ERUM YAQOOB (03166169429)

B.ED (1.5 YEAR)

SUBMITTED TO: TABASSUM AZRA SIDDIQUI
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
(Department of Secondary Teacher Education)
Course: Philosophy of Education (8609)
Semester: AUTUMN, 2020
ASSIGNMENT No. 2

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ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
(Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher Education Department)

Course: Philosophy of Education (8609) Semester: Autumn, 2020

Level: B. Ed (1.5 Year)

Assignment No.2
Q.1 Analyze Plato's theory of education.

Ans. Plato's theory of education: Education for Plato was one of the great things of life.
Education was an attempt to touch the evil at its source, and reform the wrong ways of
living as well as one’s outlook towards life. According to Barker, education is an attempt
to cure a mental illness by a medicine.

The object of education is to turn the soul towards light. Plato once stated that the main
function of education is not to put knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the latent talents
in the soul by directing it towards the right objects. This explanation of Plato on education
highlights his object of education and guides the readers in proper direction to unfold the
ramifications of his theory of education.

Plato was, in fact, the first ancient political philosopher either to establish a university or
introduce a higher course or to speak of education as such. This emphasis on education
came to the forefront only due to the then prevailing education system in Athens. Plato was
against the practice of buying knowledge, which according to him was a heinous crime
than buying meat and drink. Plato strongly believed in a state control education system.

He held the view that without education, the individual would make no progress any more
than a patient who believed in curing himself by his own loving remedy without giving up
his luxurious mode of living. Therefore, Plato stated that education touches the evil at the
grass root and changes the whole outlook on life.

It was through education that the principle of justice was properly maintained. Education
was the positive measure for the operation of justice in the ideal state. Plato was convinced
that the root of the vice lay chiefly in ignorance, and only by proper education can one be
converted into a virtuous man.
The main purpose of Plato’s theory of education was to ban individualism, abolish
incompetence and immaturity, and establish the rule of the efficient. Promotion of common
good was the primary objective of platonic education.

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Influence on Plato’s System of Education: Plato was greatly influenced by the Spartan
system of education, though not completely. The education system in Athens was privately
controlled unlike in Sparta where the education was state-controlled. The Spartan youth
were induced to military spirit and the educational system was geared to this end.

However, the system lacked the literacy aspect. Intriguingly, many Spartans could neither
read nor write. Therefore, it can be stated that the Spartan system did not produce any kind
of intellectual potentials in man, which made Plato discard the Spartan education to an
extent. The platonic system of education is, in fact, a blend of Athens and the organization
of Sparta. This is because Plato believed in the integrated development of human
personality.

State-controlled Education: Plato believed in a strong state-controlled education for both

men and women. He was of the opinion that every citizen must be compulsorily trained to
fit into any particular class, viz., ruling, fighting or the producing class.

Education, however, must be imparted to all in the early stages without any discrimination.
Plato never stated out rightly that education system was geared to those who want to
become rulers of the ideal state and this particular aspect attracted widespread criticism.

Plato’s Scheme of Education: Plato was of the opinion that education must begin at an
early age. In order to make sure that children study well, Plato insisted that children be
brought up in a hale and healthy environment and that the atmosphere implant ideas of
truth and goodness. Plato believed that early education must be related to literature, as it
would bring out the best of the soul. The study must be mostly related to story-telling and
then go on to poetry.

Secondly, music and thirdly arts were the subjects of early education. Plato believed in
regulation of necessary step towards conditioning the individual. For further convenience,
Plato’s system of education can be broadly divided into two parts: elementary education
and higher education.

Elementary Education: Plato was of the opinion that for the first 10 years, there should
be predominantly physical education. In other words, every school must have a gymnasium
and a playground in order to develop the physique and health of children and make them
resistant to any disease.

Apart from this physical education, Plato also recommended music to bring about certain
refinement in their character and lent grace and health to the soul and the body. Plato also
prescribed subjects such as mathematics, history and science.

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However, these subjects must be taught by smoothing them into verse and songs and must
not be forced on children. This is because, according to Plato, knowledge acquired under
compulsion has no hold on the mind. Therefore, he believed that education must not be
forced, but should be made a sort of amusement as it would enable the teacher to understand
the natural bent of mind of the child. Plato also emphasized on moral education.

Higher Education: According to Plato, a child must take an examination that would
determine whether or not to pursue higher education at the age of 20. Those who failed in
the examination were asked to take up activities in communities such as businessmen,
clerks, workers, farmers and the like.

Those who passed the exam would receive another 10 years of education and training in
body and mind. At this stage, apart from physical and mathematical sciences, subjects like
arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and dialectics were taught. Again at the age of 30,
students would take yet another examination, which served as an elimination test, much
severe than the first test.

Those who did not succeed would become executive assistants, auxiliaries and military
officers of the state. Plato stated that based on their capabilities, candidates would be
assigned a particular field. Those who passed in the examination would receive another 5
year advanced education in dialectics in order to find out as to who was capable of freeing
himself from sense perception.

The education system did not end here. Candidates had to study for another 15 years for
practical experience in dialectics. Finally at the age of 50, those who withstood the hard
and fast process of education were introduced to the ultimate task of governing their
country and the fellow beings.

These kings were expected to spend most of the time in philosophical pursuits. Thus, after
accomplishing perfection, the rulers would exercise power only in the best interests of the
state. The ideal state would be realized and its people would be just, honest and happy.
References:

1. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/platos-theory-of-education/40135
2. https://www.througheducation.com/platos-theory-of-education-explained/
3. https://countercurrents.org/2018/09/platos-theory-of-education/
4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42743379?seq=1
5. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/Plato%E2%80%99s-Philosophy-of-
Education-and-Its-Implications-to-Counselling.pdf

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 6. https://epublications.marquette.edu/dissertations/AAI9517932/#:~:text=Plato%20regards%20
education%20as%20a,individual%20justice%20and%20social%20justice.&text=From%20thi
s%20Plato%20concludes%20that,the%20Idea%20of%20the%20Good.

