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x(t) y(t)
SYSTEM(S)
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Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Basic operations on signals: Operations performed on dependent
variables
▪ Amplitude-scaling operations
y (t ) = kg (t )
▪ Addition operations
y(t ) = g1 (t ) + g 2 (t )
▪ Multiplication operations
y(t ) = g1 (t ) g 2 (t )
▪ Differentiation operations
d
, y (t ) =
dt
g (t ) = g ' (t )
▪ Integration operations
y (t ) = g (t )d (t )
Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Operations performed on independent variables
▪Time-reversed operations
y (t ) = g ( −t )
▪ Time-shifting operations
y (t ) = g (t − )
▪ Time-scaling operations
y (t ) = g ( t )
It is very possible that the combinations of the operations to occur at the same
time
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Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Classification of Signals
Representation and processing of signals highly depends on the type of signal
being considered
▪ Continuous value and Discrete value signals
▪ Continuous time and Discrete time signals
▪ Analogy and Digital signals
▪Deterministic and Random signals
▪ Real and complex signals
▪Periodic and non periodic signals
▪ Even and Odd signals
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▪ Energy and Power signals
▪ Causal and Non causal signals
Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Classification of Signals
▪Time limited and Band limited signals
▪ Baseband and Bandpass signals
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Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Classification of Signals
▪ Sinusoidal Signals
It is of paramount importance to state that the sinusoidal signal is the most
widely-used signal in the analysis, design, and operation of communication
systems. The sinusoidal signal may be viewed as a simple oscillating curve with
smooth and consistent changes, where each period consists of a single arc
above the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
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Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Classification of Systems
Signals are operated on by systems, an understanding of systems is therefore
important in the analysis and design of communication systems
A systems is defined as a unique transformation that maps an input into an
output
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Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Classification of Systems
▪ Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems
In a time-invariant system, the input-output relationship does not change with
time. This means that a time shift (i.e., time delay or time advance) in the
input results in a corresponding time shift in the output. The characteristics of
a time invariant system do not change with time.
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Signals, Systems and Spectral Analysis
Classification of Systems
▪ Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
In a linear time-invariant (LTI) system, both linearity and time-invariance
conditions must be satisfied. For LTI systems, the input-output relationship
is straightforward..
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
▪ What is Transmission?
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Radio Transmission/Propagation modes
▪The propagation characteristics of electromagnetic waves used
in radio channel are highly dependent on the operating
frequencies.
▪Ground wave propagation: AM Radio broadcasting, up to
2MHz
▪Sky wave propagation: FM radio broadcasting, from 2MHz to
30 MHz
▪Line of Sight propagation: from 30MHz
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Transmission Impairments
▪ Signals travels through a transmission media that are not
perfect
▪The received signal is therefore different from the transmitted
one
Causes of Transmission Impairments
▪ Attenuation: every channel introduces some transmission attenuation (loss)
▪ Distortion: due to non-ideal channel, the transmitted signal changes its
form/shape.
, 1. Linear Distortion: Causes ISI and we can use Equalizers to reduce the
effect
2. Non- Linear Distortion: occurs when the relationship between the input
and output is not linear. Causes Intermodulation and the solution is
Filtering to remove unwanted signals
Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
3. Multipath Fading
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Sampling Process
▪ What is sampling?
▪ Why sampling?
▪ What should be the interval between samples?
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Sampling Process
▪ This is the very first process in the conversion of analogy signal to digital
▪ There is no guarantee that the samples will be reconstructed at the receiver,
distortion must occurs
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Instantaneous Sampling
▪ Instantaneous sampling a sequence of impulse functions is used to obtain the
ideal samples of the signal.
▪ The instantaneously sampled signal gs(t) can be viewed as multiplication of
g(t) and a periodic impulse train uniformly spaced Ts seconds apart.
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Natural Sampling
▪ The output of the natural sampler is given as follows
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Flat Top Sampling
▪ Flat-top sampling, also known as pulse amplitude modulation, is the most
practical sampling method, in which the sample-and-hold operation is
performed.
▪ In flat top sampling, the top of the samples remains constant and equal to
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal at the start of the sampling.
▪ During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse
which can be easily removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the top
of the samples are flat i.e. they have constant amplitude. Hence, it is called as
flat top sampling or practical sampling
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
▪ A pulse-code modulation (PCM) system, is a digital transmission system that
provides analog-to-digital conversion in the transmitter and digital-to-analog
conversion in the receiver as well as regeneration at intermediate points along
the transmission path as necessary.
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Quantization Process
▪ is the nonlinear and lossy process as multiple input values can yield the same
output value
Types of Quantization
▪ Scalar quantization: it is memoryless and instantaneous process and this
can be divided into two parts uniform quantization and non uniform
quantization
▪ Vector quantization: samples are quantized in blocks
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Uniform Quantization
▪ is the type of quantization that is not optimal but is commonly used in
practice.
