GE 15 - Week 6 To 7

College of Arts and Sciences Education
2nd Floor, DPT Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
Q and A LIST
Do you have any questions for clarification?
Questions/ Issues Answers
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KEYWORDS INDEX
Evolution Natural selection Symbiosis

Limiting Factor Ecological niche Keystone species
Adaptation Speciation Ecological structure
Acclimation Genetic drift Ecotones
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: U.L.O. -1. Discuss the distribution, movement, , and fate of
toxins in the environment, explain some principles of toxicology, and summarize their
implications for the agriculture sector.
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study environmental science ULO-
1 will be operationally defined to establish a standard frame in the field of natural sciences
about the global issues of environmental toxicology. Pollution as well occurrence of global
diseases affecting human health and also the implications of toxic substances to the food
and agriculture sector. You will encounter these terms as we go through environmental
science studies with how people, and development and intimately connected, and the
implications to ecological health and safety. It involves a broader understanding of toxic
and hazardous substances and their corresponding disposal and treatment processes.
Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the knowledge of
environmental science concepts.
1. Toxicology. A scientific discipline that overlaps with biology, chemistry,

pharmacology, and medicine involves studying the adverse effects of chemical
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substances on living organisms and diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins

and toxins.
2. The disease is an abnormal condition that harms the structure or function of an

organism's system or part of its operation. A disease produces distinct signs and
symptoms and does not merely a consequence of physical injury.
3. Allergens it is an antigen that produces an abnormally potent immune response

where the immune system targets and fights a threat or an invader that could
potentially harm the body. Allergens are recognized by the immune system to cause
an allergic reaction.
4. Antigens, it is a substance that is present on the surface of a pathogen that binds to

an antigen-specific antibody (B cell antigen receptor). The presence of antigens
causes antibody formation (immunogens) and triggers the body's immune
response.
5. Neurotoxins it is referring to toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue. Neurotoxins

are an extensive class of exogenous chemical, neurological insults that can adversely
affect function in both developing and mature nervous tissue.
6. Mutagens are a physical or chemical agent that causes an increase in D.N.A.

modifications by altering the organism's D.N.A.
7. Teratogens. Any agent that can disrupt embryonic or fetal development causes a
child's congenital disability or may completely cease the pregnancy. These agents
include radiation, maternal infections, chemicals, or drugs.
8. Carcinogens are any substance or agents that promote cancer development

(carcinogenesis), causing genome damage or disruption of cells' metabolic
processes.
9. Solubility. An ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent and measured in terms of

the maximum solute amount dissolved to produce a saturated solution.
10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (P.O.P.s). Organic compounds are resistant to

biochemical, photolytic, and other environmental degradation processes. Because
of this, P.O.P.s are sometimes called "forever chemicals," which can bioaccumulate
with potentially detrimental effects on ecological and human health.
12. Acute effects. A physiological reaction in a human or animal body which cause
severe symptoms that could rapidly develop through acute exposure to toxic
substances. However, it may lead to chronic health effects if the cause is not
removed.
13. Chronic effects. An adverse effect on animals or the human body with symptoms
that develop slowly, due to prolonged and continuous exposure to low
concentrations of a hazardous substance.
14. Risk assessment. The combined effort of identifying and analyzing potential events
can negatively affect individuals, assets, and even the environment. It also makes
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mindful judgments on the tolerability of the risk analysis and examines factors
influencing it.
15. Risk Management. The evaluation, prioritization, and identification of risks

followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to control,
monitor, and minimize the probability or impact of unfortunate events or to
maximize the realization of opportunities.
16. Soil horizon. A layer parallel to the surfaces of the soil whose biological, chemical,
and physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are
defined in many cases by noticeable physical features, mainly color and texture.
17. Macronutrients. Nutrients that provide calories or energy and are required in large
amounts to maintain body functions and carry out daily activities.
18. Micronutrients. Nutrients in small quantities include vitamins, microminerals, and

trace elements such as iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese,
selenium, and zinc molybdenum.
19. Pesticides. Chemical compounds used to eliminate pests, such as insects, rodents,
fungi, and weeds. These chemicals are also used in public health to kill disease
vectors (e.g., mosquitoes) and pests that damage crops.
20. Herbicides. Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds). There are selective
herbicides that explicitly target a weed/s by interfering with its growth without
harming the desired crop.
21. Insecticides it is any substances that formulate to eliminate or mitigate insects,