Q.2 Describe the Impact of John Dewey’s Philosophy on Modern Education.

Ans. John Dewey’s Philosophy of Education: John Dewey is one of the big names in the
history of educational theories. John Dewey was influential in countless fields and had lots
of ideas concerning educational reform. His collection of views, philosophies and radically
different ideas on education have been combined in the John Dewey theory.

In many countries, the modern educational system looks the way it does thanks to John
Dewey. His approach to schooling was revolutionary for his time and proves to be
fundamentally important for modern education to this day. John Dewey probably gained
the most publicity thanks to his role in the studies into progressive education. Progressive
education in essence is a vision of education that emphasizes the necessity of learning by
doing. According to the John Dewey theory, people learn best through a hands-on
approach. As a result, the philosophies and views of John Dewey are placed in the
educational philosophy of pragmatism.

John Dewey and other pragmatists are convinced that students or other persons who are
learning must experience reality as it is. From John Dewey’s educational point of view,
this means that students must adapt to their environment in order to learn. The John Dewey
theory shows that the great thinker had the same ideas about teachers. His view of the ideal
classroom had many similarities with democratic ideals. Dewey posits that it isn’t just the
student who learns, but rather the experience of students and teachers together that yields
extra value for both.

Reformation of the Educational System: Children learn better when they interact with
their environment and are involved in the school’s learning plan, according to John Dewey.
He rejected most of the theories that were popular at the time, such as behaviorism, and
dismissed these as being too simplistic and insufficiently complex to describe learning
processes. In those days, at the end of the 20th century, it was assumed by many people
that children were passive recipients of knowledge. The John Dewey theory, however,
directly opposes this.

Dewey argued that education can only truly be effective when children have learning
opportunities that enable them to link current knowledge to prior experiences and
knowledge. This was a ground-breaking idea in those days. Particularly the part related to
experience learning, where children come into contact with their environment, was
revolutionary.

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Educational Experiment John Dewey: The above shows that John Dewey was a great
advocate of progressive educational reform. He was convinced that the educational system
was flawed and that it should focus on learning by doing. He and his wife Harriet therefore
started their own experimental primary school: the University Elementary School. It was
part of the University of Chicago, and the goal was to test his own theories. His wife was
fired however, as a result of which Dewey resigned.

Over 25 years later, in 1919, Dewey founded The New School for Social Research in
collaboration with his colleagues Charles Beard, James Harvey Robinson and Wesley Slain
Mitchell. This too was a progressive, experimental school that encouraged the free
exchange of ideas in the field of arts and social sciences.

His revolutionary ideas soon bore fruit. In the twenties of the previous century, Dewey
gave a lecture on educational reform in schools all over the world. He was very impressed
by experiments in the Russian school system. This taught him that students particularly
had to focus on interactions with the present. The John Dewey theory, however, doesn’t
reject the value of learning about the past.

John Dewey Theory Applied in the Classroom: Particularly in those days, between the
two world wars, it was common that desks were set up in rows in the classroom and the
students wouldn’t leave their chair all day. This was what John Dewey meant with the fact
that children were viewed as passive recipients of knowledge. They really had no say in
the learning process whatsoever and they certainly couldn’t indicate whether they liked to
learn more on a specific subject. John Dewey was also very clear about how things could
be improved. These ideas are no longer radical today, but at the beginning of the previous
century, his view of education clashed with the policy and view of most schools.

Interdisciplinary Curriculum: The John Dewey theory recommends an interdisciplinary

curriculum, or a curriculum that focuses on connecting multiple subjects where students
can freely walk in and out of classrooms. In this way, they pursue their own interests, and
build their own method for acquiring and applying specific knowledge.
In this setting, the teacher has a facilitating role. According to John Dewey, the teacher
should observe the student’s interests, follow the directions, and help them develop
problem-solving skills. As stated, it was common in those days that the teacher stood in
front of the group of students and provided information all day long. The students’ task
was to absorb the information and test this in the form of an exam or other written test.
John Dewey’s ideal describes an entirely different function of the teacher. According to
Dewey, the teacher should only provide background information and have the students
work together in groups on the concept. This should start conversation and discussion, and

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give rise to valuable collaboration. Although the written exam would continue to play an
important role, particularly presentations, projects and other evaluation techniques are used
to keep track of the progress.

John Dewey & Psychology: During his period at the University of Michigan, John Dewey
published two books: Psychology, and Leibniz’s New Essays Concerning the Human
Understanding. Although he was still a philosophy professor there, he and his colleagues
began to reformulate psychology, emphasizing the mind and behavior. The ideas on
psychology in the John Dewey theory also differ strongly from the standards at that time.

Their new psychology style, called functional psychology, focused on action and
application. They reasoned that it went against the traditional concept of stimulus-response.
Although he didn’t deny the existence of stimulus and response, he didn’t agree that these
were separate, individual events. He developed the idea that there is a certain form of
coordination that enhances stimulation through past results.

Impact of John Dewey’s Philosophy on Modern Education: Humanistic education has

its roots in the work of John Dewey. Sidney Simon credits Dewey with being the
inspiration for his process theory of values. The founders of humanistic psychology -
Rogers, Maslow, and May – studied at Columbia University where Dewey had his greatest
influence. ‘The fact that educational theory was open to these trends in the first place was
due in large part to the progressive movement in education, which was inspired by the work
of Dewey. And what inspired Dewey?

