the orientation of a plane
 Three-point problem

• Find min and max values

• Draw line between these
and divide distance into
intervals
• Connect points of equal
elevation
• Two points in a plane at
the same elevation lie in
the line of strike
 Three-point problem

• Find min and max values

• Draw line between these
and divide distance into
intervals
• Connect points of equal
elevation
• Two points in a plane at
the same elevation lie in
the line of strike
 Isochore Map

Drill hole logs giving the thicknesses in the drilled (often vertical)
direction
Apparent thickness – true thickness = perpendicular to bedding
 Isopach Map
Map showing “true” thickness measured
perpendicular to bedding
 Cross-sections

Cross-section is a 2-D slice through

stratigraphy
• construct perpendicular to dip =
true dip
• constructed at any other direction =
apparent dip
 Engineering properties of faulted
or folded rock
• shear strength
– loose materials
– compressive materials
– permeable materials
 hydrology of fault zones
• water in fault zones common due to fractured rock
– fault zone may be either an aquifer or an aquiclude
• crushed to gravel
• crushed to clay
 hydrology of fault zones
• water in fault zones common due to fractured rock
– fault zone may be either an aquifer or an aquiclude
• crushed to gravel
• crushed to clay
 Problems due to water in fault
zones
• leakage of waste water under a landfill
• leakage of water under a dam
• sudden collapse and inflow of water into a tunnel
• hydrothermal alteration of rocks to clay minerals
along faults – variable physical, mechanical and
hydrological properties
• soluble rocks - cavities
 Activity of faults?
• Risk for further movement
– active fault – has moved in the last 100 000 to 35 000 years
– dormant fault – no recorded movement in recent history
 Indicators of fault movement
• fault scarps
• stream displacement
• sag ponds lineaments
• vegetation displacement
 Risk potential depends upon:
1. duration of the quake
2. intensity of the quake
3. recurrence of the quake
 Potential trigger’s
stess > stength
• water in a reservoir – added weight and lubrication
• storage of fluids in old mines
• blasting
• surface excavation
• ground water mined from aquifers
• extraction of oil and gas from aquifers
 Case studies
• Auburn Dam – wide slender arch dam on the
American River, upstream of Sacramento, California
• Fig. 9.31
• pre investigations
– detailed mapping
– 8 km trenches
– 2 km exploratory tunnels
– 30 km borings
 Auburn Dam
• geology
– metamorphic competent amphybolite
– metasediments
– included vertical weak zones and lenses of chlorite schist, talc schist
and talcose serpentinites up to 30 m wide, aligned with foliation
– series of sub parallel mineralized reverse faults with strike transverse
to the dam axis dipping 40 to 55 degrees into the abutment
– two of the longest faults are tangential to the dam, close or under the
dm on the left abutment
– no active faults in the area
– the area was supposed to be low seismicity
 Auburn Dam
• foundation construction
– earthquake occurred 5.7
– regional fault study
– reassessment
• 32 km trenches
• more borings
• surface excavations
aim to establish the time relationship of the faults
 Auburn Dam
Concluded that the faults wee formed in another
tectonic setting than the present (compressional
rather that extensional stress field)
A review of the dam – will it withstand vibrations from
a 6.5 magnitude quake on a fault < 8 km from the
dam??
“Off set” design recommended to withstand 25 mm to
900 mm
NO DAM built due to discussions on safety!
 Baldwin Hill reservoir – failed 1963
• 1 principle embankment, 47 m high,
and 5 smaller embankments
• excavated hollow in between at the
top of a mountain range
 Baldwin Hill reservoir – failed 1963

• geology
– friable deposits of the Pliocene Pico Formation, massive beds of
clayey, sandy siltstone
– Pleistocene Ingewood Formation. interbedded layers of sand, silt, and
clay, with some thin linestone beds; some of the sand and silt beds are
unconsolidated and erodable
– Both formations contain calcareous and limonitic concretions
– bedding dips slightly 5 to 7 degrees, striking roughly parallel to the
Inglewood fault
– major active fault, Inglewood, passes just 150 m west of the reservoir
– the fault is a right lateral strike slip with a vertical component
– fault acts as a subsurface dam for a major oil field in the hills
 Baldwin
• Excavation phase
– 7 minor faults wee mapped
– mostly normal faults
– 3 to 100 mm silty gouge
– largest fault had a total displacement of more
than 8 m
 Baldwin
• Design
– rock foundation lined with
• asphalt and
• gravel drain layer
• covered with compacted clay
• covered with asphalt
 Baldwin
• Construction phase 1947-51
– fault 1 caused problems
– slide initiated revealing that the fault passed
beneath the inlet/outlet tower
– the tower was relocated 48 ft
 Baldwin
• after completion
– liner cracked along the trace of the fault
– emptied in 1957
– cracks repaired
– cracks were also observed in the surrounding area of the
reservoir
– the cracks dipped steeply
– trend NS parallel to the faults
– some exhibited small sinkholes – indicative of extensional
strain
– offset dip slip
 Baldwin
• nearby oil fields – oil was being extracted
– resulted in subsidence due to collapse of the aquifer
– subsidence of 2.7 m between 1917 and 1962
 Baldwin
• Failure 1971
– emptied completely in 4 hours
– seepage along the fault had enlarged to a pipe
– then to a tunnel and
– then the collapse of the roof
– a canyon eroded completely through the all of the
reservoir
 Baldwin
• Failure 1971
– Why??
• cracks in the floor extended across the entire reservoir along the
trace of the fault
• 50 mm displacement
• open voids along the fault
• movement along the fault had fractured the lining
• rupture of the asphalt membrane
• water eroded cavities into the foundation rock