including ovicides, which are used against insects and larvicides to kill insect larvae.
22. Fungicides. Biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms (plants or

animals) used to kill parasitic fungi, or their spores can cause severe damage in
agriculture, resulting in decreased yield, crop quality, and profit.
23. Aquaculture. A process of cultivating aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans,

and mollusks for human consumption. In contrast to commercial fishing, which
involves wild fish harvesting, aquaculture is a controlled cultivation process of
freshwater and saltwater populations.
24. Mariculture. It is a specialized branch of aquaculture (water) involving the
cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an
enclosed section of the sea, or in tanks, ponds, or raceways filled with seawater.
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the forth to sixth
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that
will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you can refer to other resources;
thus you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other available resources
in the university library (e.g., e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.)
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ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY
Health
World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as a state of complete physical,

mental, and social well-being. A person can be ill to some extent; however, health can be
improved to live a happier, longer, and more productive and satisfying lives. The disease
can also be influenced by environmental factors such as the Earth's climate system by
impairing physical and psychological functions.
The disease— impairment of an individual's well-being and capacity to function—is mostly

attributed to inadequate behavioral and environmental change. The factors that result in
morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) are diet and nutrition, infectious agent, hereditary
qualities, a poisonous substance, injury, and stress. Environmental health focuses on
disease-causing external factors, including elements of the natural, social, cultural, and
technological worlds in which we live.
Pollution
Pollution is a term used to describe the undesirable change in the environment brought
by the introduction of harmful materials or the production of unhealthy conditions (heat,
cold, sound). Contamination has a meaning similar to that of pollution and implies making
something unsuitable for specific use through the introduction of unwanted materials. The
term toxin refers to substances (pollutants) that are poisonous to living things. Toxicology
refers to the science that studies viruses or potential toxins. Toxicologists are scientists who
study in this field. A carcinogen is a toxin that increases cancer risk and one of the most
feared and controlled types of toxins in our society. Pollutants are commonly introduced
into the environment by way of point sources, such as smokestacks. Area sources, also
known as nonpoint sources, are more dispersed around the land, and it involves industrial
pollution and mobile sources, such as vehicle exhaust.
Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of toxins

(poisons) and their effects, particularly on
living systems-because many substances are
known to be poisonous to life (whether plant,
animal, or microbial), toxicology is a broad
field, drawing from biochemistry, histology,
pharmacology, pathology, and many other
disciplines. Toxins damage or kill living
organisms because they react with cellular
components to disrupt metabolic functions. Because of this reactivity, toxins are often
dangerous even in highly dilute concentrations. In certain instances, billionths or even
trillionths of a gram may lead to irreversible damage.
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EFFECTS OF TOXINS
Allergens are immune-activating agents. Some allergens act as antigens directly; that is,
white blood cells recognize them as foreign and stimulate the production of specific
antibodies. Certain allergens function indirectly by linking and modifying the composition
of foreign materials and become antigenic and induce an immune system to the response.
Formaldehyde is an excellent example of a widely used chemical that is a potent sensitizer
of the immune system. It is directly allergenic and can also trigger reactions to other
substances. Commonly used in plastics, wood products, insulation, glue, and fabrics,
formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air can be thousands of times higher than in healthy
outdoor air. Some people who suffer from sick building syndrome have headaches,
allergies, and chronic fatigue. And other symptoms caused by improperly ventilated indoor
air contaminate with carbon monoxide, mold spores, nitrogen oxide, formaldehyde, and
other pollutants emitted from carpets, furniture, fabrics, and construction materials and
other sources.
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the natural activity of hormones.
Hormones are chemicals released by cells into the bloodstreams in one part of the body to
regulate the function and development of tissues and organs in the body. We realize now
that some of the most gradual, yet harmful effects of persistent chemicals such as dioxins
and P.C.B.s are that they interfere with healthy growth, development, and physiology of a
variety of animals—including humans—at shallow doses.
Neurotoxins are a particular class of metabolic poisons that individually attack nerve cells
(neurons). The nervous system has an essential function in controlling the body activities,
especially to a fast-acting and devastating events. Neurotoxins have different types, and it
acts in different ways. Heavy metals like lead and mercury destroy nerve cells and cause
permanent brain damage. Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion) and carbamates
(carbaryl, zineb, maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, the enzymes that control the transfer
of signals between nerve cells and the tissues or organs they innervate (e.g., muscle).
Anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane, etc.) and chlorinated hydrocarbons (D.D.T.,
Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt nerve cell membranes needed for nerve action. Most neurotoxins
are both fast-acting and highly toxic.
Mutagens are agents that damage or modify the genetic material (D.N.A.) in cells, such as
chemicals and radiation. If the cost happens during embryonic or fetal development, this
may contribute to congenital disability. Later in life, genetic damage can contribute to
neoplastic (tumor) formation. If reproductive cells undergo injury, the effects may be
passed on to future generations. Cells have repair mechanisms to diagnose and repair
defective genetic material, but specific changes may be hidden, and the repair cycle itself
can be flawed. It is widely agreed that there is no “safe” threshold for mutagens exposure.
Any contact has the potential to cause harm.
Teratogens are chemicals substance or other factors which cause different abnormalities
during embryonic growth and development. Some chemicals that are usually not
dangerous may cause a severe problem at these vulnerable stages of life. Alcohol is
probably the most popular teratogen in the world. Drinking during pregnancy can lead to
fetal alcohol syndrome—a cluster of complications that persist throughout a child’s life,
including craniofacial abnormalities, developmental disorder, behavioral problems, and
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mental defects. Even one alcoholic drink a day has been associated with reduced birth
weight during pregnancy.
Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer, invasive, and out-of-control cell growth
resulting in malignant tumors. Cancer rates rose over the twentieth century in most
developed nations, and cancer is now the second leading cause of death in the U.S., killing
more than half a million people in 2002.
MOBILITY, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE
There are several origins of poisonous and dangerous chemicals in the environment
and various factors related to each compound itself. The sources are toxics and hazardous
chemicals in the environment that is related to the release of chemicals itself. The target of
these chemicals is both biotic and abiotic community. The dose (amount), route of entry,
the timing of exposure, and sensitivity of the organism all play an essential function in
determining toxicity. In this section, we will look at each of these characteristics and how it
affects environmental health.
Factors in Environmental Toxicity
Factors Related to Toxic agent.
1. Chemical composition and reactivity