Hegel – all is in process: To understand Dewey we must reconstruct the intellectual milieu
in which he lived. Dewey worked and wrote approximately between 1910 and 1940. In his
university days he came under the influence of Hegelianism. Hegel’s writings converted
Dewey to a broad philosophy of evolutionism, including the evolution of ideas and of social
institutions. In contrast to the biblical view that institutions such as marriage, parenthood,
church, and state are God-ordained, Hegel taught that they arose under particular
conditions in history through an evolutionary process. And as such, they can be changed
according to the demands of new conditions.9 Long after he drifted away from Hegel’s
other teachings, Dewey continued to favor philosophies of process and change.

Romanticism – the child as divine: Dewey’s immediate predecessors were the educator
Francis Wayland Parker and the psychologist G. Stanley Hall. Parker was greatly
influenced by the Romantic Movement and its glorification of the child. Romanticism had
its roots in the writings of Rousseau, who taught that man in his primitive state is loving
and good – which he has been made selfish and evil only by the constraints of civilization.

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And where today can we see human nature unmarred by adult rules and inhibitions? In the
child.

The romanticist view of the child was applied to education in the early 1800s by Friedrich
Froebel. A Hegelian, Froebel held to cosmic pantheistic evolution, seeing the entire
universe as a living, evolving organism. In his view, education was the means to guide
mankind’s passage to a higher order of being, the next stage of evolution. Clearly, he was
not thinking of education merely as the transmission of a cultural heritage. His commitment
to evolution suggested to him that each generation must surpass all previous generations –
which children must be taught not to imitate the best of the past but to create something
new and unforeseen.

As a result, Froebel’s educational theory stressed that children must be free to unfold and
develop new ideas, new ways of living, out of their own experience. In a word, education
should be non-directive. Founder of the kindergarten movement, Froebel viewed the child
as analogous to a plant in a garden, whose growth must be allowed to proceed according
to its own inner law of development. For evolution implies that something genuinely novel
emerges in each age – something that cannot be foreseen or predicted through knowledge
of what has gone before. As Froebel writes, “what is yet to come out of mankind, what
human nature is yet to develop, that we do not yet know.”10 And since we do not know
where evolution will go next, we cannot impose any direction on the evolving child.

G. Stanley Parker adopted Froebel’s theory but expressed even more explicitly its
underlying pantheism. He wrote: “The spontaneous tendencies of the child are the records
of inborn divinity.”11 Notice that where the child reveals his divinity is in his spontaneous
activities, when he is not hemmed in by adult standards and morals. In Parker’s “child-
centered education,” the most important thing is to stand out of the way of the child’s
natural tendencies and development.

Both Froebel and Parker assumed that the child, left to himself, would naturally tend
toward love, selflessness, hard work, creativity, and all the virtues Western civilization has
sought to inculcate through the Bible-oriented ethic. In other words, they assumed that the
Christian ideal is what man is intrinsically, biologically, and therefore saw no danger in
getting rid of extrinsic training.

It is quite probable that children in the 1800s, having been brought up in a climate of hard
work and moral excellence, did blossom when given freedom for self-direction. Needless
to say, the same does not result today, when children are brought up in a climate of self-
absorption and moral relativism.

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 Psychology – the child as mechanism: Rousseau’s idea that children should be allowed
to develop naturally received scientific support in the theories of Charles Darwin. There
came into being a science of human development that saw the child as an evolving
organism, and saw the task of education as “liberating” the child to follow his own organic
pattern of growth.

Among the most influential of the scientists of human nature was psychologist G. Stanley
Hall. Referred to by a contemporary as “the Darwin of the mind,”13 Hall believed
education must be made into a scientific discipline. Like all science, it must be based on
measurements and studies and scientific theories (like Darwinism), not on abstractions like
moral principles or religious ideas about human nature. Concepts taken from biology, like
instincts, were regarded as much more real than concepts taken from theology, like moral
responsibility.

Hall’s educational theory, like Parker’s, stressed spontaneity and freedom.14 He

interpreted Darwinism to mean that each generation has the potential to be superior to its
parents – if only it can break its parents’ shackles. Hall saw schools as the agents of
evolutionary progress, creating the “superman” of tomorrow. As Rousts I. Rushton puts it,
Darwinism became virtually a scientific justification for youthful rebellion15 with schools
as instigators.

References:

1. https://www.toolshero.com/change-management/john-dewey-theory/
2. https://study.com/academy/lesson/john-dewey-on-education-impact-
theory.html#:~:text=Dewey%20believed%20that%20human%20beings,order%20to%20adap
t%20and%20learn.
3. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dewey/
4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314967156_John_Dewey_and_His_Philosophy_of_
Education
5. https://iep.utm.edu/dewey/
6. https://creationmoments.com/article/the-evolving-child-john-deweys-impact-on-modern-
education-part-1/
7. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/Dialnet-
TheEducationalTheoryOfJohnDeweyAndItsInfluenceOnEd-5612503.pdf

Q.3 Develop a teaching method based on Muslim philosophy of education.

Ans. Teaching Method Based on Muslim Philosophy of Education: Islam placed a high value
on education, and, as the faith spread among diverse peoples, education became an
important channel through which to create a universal and cohesive social order. By the
middle of the 9th century, knowledge was divided into three categories: the Islamic

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sciences, the philosophical and natural sciences (Greek knowledge), and the literary arts.
The Islamic sciences, which emphasized the study of the Quran (the Islamic scripture) and
the Hadith (the sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad) and their interpretation
by leading scholars and theologians, were valued the most highly, but Greek scholarship
was considered equally important, albeit less virtuous.