▪ Basically is a simple rounding process in which each sample value is rounded
to the nearest value from a finite set of possible quantization level.
▪ We assume that the signal amplitude at the input of the quantizer ranges
between the maximum value V and the minimum value − V
▪ The amplitude range − V ,V is a limit set by the quantizer.
▪ The amplitude range − V ,V is divided into L quantization levels
▪ The error introduced by this clipping is referred to as overload distortion or
clipping distortion
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Uniform Quantization
▪ For a uniform quantizer, the quantization error e is a random variable.
▪ With sufficiently small step size, the quantization error can be assumed to be
uniformly distributed and uncorrelated with the quantizer input.
▪ To this effect, for a zero-mean random input signal with the standard
deviation σg, which is a measure of the spread of the signal values about the
zero mean, we define the loading (crest) factor as follows.
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▪ the average power of the message signal g(t) is then defined as follows:
Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
PCM Datarate
• What is the datarate for voice signal?
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Transmission Channel
• What is channel?
• How do we choose channel for transmission?
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Transmission Channel Modeling
• Channel can be wired or wireless channel
• Modeling of the channel differs from one point and the other depending on
the channel use
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Signal Bandwidth and Datarate
• What is Signal Bandwidth?
• How does Bandwidth relate to Datarate?
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Signal Bandwidth Definitions
• Absolute Bandwidth
• Half power Bandwidth
• Fractional power containment Bandwidth
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Factors affecting Datarate
• Distance of Transmission
• Signal used for transmission
• Coding of the signal
• Modulation
• Noise
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Channel Bandwidth
• Channel of transmission can be wireless or wired channel
• Channel bandwidth shows the range of frequencies the media can support.
• In practice transmission system can only carry limited band of frequencies
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Bandwidth utilization
• The sampled PAM waveform is off for most of the time
• During the off period the channel can be used to transmit samples of other
waveforms.
• The process of combining information stream from different users is called
Multiplexing.
• There are different multiple access technologies used in communication
systems such as FDM, TDM, CDMA and OFDMA
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
This can be synchronous or statistical multiplexing
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Digital Transmission of Analogy signals
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
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UNIT 2
BASEBAND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION OF
ANALOG SIGNAL
Baseband Digital Transmission
Introduction
▪ Based on the distance between the Transmitter and the Receiver digital
signal can be transmitted either using
1. Baseband Digital Transmission
2. Passband Digital Transmission
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Baseband Digital Transmission
Pulse Shaping and ISI
▪ The selection of the pulse used for transmitting digital information is very
important aspect of digital transmission
▪ One of the main cause of Intersymbol interference in baseband digital
transmission is the type of pulse used for transmission
▪There are different types of pulses used in digital transmission
1. Sinc Pulses
2. Square/Rectangular Pulses
3. Raised Cosine Pulse
4. Triangular Pulse
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Baseband Digital Transmission
Pulse Shaping and ISI
▪Square/Rectangular Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
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Baseband Digital Transmission
Pulse Shaping and ISI
▪Triangular Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
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Baseband Digital Transmission
Pulse Shaping and ISI
▪Sinc Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
Baseband Digital Transmission
Pulse Shaping and ISI
▪ Raised Cosine Pulse and its Frequency Domain Representation
Baseband Digital Transmission
Line Coding
▪ What is Line coding?
▪ What are the different schemes of Line Coding in digital transmission?
Baseband Digital Transmission
Line Coding Basics
▪ Line coding techniques convert bits (symbols) into waveforms (electrical
signal) this is also called baseband modulation.
▪There are different types of Line coding applied in baseband transmission
each having different features.
▪ Each line coding schemes is having some levels (voltage or current levels).
▪ There supposed to be a way on how you can select the proper line coding
scheme to be used for baseband transmission
Baseband Digital Transmission
Desirable Properties of Line Codes
▪Transmission Bandwidth
The line codes should use less Bandwidth since Bandwidth is scarce and costly
resource.
▪ DC Components
The dc component is usually not desirable because some of the componets of
communication system like transformers and multi-stage amplifiers cause
distortion and unwanted energy loss
Baseband Digital Transmission
Desirable Properties of Line Codes
▪Transparency
The property that any arbitrary symbol or bit pattern can be transmitted and
received
Baseband Digital Transmission
Basic Pulse Shaping Techniques
Assuming that in every period we transmit a single bit and there different
types of pulse shaping techniques
1. Unipolar
The mapping of the symbols is as follows
Bits Levels(Volts)
1 +a
0 -a
1. Unipolar NRZ
2. Polar NRZ
3. Unipolar RZ
4. Bipolar RZ
5. Polar Manchester
Baseband Digital Transmission
Power Spectral Density (PSD) of Line Codes
▪A Power Spectral Density (PSD) is the measure of signal's power content
versus frequency.