2. Physical characteristics (such as solubility, state)
3. Presence of impurities or contaminants
4. Stability and storage characteristics of a toxic agent
5. Availability of vehicle (such as the solvent) to carry agent
6. Movement of the agent through the environment and into cells
Factors Related to Exposure
1. Dose (concentration and volume of exposure)

2. Route, rate, and site of exposure
3. Duration and frequency of exposure
4. Time of exposure (day, season, year)
Related Factors to Organism
1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and resistance to ingestion

2. Ability to metabolize, inactivate, sequester, or eliminate the agent
3. The tendency to activate or alter nontoxic substances, so they become toxic.
4. Concurrent infections or physical or chemical stress
5. Species and genetic characteristics of an organism
6. Nutritional status of the subject
7. Sex, body weight, age, maturity, and immunological status
Solubility
Solubility is one of the essential characteristics in determining how, where, and when a
toxic material will move through the environment. It also includes the body at its place of
action. The classification of chemical substances divides into two main groups:
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1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.

2. Those that dissolve more easily in water.
Since water is everywhere, water-soluble compounds move rapidly and widely in the
environment. They seem to have easy access to most cells in the body since aqueous
solutions bathe all our cells. Molecules that are oil-or fat-soluble (usually organic molecules)
generally need a carrier to move through the environment, into, and within, the body. Once
inside the body, however, oil-soluble toxins quickly pass into tissues and cells, since the
membranes that enclose the cells are composed of similar oil-soluble chemicals. Once they
get inside cells, oil-soluble materials are likely to be accumulated and stored in lipid
deposits. They are protected from metabolic breakdown and will continue for several years.
Exposure
Just as there are many sources of toxins in our environment, there are many routes
for entry of dangerous substances into our bodies. Airborne toxins generally cause more
ill-health compared to other sources. Our lungs are programmed to efficiently exchange
gases and, at the same time, absorb toxins. The complication in measuring toxicity is that
significant differences in sensitivity exist between species.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
The cell performs a selective absorption and storage of variation of molecules called
bioaccumulation. It allows them to accumulate nutrients and essential minerals, but at the
same time, they also may absorb and store harmful substances through these same
mechanisms. Toxins that are instead dilute in the environment can reach dangerous levels
inside cells and tissues through this process of bioaccumulation. The effects of toxins also
are magnified in the environment through food webs. When organisms ingest other
organisms making toxins accumulated from the base and concentrated in the highest
trophic level, it is called biomagnification.
Persistence
Some chemical compounds are volatile and degrade rapidly under most environmental
conditions so that their concentrations decline quickly after release. Most modern
herbicides and pesticides, for instance, promptly lose their toxicity. Other substances are
more persistent and last for years or even centuries in the environment. Metals—such as
lead—P.V.C. plastics, chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, and asbestos are valuable
because they are resistant to degradation. However, this stability causes problems because
these materials persist in the environment and have unexpected effects far from their
original use sites. Some persistent organic pollutants (P.O.P.s) have become extremely
widespread, being found from the tropics to the Arctic. Long-living top predators such as
bears, humans, raptors, and sharks are where it frequently accumulate. The following are
some of the most significant concerns:
§ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). These are known as flame retardants