Early Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such as the application of

technological expertise to the development of irrigation systems, architectural innovations,
textiles, iron and steel products, earthenware, and leather products; the manufacture of
paper and gunpowder; the advancement of commerce; and the maintenance of a merchant
marine. After the 11th century, however, denominational interests dominated
higher learning, and the Islamic sciences achieved preeminence. Greek knowledge was
studied in private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished in significance as educational
policies encouraging academic freedom and new learning were replaced by a closed
system characterized by an intolerance toward scientific innovations, secular subjects, and
creative scholarship. This denominational system spread throughout eastern Islam from
Transoxiana (roughly, modern-day Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southwest Kazakhstan) to
Egypt, with some 75 schools in existence between about 1050 and 1250.

Organization of education: The system of education in the Muslim world was un-
integrated and undifferentiated. Learning took place in a variety of institutions, among
them the halvah, or study circle; the manta (kurta), or elementary school; the palace
schools; bookshops and literary salons; and the various types of colleges,
the meshed, the masjid, and the madrasa. All the schools taught essentially the same
subjects.

The simplest type of early Muslim education was offered in the mosques, where scholars
who had congregated to discuss the Quran began before long to teach the religious sciences
to interested adults. Mosques increased in number under the caliphs, particularly the
Abbasids: 3,000 of them were reported in Baghdad alone in the first decades of the 10th
century; as many as 12,000 were reported in Alexandria in the 14th century, most of them
with schools attached. Some mosques—such as that of al-Mansur, built during the reign
of Haran al-Rashid in Baghdad, or those in Isfahan, Mashhad, Glom, Damascus, Cairo, and
the Alhambra (Granada)—became centers of learning for students from all over the
Muslim world. Each mosque usually contained several study circles (halvah), so named
because the teacher was, as a rule, seated on a dais or cushion with the pupils gathered in
a semicircle before him. The more advanced a student, the closer he was seated to the
teacher. The mosque circles varied in approach, course content, size, and quality
of teaching, but the method of instruction usually emphasized lectures and memorization.
Teachers were, as a rule, looked upon as masters of scholarship, and their lectures were

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meticulously recorded in notebooks. Students often made long journeys to join the circle
of a great teacher. Some circles, especially those in which the Hadith was studied, were so
large that it was necessary for assistants to repeat the lecture so that every student could
hear and record it.

Elementary schools (manta, or kurta), in which pupils learned to read and write, date to the
pre-Islamic period in the Arab world. After the advent of Islam, these schools developed
into centers for instruction in elementary Islamic subjects. Students were expected to
memorize the Quran as perfectly as possible. Some schools also included in their
curriculum the study of poetry, elementary arithmetic, penmanship, ethics (manners), and
elementary grammar. Maktabs were quite common in almost every town or village in
the Middle East, Africa, Sicily, and Spain.

Schools conducted in royal palaces taught not only the curriculum of the maktabs but also
social and cultural studies designed to prepare the pupil for higher education, for service in
the government of the caliphs, or for polite society. The instructors were called muʾaddibs,
or instructors in good manners. The exact content of the curriculum was specified by the
ruler, but oratory, history, tradition, formal ethics, poetry, and the art of good conversation
were often included. Instruction usually continued long after the pupils had passed
elementary age.

The high degree of learning and scholarship in Islam, particularly during the ʿAbbāsid
period in eastern Islam and the later Umayyads in western Islam, encouraged the
development of bookshops, copyists, and book dealers in large, important Islamic cities
such as Damascus, Baghdad, and Córdoba. Scholars and students spent many hours in these
bookshop schools browsing, examining, and studying available books or purchasing
favourite selections for their private libraries. Book dealers traveled to famous bookstores
in search of rare manuscripts for purchase and resale to collectors and scholars and thus
contributed to the spread of learning. Many such manuscripts found their way to private
libraries of famous Muslim scholars such as Avicenna, al-Ghazālī, and al-Fārābī, who in
turn made their homes centres of scholarly pursuits for their favourite students.

Fundamental to Muslim education though the circle schools, the maktabs, and the palace
schools were, they embodied definite educational limitations. Their curricula were limited;
they could not always attract well-trained teachers; physical facilities were not
always conducive to a congenial educational environment; and conflicts between religious
and secular aims in these schools were almost irreconcilable. Most importantly, these
schools could not meet the growing need for trained personnel or provide sufficient
educational opportunities for those who wished to continue their studies. These pressures
led to the creation of a new type of school, the madrasa, which became the crown and glory

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of medieval Muslim education. The madrasa was an outgrowth of the masjid, a type of
mosque college dating to the 8th century. The differences between these two institutions
are still being studied, but most scholars believe that the masjid was also a place of worship
and that, unlike the madrasa, its endowment supported only the faculty and not the students
as well. A third type of college, the meshed (shrine college), was usually a madrasa built
next to a pilgrimage center. Whatever their particularities, all three types of college
specialized in legal instruction, each turning out experts in one of the four schools of Sunni,
or orthodox, Islamic law.

Madrasas may have existed as early as the 9th century, but the most famous one was
founded in 1057 by the vizier Niẓām al-Mulk in Baghdad. The Niẓāmīyah, devoted to
Sunni learning, served as a model for the establishment of an extensive network of such
institutions throughout the eastern Islamic world, especially in Cairo, which had 75
madrasas; in Damascus, which had 51; and in Aleppo, where the number of madrasas rose
from 6 to 44 between 1155 and 1260.