▪ Different line coding scheme have different spectrum
▪ Once you compare the transmitted bits and Received bits then you have to
determine the Probability of Error
Baseband Digital Transmission
Time Domain Condition for Zero ISI
▪ Pulse generator output
▪ Then the signal is transmitted through the channel and the receiving filter
input
Baseband Digital Transmission
Time Domain Condition for Zero ISI
▪ The receiver Filter output
▪ The output of the receiver is sampled and the samples obtained are
compared with the threshold value
Baseband Digital Transmission
Time Domain Condition for Zero ISI
▪ We need to receive only the symbol
▪ Consider the following equation after samplimg
▪ The signals may then be processed digitally and/or transmitted in digital
form
▪ Resulting digital signals often need to be converted back to analogue form or
“reconstructed”.
▪ Greater distances
▪ Greater bandwidth
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Challenges of Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
▪ Multipath Fading
▪ Installation cost
▪ Maintenance cost
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Modulation
▪ What is Modulation?
▪ Why Modulation?
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Modulation
▪ Modulating signal, carrier and Modulated signal
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Modulation
▪Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission.
▪ The bandpass signal is called the modulated signal, and the baseband message
signal is called the modulating signal.
▪Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message from the carrier
so that it may be processed by the intended receiver
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Classification of Modulation
▪ Based on the Modulating signal
▪ Based on the Carrier used
▪ Based on the number of carriers used
▪ Based on the ratio of the Modulated signal and the Modulating
signal
Digital Carrier Modulation Systems
Digital Modulation
▪ Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation techniques.
Advancements in very large-scale integration (VLSI) and digital signal
processing(DSP) technology have made digital modulation more cost effective than
analog transmission systems.
Note That
There is no modulation scheme that satisfies all these requirements, so trade-
offs are made when selecting a modulation scheme.
Digital Modulation Schemes
Digital Modulation schemes
Digital Modulation Schemes
Modulation at the Receiver (Demodulation)
▪ Digital modulation techniques may be classified into coherent and non-
coherent techniques depending on whether the receiver is equipped with a
phase-recovery circuit or not.
▪ The phase recovery circuit ensures that the oscillator supplying the locally
generated carrier wave in the receiver is synchronized (in both frequency and
phase) to the transmitter oscillator
Digital Modulation Schemes
Modulation at the Receiver (Demodulation)
Digital Modulation Schemes
Types of modulation schemes in different advanced digital
communication systems
Digital Modulation Schemes
Orthogonal &Orthonormal Functions
▪ What is orthogonal function?
4. If we introduce the
intermediate function g2
as:
▪ Given a function gi(t) we can define a set of basis functions, which form an
orthogonal set, as
Geometric Representation of Signals
Example:
▪ What is the relation between the vector representation of a signal and its
energy value?
Digital Modulation Schemes
Definitions
▪The modulation of digital signals is a process involving switching (keying) the
amplitude, frequency or phase of a sinusoidal carrier in some way in
accordance with the incoming digital data.
▪ When bit one is transmitted the Pdf is given by the following expression,
assuming that Y is the output of the integrator
Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Probability of Bit Error Analysis
Coherent Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Probability of Bit Error Analysis
▪ The probability of error is usually expressed in terms of error function
▪ Since there are two basis functions the signal space diagram now will 2D
and the vectors transmitted are as given below
Disadvantages
▪It uses larger bandwidth compare to other modulation techniques such as
ASK and PSK. Hence it is not bandwidth efficient.
▪FSK is not preferred for the high-speed modems because with increases in
speed and also have the bit rate increases
Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)
Introduction
▪ The binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) is a very simple modulation
technique.
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Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)
Transmitter Side
▪ Since bits 1 and 0 are equally-likely, the average energy per
bit is Eb. We need a set of only one orthonormal basis function to represent
the BASK signal set, as given by:
▪Since the channel is AWGN the received signal will be added with some noise
▪ We need to evaluate the Probability of error for both bit one and bit zero
Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)
System Performance Analysis
▪ Probability of error of bit one is
▪ASK modulation can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
▪In M-ary data transmission, send one of M possible signals during each
signaling interval T.
▪Thus, we have
1. MASK
2. MPSK
3. MFSK
4. MQAM
M-ary Digital Modulation Schemes
Sending Multiple Bits Simultaneously
▪ Each of the three modulation techniques can be refined to send more than
one bit at a time. It is possible to send two bits on one wave by defining four
different amplitudes.
▪This technique could be further refined to send three bits at the same time by
defining 8 different amplitude levels or four bits by defining 16, etc. The same
approach can be used for frequency and phase modulation.
M-ary Digital Modulation Schemes
Sending Multiple Bits Simultaneously
M-ary Digital Modulation Schemes
Hybrid Modulation Schemes.