usually used in textiles and plastics found in computers and appliances; these
chemicals are now found in humans and other species everywhere globally.
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§ Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also

known as C8) are widely used as a nonstick, waterproof stain-resistant product such
as Teflon, Gortex, Scotchguard, and Stainmaster. The industry makes use of their
slippery, heat-stable properties to manufacture everything from airplanes and
computers to cosmetics and household cleaners.
§ Phthalates (pronounced thalates) These are present in products such as

deodorants, plastics, and cosmetics. Also present in products used for children's
toys, medical equipment, and packaging for food. Some chemicals pose a toxic
threat to animals found in laboratories as they damage the kidney and liver and
might cause cancer.
§ Perchlorate is a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel utilized by rockets and

from propellants. It includes the cause of pollution in our waters, especially in waters
used for irrigation. Thus allows it to enter the human food chain.
§ Bisphenol A (B.P.A.), widely used in various products such as bottled water and
tooth-protecting sealants. It is a vital component in the creation of polycarbonate
plastics. Furthermore, it is an environmental estrogen and may alter sexual
development in both males and females. It has been found in humans with or
without known chemical exposure. It has been found out that the presence of such
a chemical causes abnormal chromosome numbers called aneuploidy. Having this
kind of abnormality will result in several forms of mental retardation and
miscarriages during pregnancy.
§ Atrazine is a substance applied to crops such as corn, cereal grains, sugarcanes,

and Christmas trees as herbicide in the United States of America. It is also the cause
of damage and disruption to the hormonal functions in mammals of their endocrine
system, resulting in low birth weights, disorders in the neurological services, and
abortions.
Interactions
Interactions happen because some substances have antagonistic reactions in which

materials will interfere with the effects or will somehow stimulate the breakdown of other
chemicals. The reaction occurs in Vitamin E and A, which enables to diminish the response
of some carcinogens. Subsequently, there are also materials which occur together in
exposures; this is an additive. In essence, rats exposed to both lead and arsenic show that
the toxicity level rats are exposed to double compared to being presented with one of
them. The most significant concern about this is the synergistic effect. An interaction in
which one substance intensifies the impact of another material is called synergism. In
essence, exposing to occupational asbestos, it will increase the rate of lung cancer 20-fold
times. At the same time, smoking will also intensify rates of lung cancer by the same amount.
In other cases, workers exposed to asbestos at the same time smoke have a 400-fold
increase in cancer rates. The question now is how many substances, when combined, will
give intensified results? Synergism is an important concept that considers pollution at the
same time. It is the interaction of different materials, which results in a total effect more
significant than the added impact of separate substances.
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THE MECHANISMS FOR MINIMIZING TOXIC EFFECTS
A primary concept in toxicology is that every substance is capable of being

poisonous under certain conditions. Fortunately, most of the chemicals have some safety
level or the threshold that is below their effects, which will enable them to be undetected
or insignificant. Throughout our lifetime, we consume some of these chemicals in lethal
dosage. Still, if consumed in small amounts or dosage, it will eventually be excreted or
broken down before inflicting harm to the body, and the damage caused can be repaired.
However, mechanisms that enable us to protect us from any toxins present in our body
become deleterious with other substances or in another stage of development.
Metabolic Mechanisms. Naturally, organisms contain enzymes that process waste