Important institutions also developed in western Islam, under the Umayyads, in the Spanish
cities of Córdoba, Sevilla (Seville), Toledo, Granada, Murcia, Almería, Valencia, and
Cádiz. The madrasas had no standard curriculum; the founder of each school determined
the specific courses that would be taught, but they generally offered instruction in both the
religious sciences and the physical sciences.

The contribution of these institutions to the advancement of knowledge was vast. Muslim
scholars calculated the angle of the ecliptic; measured the size of the Earth; calculated the
precession of the equinoxes; explained, in the field of optics and physics, such phenomena
as refraction of light, gravity, capillary attraction, and twilight; and developed
observatories for the empirical study of heavenly bodies. They made advances in the uses
of drugs, herbs, and foods for medication; established hospitals with a system of interns
and externs; discovered causes of certain diseases and developed correct diagnoses of
them; proposed new concepts of hygiene; made use of anesthetics in surgery with newly
innovated surgical tools; and introduced the science of dissection in anatomy. They
furthered the scientific breeding of horses and cattle; found new ways of grafting
to produce new types of flowers and fruits; introduced new concepts of irrigation,
fertilization, and soil cultivation; and improved upon the science of navigation. In the area
of chemistry, Muslim scholarship led to the discovery of such substances as potash,
alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and mercury chloride. It also developed
to a high degree of perfection the arts of textiles, ceramics, and metallurgy.

Teaching Methodology: The methodology of assisting a person in getting education is an

important area of philosophy of education. Because how and by whom our learners learn

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matters a lot, may that be youngsters or adults. In this respect, we may consider the verse
no. 125 of the Sura Nahl: “Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful
preaching and argue with them with that which is best.” This verse gives a clear indication
of what could be the main points regarding the methodology according to Islamic
Philosophy of education. Professor M. Ferdouse Khan says “In this verse Allah
recommends a definite methodology for transmission of religious knowledge to others. In
my opinion, the same methodology is applicable and effective to the transmission of any
kind of knowledge, be it religious or secular.” He says that this methodology has three
distinct aspects or dimensions: application of wisdom, application of beautiful preaching
and application of the best possible technique of debate.47 I think he has indicated the
aspects very aptly. Before a person wants to help another person in getting himself
educated, he himself must have wisdom. Wisdom does not come through an acquisition of
knowledge, how much deep may it, on a particular area only. He must have vast practical
experience on the other affairs of life and of the world also. It may vary from level to level.
But whatever the level may be he must have profound knowledge on the area of teaching
as well as the related fields with practical or empirical experience. He should also know
the person’s ability both physical and mental and his level of knowledge. These are the
aspects to make a person wise and the first requisite of a person to be able to teach another
person effectively.

Secondly, he must have the ability to preach or deliver the knowledge beautifully. The aim
of the acquisition of knowledge or wisdom is two fold: (a) to use the same by the person
who has acquired it, (b) to transmit it to the fellow beings including the next generation.
From the 67th Aayat of 5th Sura i.e. Sura Maidah, like others we may get the indication of
this duty. From the stand point of the philosophy of education, transmission is the matter
of concern. And that the transmission should be in a beautiful mode could be understood
from the verse of Sura Nal cited earlier. Now what are the criteria of the ‘beautiful mode’?
First of all good voice quality: the voice should be soft i.e. of low pitch and it should not
be harsh; it has been said in the Sura Lukman, verse 19. It should be clear and free from
any kind of inertia of the tongue.48 It has to be like that so that the seeker of the knowledge
can understand the speaker talking. Secondly good language: the language should be
appropriate, in consideration to the target group, for the good of the educant. That the
delivery of knowledge should be in the mother tongue or the first language of the target
group and that is the good for them could be known from the verse 4 of Sura Ibrahim. In
this verse Allah says that He has sent messengers to a nation who speak their native
language so that he can make the matter clear to them, intelligible to them. So, from this
verse we find a definite direction that mother tongue should be used as the medium of
instruction, at least up to the stage of general level of understanding. I would suggest, being
induced by the educational disciplines, it should be at least up to the level of secondary
education. Thirdly, he should have the ability to use the skill of argument or discussion.

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 That the argument or discussion is the best way in helping a person to learn, could be
known from the verses 83 of Sura Anaam and 260 of Sura Bakara. Ayaat 260 of Sura
Bakara is also indicative of the fact that empirical knowledge through experiments is very
much helpful for better understanding. Need of being apt in argumentation with decency
could also be known from the Ayaat 46 of Sura 29. Throughout the Holy Qur’an, in a
number of places, it has been indicated that the learners, may it be children or adult, should
be encouraged to develop a habit of inquisitiveness, thoughtfulness and deeper
understanding. In the Aayat 50 of Sura Kaaf Allah say that, do we not look at the sky above
and enquire how He has created and decorated it! In Aayat 68-71 of Sura Waqia Allah says
‘Have you thought about the water you drink. Have you noticed the fire you light?’ And in
the Ayaat 99 of Sura Bani- Israil He say, ‘Do not they notice that Allah who has created
the sky and the world can create like them again?’ Regarding the activity of deeper
understanding, the following verses of Al-Qura’n, could be considered: 56:62, 2:44, and
10:6. In the verse 62 of Sura Waqia Allah asks us why do not we try to understand regarding
the seeds we sow; in 44 of Bakara Allah enquire though we read Quran, do not we
understand the things said in it? In 6 of Sura 10 it is said that in the change of day and
night, in the things that are created in the sky and in the world there are signs for the believer
who tries to understand. So, it is quite clear that the method of teaching according to the
Qur’an should be like that which will encourage and practice inquisitiveness,
thoughtfulness and deeper understanding; where discussion i.e. the two-way
communication will be used and where mother tongue, with good mode of speech will be
the medium.

References:

1. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-287-532-7_334-1
2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Aims-and-purposes-of-Muslim-education
3. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/17676-Article%20Text-69765-1-10-
20140714.pdf
4. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/ED574266.pdf
5. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/EJ1216762.pdf
6. file:///C:/Users/Zulfiqar%20Al/Downloads/Documents/18.pdf

Q.4 Compare curriculums developed on the bases of modern philosophies of education.

Ans. Major Educational Philosophies and Curriculum: "In modern times there are opposing
views about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young
should learn either in relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether
their education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the character
of the soul.... And it is not certain whether training should be directed at things useful in
life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at non-essentials.... And there is no agreement as to

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what in fact does tend towards virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue, so
naturally they differ also about the proper training for it."

Aristotle wrote that passage more than 2,300 years ago, and today educators are still
debating the issues he raised. Different approaches to resolving these and other
fundamental issues have given rise to different schools of thought in the philosophy of
education. We will examine five such schools of thought: Essentialism, Progressivism,
Perennialism, Existentialism, and Behaviorism. Each has many supporters in American
education today. Taken together, these five schools of thought do not exhaust the list of
possible educational philosophies you may adopt, but they certainly present strong
frameworks from which you can create your own educational philosophy.

Essentialism: "Gripping and enduring interests frequently grow out of initial learning
efforts that are not appealing or attractive." William Bagley

Essentialism refers to the "traditional" or "Back to the Basics" approach to education. It is

so named because it strives to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge
and character development. The term essentialism as an educational philosophy was
originally popularized in the 1930s by the American educator William Bagley
(1874Ä1946). The philosophy itself, however, had been the dominant approach to
education in America from the beginnings of American history. Early in the twentieth
century, essentialism was criticized as being too rigid to prepare students adequately for
adult life. But with the launching of Sputnik in 1957, interest in essentialism revived.
Among modern supporters of this position are members of the President's Commission on
Excellence in Education. Their 1983 report, A Nation at Risk, mirrors essentialist concerns
today.

Underlying Philosophical Basis: (American) essentialism is grounded in a conservative

philosophy that accepts the social, political, and economic structure of American society.
It contends that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, essentialists
argue, American schools should transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual
knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers
should instill such traditional American virtues as respect for authority, perseverance,
fidelity to duty, consideration for others, and practicality.

Reflecting its conservative philosophy, essentialism ten(tends to accept the philosophical

views associated with the traditional, conservative elements of American society. For
example, American culture traditionally has l)placed tremendous emphasis on the central
importance of tile physical world and of understanding the world through scientific
experimentation. As a result, to convey important knowledge about our world, essentialist

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educators emphasize instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines
such as philosophy or comparative religion.

The Essentialist Classroom: Essentialists urge that the most essential or basic academic
skills and knowledge be taught to all students. Traditional disciplines such as math, natural
science, history, foreign language, and literature form the foundation of the essentialist
curriculum. Essentialists frown upon vocational, lift-adjustment, or other courses with
"watered down" academic content.

Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, measurement,

and computers. Even while learning art and music, subjects most often associated with the
development of creativity, the students are required to master a body of information and
basic techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed
knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for their grade level are students
promote(l to the next higher grade.

Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners. The report
A Nation at Risk reflects the essentialist emphasis on rigor. It calls for more core
requirements, a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging
textbooks. Moreover, essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the
teacher, who ideally serves as an intellectual and moral role model for the students. The
teachers or administrators decide what is most important for the students to learn and place
little emphasis on student interests, particularly when they divert time and attention from
the academic curriculum. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as
a means of evaluating progress.

In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess
a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped
American society. Reflecting the essentialist emphasis on technological literacy, A Nation
at Risk recommends that all high school students complete at least one semester of
computer science. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not
only basic skills and an extensive body of knowledge, but also disciplined, practical minds,
capable of applying schoolhouse lessons in the real world.

Progressivism: "We may, I think, discover certain common principles amid the variety of
progressive schools now existing. To imposition from above is opposed expression and
cultivation of individuality; to external discipline is opposed free activity; to learning from
texts and teachers, learning through experience; to acquisition of' isolated skills and
techniques by drill is opposed acquisition of them as means of attaining ends which make
direct vital appeal; to preparation for a more or less remote future is opposed making the

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most of the opportunities of present life; to statistics and materials is opposed acquaintance
with a changing world." John Dewey

Progressivism's respect for individuality, its high regard for science, and its receptivity to
change harmonized well with the American environment in which it was created. The
person most responsible for the success of progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952).
Dewey entered the field of education as a liberal social reformer with a background in
philosophy and psychology. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago,
Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School as a testing ground for his educational ideas.
Dewey's writings and his work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive
education movement, which, beginning in the 1920s, has produced major lasting
innovations in American education.

The Roots of Progressivism: John Dewey's Philosophy: Dewey regarded the physical
universe as real and fundamental. He also claimed that the one constant truth about the
universe is the existence of change. For Dewey, change was not an uncontrollable force;
rather, it could be directed by human intelligence. He explained that as we alter our
relationship with our environment, we ourselves are made different by the experience.

Dewey not only believed in the existence of change but welcomed it. He regarded the
principles of democracy and freedom espoused in America as representing tremendous
progress over the political ideas of earlier times. Nevertheless, Dewey found much that was
wrong with American society, and he had little affection for the traditional American
approach to education. He hoped that his school reforms would alter the social fabric of
America, making it a more democratic nation of free thinking, intelligent citizens.