products and environmental poisons, which reduce toxicity levels. In mammals,
most of these enzymes are in the liver, the primary site of detoxification of both
natural wastes and introduced poisons. Excretion is also one method of reducing
and eliminating these toxins in the body. Breathing helps in excreting volatile
molecules such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, and ketones. Sweat also helps
in the excretion of excess salts and other substances. Kidneys do urine formation
also helps in the elimination of significant amounts of soluble materials.
Accumulation of toxins in the urine can damage this vital system. However, the
kidneys and bladder are subjects to harmful toxic levels of toxic compounds.
Repair Mechanisms. Our body performs a damage repair function caused by the
exposure to regular wear-and-tear or toxic or hazardous materials. It allows
individual cells to have enzymes to help repair the damage in the Deoxyribonucleic
acid (D.N.A.) and protein at the molecular level, organs, and tissues. The skin and
the epithelial lining of our gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels, lungs, and urogenital
systems have capabilities of having high cellular reproduction rates to replace
damaged cells. There is a chance that some cells will lose healthy growth controls
with each reproduction cycle, worst, if these cells run amok, creating a tumor. Thus,
carcinogenic are agents that irritate tissue such as smoking or drinking. High risk of
developing cancer is more significant in those tissues with high cell-replacement
rates.
MEASURING TOXICITY
In controlled conditions, it is the most commonly used and widely accepted toxicity
test to expose a population of laboratory animals to measured doses of specific substances.
This procedure takes so much time, painful, expensive, and debilitating to the animals used
as specimens in tests. Dose/response curves are not always symmetrical, making it
challenging to compare the toxicity of unlike chemicals or different species of organisms.
A convenient way to describe the toxicity of a chemical is to determine the dose to which
fifty percent (50%) of the test population is sensitive. In the case of a lethal dose (L.D.), this
is called the LD50.
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Acute and Chronic Doses
Acute effects have been the effects of most toxics we have discussed. They are caused by
a single exposure to the toxin and result in an immediate health crisis of some sort. An
individual survives an urgent crisis due to an acute reaction, most likely because the effects
are reversible.
If the effects have resulted in becoming permanent, it is considered to be a Chronic effect.

A constant effect can result from a single dose of a very toxic substance, resulting from a
continuous or repeated sublethal exposure. We also describe long-lasting vulnerabilities as
chronic, although their effects may or may not persist after the toxin is removed. It usually
is challenging to assess the specific health risks of chronic exposures because other factors,
such as aging or joint diseases, act simultaneously with the consideration under study.
RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk is the possibility or results of suffering harm or loss by hazard and an indication
of the severe damage. Risk assessment (R.A.) is the scientific process of estimating the
threat that particular hazards pose to human health. It is the overall process of hazard
identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation. Risk assessment for identified toxicity
hazards (for example, lead) includes collection and analysis of site data, development of
exposure and risk calculations, and preparation of human health and ecological impact
reports.
Exposure assessment is the process of estimating, measuring, characterizing, and

modeling the following:
1. magnitude
2. frequency
3. duration, and
4. route of exposure to a possible toxin.
Toxicity assessment weighs all available evidence and estimates the potential for
adverse health effects to occur. Risk assessment can also define as the process of
determining potential adverse health effects of exposure to pollutants and potentially toxic
materials. Exposure to toxic air pollutants can intensify your health risks. For example, if you
live near a factory that discharges cancer-causing chemicals and inhale contaminated air,
your chance of getting cancer can increase.
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https://images.app.goo.gl/zskX5jcF9wZmJKFo7
1. Identification of the hazard. It is using to evaluate if any particular

situation may have the potential to cause harm and consists of testing
materials to determine whether exposure is likely to cause health
problems. One method used is to investigate populations of people
who are exposed previously. For example, to understand the toxicity
of radiation produced from Radon (Rn) gas, researchers studied
workers in uranium (U) mines. Another method is to conduct
experiments to test effects on animals, such as monkeys, rats, or mice.
This method has drawn augmenting criticism from groups who believe
such experiments are unethical. Another approach is to try to
understand how a particular chemical works at the molecular level of
cells.
2. Dose-response assessment. This next step involves identifying

relationships between the dose of a chemical (therapeutic drug,
pollutant, or toxin) and the health effects on people. Some studies
include administering reasonably high doses of a compound to
animals. The results of exposures will be different illnesses, or
symptoms, such as tumor or rashes development, are recorded for
varying doses.
3. Exposure appraisal. This step evaluates the duration, frequency, and

intensity of human exposure to a particular chemical pollutant or toxin
in the environment. It includes some discussion of the size, nature, and
types of human populations exposed to the agent. The total
population exposed to the agent is directly proportional to the hazard
in the society.
4. The risk to an individual is generally more significant closer to the