Dewey taught that people are social animals who learn well through active interplay with
others and that our learning increases when we are engaged in activities that have meaning
for us. Book learning, to Dewey, was no substitute for actually doing things. Fundamental
to Dewey's epistemology is the notion that knowledge is acquired and expanded as we
apply our previous experiences to solving new, meaningful problems. Education, to
Dewey, is a reconstruction of experience, an opportunity to apply previous experiences in
new ways. Relying heavily on the scientific method, Dewey proposed a five step method
for solving problems:

• Become aware of the problem;

• Ddefine it;
• Propose various hypotheses to solve it;
• Examine the consequences of each hypothesis in the light of previous
• Experience; and

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 • Test the most likely solution.
• Progressivism in the Schoolhouse

Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives,
progressivists center the curriculum around the experiences, interests, and abilities of
students. Teachers plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push the students to a higher level
of knowledge. In addition to reading textbooks, the students must learn by doing Often
students leave the classroom for fieldtrips during which they interact with nature or society.
Teachers also stimulate the students' interests through thought-provoking games. For
example, modified forms of the board game Monopoly have been used to illustrate the
principles of capitalism and socialism. In a progressivist school, students are encouraged
to interact with one another and to develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance
for different points of view. Also, teachers feel no compulsion to focus their students'
attentions on one discrete discipline at a time, and students may be responsible for learning
lessons that combine several different subjects.

Progressivists emphasize in their curriculum the study of the natural and social sciences.
Teachers expose students to many new scientific, technological, and social developments,
reflecting the progressivist notion that progress and change are fundamental. Students are
also exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognizes accomplishments of women
and minorities as well as white males. In addition, students solve problems in the classroom
similar to those they will encounter outside of the schoolhouse; they learn to be flexible
problem solvers.

Progressivists believe that education should be a perpetually enriching process of ongoing

growth, not merely a preparation for adult lives. They also deny the essentialist belief that
the study of traditional subject matter is appropriate for all students, regardless of interest
and personal experience. By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics,
progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home,
workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning
experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant
classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a
thing of the past.

Perennialism: "The Paideia Program seeks to establish a course of study that is general,
not specialized; liberal, not vocational; humanistic, not technical. Only in this way can it
fulfill the meaning of the words "paideia" and "humanities," which signify the general
learning that should be in the possession of every human being.”

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Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that comes up year after year.
Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today
as when they were first conceived, perennialism urges that these ideas should be the focus
of education. According to perennialists, when students are immersed in the study of those
profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake and become
true intellectuals.

The roots of perennialism lie in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, as well as that of St.
Thomas Aquinas the thirteenth-century Italian whose ideas continue to shape the nature of
Catholic schools throughout the world. Perennialists are generally divided into two groups:
those who espouse the religious approach to education adopted by Aquinas, and those who
follow the secular approach formulated in twentieth-century America by such individuals
as Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.

Existentialism: "Childhood is not adulthood; childhood is playing and no child ever gets
enough play. The Summerhill theory is that when a child has played enough he will start
to work and face difficulties, and I claim that this theory has been vindicated in our pupils'
ability to do a good job even when it involves a lot of unpleasant work." A. S. Neill

Existentialism as a Philosophical Term: The existentialist movement in education is

based on an intellectual attitude that philosophers term existentialism. Born in nineteenth-
century Europe, existentialism is associated with such diverse thinkers as

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a passionate Christian, and Friedrich Nietzsche (1811

1900) who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist and coined the phrase God is dead. While
the famous existentialists would passionately disagree with one another on many basic
philosophical issues, what they shared was a respect for individualism. In particular, they
argued that traditional approaches to philosophy do not adequately respect the unique
concerns of each individual.

Jean Paul Sartre's classic formulation of existentialism--that "existence precedes essence"-

-means that there exists no universal, inborn human nature. We are born and exist, and then
we ourselves freely determine our essence (that is, our innermost nature). Some
philosophers commonly associated with the existentialist tradition never fully adopted the
"existence precedes essence" principle. Nevertheless, that principle is fundamental to the
educational existentialist movement. Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy

In the existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students
understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete
responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. The teacher's role is to help students

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define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and
creating an environment in which they may freely choose their own preferred way. Since
feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making, the existentialist demands the
education of the whole person, not just the mind. Although many existentialist educators
provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more than other educational
philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an
existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose.

To the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the
humanities are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of
providing students with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity
and self-expression. For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists
focus upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models
for the students' own behavior. In contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences
may be de-emphasized, presumably because their subject matter would be considered
"cold," "dry," "objective," and therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover,
vocational education is regarded more as a means of teaching students about themselves
and their potential than of earning a livelihood. In teaching art, existentialism encourages
individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established models.

Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and
includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student
openly and honestly. Although elements of existentialism occasionally appear in public
schools, this philosophy has found wider acceptance in private schools and ill alternative
public schools founded in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Behaviorism: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief; and
yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations, and race of his ancestors." John Watson

While educational existentialism is based on the notion that we possess free will to shape
our innermost nature, behaviorism is derived from the belief that free will is an illusion.
According to a pure behaviorist, human beings are shaped entirely by their external
environment. Alter a person's environment, and you will alter his or her thoughts, feelings,
and behavior. Provide positive reinforcement whenever students perform a desired
behavior, and soon they will learn to perform the behavior on their own.

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 Behaviorism has its roots in the early 1900s in the work of the Russian experimental
psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1848-1936) and the American psychologist , John Watson
(1878-1958). By refining and expanding their studies, Harvard professor, B. F. Skinner
(1904-1989) has been the driving force behind the spread of behaviorism within modern
American culture. Skinner developed the now-famous Skinner box, which he used to train
small animals by behavioral techniques. He also invented a World War II guided missile
ystem that employed pecking pigeons to keep a projectile on course, a controversial air crib
for keeping babies in a climatically controlled environment, and programmed learning.

Underlying Philosophical Basis: Behaviorism asserts that the only reality is the physical
world that we discern through careful, scientific observation. People and other animals are
seen as complex combinations of matter that act only in response to internally or externally
generated physical stimuli. We learn, for instance, to avoid overexposure to heat through
the impulses of pain our nerves send to our brain. More complex learning, such as
understanding the material in this chapter, is also determined by stimuli, such as the
educational support you have received from your professor or parents or the comfort of the
chair in which you sit when you read this chapter.

Reconstructionism: Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the

addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide
democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform
as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social
reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized the
potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George
Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for
creating this new social order.

References:

1. Cohen, L. (1999) Philosophical perspectives in education. Retrieved June 14, 2005, from
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html
2. Shaw, L. (1995) Humanistic and Social Aspects of Teaching. Retrieved June 14, 2005,
from http://edweb.sdsu.edu/LShaw/f95syll/philos/phbehav.html

Q.5 Describe the Montessori system of early childhood education.

Ans. Introduction of Montessori Education: Montessori is a method of education that is based

on self-directed activity, hands-on learning and collaborative play. In Montessori
classrooms children make creative choices in their learning, while the classroom and the
highly trained teacher offer age-appropriate activities to guide the process. Children work

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in groups and individually to discover and explore knowledge of the world and to develop
their maximum potential.

Montessori classrooms are beautifully crafted environments designed to meet the needs of
children in a specific age range. Dr. Maria Montessori discovered that experiential learning
in this type of classroom led to a deeper understanding of language, mathematics, science,
music, social interactions and much more. Most Montessori classrooms are secular in
nature, although the Montessori educational method can be integrated successfully into a
faith-based program.

Every material in a Montessori classroom supports an aspect of child development, creating

a match between the child’s natural interests and the available activities. Children can learn
through their own experience and at their own pace. They can respond at any moment to
the natural curiosities that exist in all humans and build a solid foundation for life-long
learning.

The Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) was established by Maria Montessori in

1929 to protect the integrity of her work and to support high standards for both teacher
training and schools. Today, AMI continues to uphold Maria Montessori’s vision while
collaborating with contemporary research in neuroscience and child development.
Montessori Northwest is proud to be an official teacher training center of AMI, training
teachers to work with children from birth to age twelve.

Early Childhood Education: Early childhood education is a branch of education theory

that relates to the teaching of children from birth up to the age of eight. Traditionally, this
is up to the equivalent of third grade. ECE emerged as a field of study during the
Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates.

Montessori System Of Early Childhood Education: The Montessori Method of

education, developed by Dr. Maria Montessori, is a child-centered educational approach
based on scientific observations of children from birth to adulthood. Dr. Montessori’s
Method has been time tested, with over 100 years of success in diverse cultures throughout
the world.

It is a view of the child as one who is naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating
learning in a supportive, thoughtfully prepared learning environment. It is an approach that
values the human spirit and the development of the whole child—physical, social,
emotional, cognitive.

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Montessori education offers our children opportunities to develop their potential as they
step out into the world as engaged, competent, responsible, and respectful citizens with an
understanding and appreciation that learning is for life.

Each child is valued as a unique individual. Montessori education recognizes that

children learn in different ways, and accommodates all learning styles. Students are also
free to learn at their own pace, each advancing through the curriculum as he is ready, guided
by the teacher and an individualized learning plan.

Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop order, coordination,

concentration, and independence. Classroom design, materials, and daily routines
support the individual’s emerging “self-regulation” (ability to educate one’s self, and to
think about what one is learning), toddlers through adolescents.

Students are part of a close, caring community. The multi-age classroom—typically

spanning 3 years—re-creates a family structure. Older students enjoy stature as mentors
and role models; younger children feel supported and gain confidence about the challenges
ahead. Teachers model respect, loving kindness, and a belief in peaceful conflict resolution.

Montessori students enjoy freedom within limits. Working within parameters set by
their teachers, students are active participants in deciding what their focus of learning will
be. Montessorians understand that internal satisfaction drives the child’s curiosity and
interest and results in joyous learning that is sustainable over a lifetime.
Students are supported in becoming active seekers of knowledge. Teachers provide
environments where students have the freedom and the tools to pursue answers to their
own questions.

Self-correction and self-assessment are an integral part of the Montessori classroom

approach. As they mature, students learn to look critically at their work, and become adept
at recognizing, correcting, and learning from their errors.

Given the freedom and support to question, to probe deeply, and to make connections,
Montessori students become confident, enthusiastic, self-directed learners. They are able
to think critically, work collaboratively, and act boldly—a skill set for the 21st century.

References:

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. https://montessori-nw.org/about-montessori-education?gclid=Cj0KCQiA5bz-
BRDARIsABjT4njGJmvxwDst9PrAFS3A99mIyW2M431_17zhGPd9HWF4e2nxAkemE40aAvyxEA
Lw_wcB

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3. https://www.yonkerspublicschools.org/domain/2908#:~:text=The%20Montessori%20Method%20of%
20education,children%20from%20birth%20to%20adulthood.&text=It%20is%20an%20approach%20t
hat,%2C%20social%2C%20emotional%2C%20cognitive.
4. https://www.fundacionmontessori.org/the-montessori-method.htm
5. https://www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/education/blog/pros_cons_montessori_education/

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