source of exposure. Like dose-response assessment, exposure
assessment is difficult. The results are often controversial because of
difficulties in measuring the concentration (conc.) of a toxin in doses
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since it is as small as parts per million, billion, or even trillion.
5. Risk characterization. This final step aims to delineate health risk in

terms of the magnitude of the health issues and concerns that might
result from exposure to a particular pollutant or toxin. It is necessary to
identify the hazard or danger, complete the dose-response
assessment, and evaluate the exposure assessment, as outlined. This
method involves all the uncertainties of the previous actions, and
results are again likely to be controversial.
TOLERANCE
It is the ability to resist or withstand stress from exposure to a pollutant or harmful

condition. It can develop for some contaminants in some populations, but not for all
pollutants in all communities. Tolerance may result from behavioral, physiological, or
genetic adaptation.
Behavioral tolerance results from changes in the behavior; for example, mice learn
to avoid traps.
The physiological tolerance as a result when the body of an individual adjusts to

tolerate a higher level of pollutant.
AGRICULTURE, ENVIRONMENT, HUNGER
Agro-ecosystem is a farming that creates ecological conditions. It encompasses

environmental and decision networks that are connected and that perform different
functions leading to the provision of a wide range of ecosystem services. Ecological
succession is halted to keep the agroecosystem in an early-successional state. In natural
conditions, crop species would eventually be replaced by later-successional plants, and
slowing or stopping natural ecological succession requires time and effort. Biological
diversity and food chains are simplified, where the focus is on monoculture, one plant
species rather than many. Large areas are planted with a single species (plants or animals)
or even a single strain or subspecies, such as a unique hybrid of corn. The downside of the
monoculture is that it makes the entire crop vulnerable to attack by a single disease or an
only change in environmental conditions.
Farmers used to plant crops in neat fields and rows. These simple geometric layouts
make life easy for pests because the crop plants have no place to hide. In natural
ecosystems, many different species of plants grow mixed in intricate patterns, so it is harder
for pests to find their favorite victims. Agroecosystems require plowing, which is unlike any
natural soil disturbance that nothing in nature repeatedly and regularly turns over the soil
to a specific depth. Plowing exposes the soil to erosion and damages its physical structure,
leading to a decline in organic matter and chemical elements. They may include
genetically modified crops.
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Soils
Soils are complex ecosystems. It can be thought of as the ecosystem foundation, as

soil productivity determines what an ecosystem appears in terms of the plant and animal
life it can support. Geologically, soils are earth materials altered over time by physical,
chemical, and biological processes into a series of layers. Each kind of soil has its chemical
composition. Below is a soil whose color is close to that of the bedrock (which geologists
call "the parent material," for obvious reasons). We call the layers’ soil horizons.
Soil Horizon
Horizon O is often brown or black, and most are organic materials, including
decomposed or decomposing leaves and twigs.
A Horizon is often light black to brown and composed of both mineral and organic
materials. Leaching—the process of draining, washing, or draining earth materials
by the percolation of other liquids or groundwater – occurs in the horizon A and
moves clay and other materials, such as Calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe), to the horizon
B.
Horizon E is composed of light-colored materials resulting from leaching of clay,

magnesium, iron, and calcium to horizon in the lower levels. Horizon A and E
together constitute the zone of leaching.
Horizon B is also known as the zone of accumulation and enriched in clay, iron
oxides, carbonate, silica, or other material leached from overlying horizons.
Horizon C is composed of partially altered (weathered) parent material; the rock is

shown here, but the equipment could also be alluvial, such as river gravels, in other
environments. This Horizons may be stained red with iron oxides.
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Components of Soils
1. Sand and gravel are mineral particles that come from bedrock. Either coming
from the same environment or came from somewhere else, like blown by the
wind.
2. Silt and clay are tiny mineral particles. Clay holds water due to its flat surfaces
and ionic charges, which causes it to be sticky.
3. Dead organic materials are plant matter decaying; gives nutrients and the
black/brown color of the soil.
4. Soil fauna and flora are the living organisms present, such as soil fungi, worms,
bacteria, insects (help recycle organic compounds and nutrients), and plant
roots.
5. Water that comes from either rainfall or groundwater, which is essential for the
fauna and flora
6. Air that is present between the soil. The soil has tiny pockets of air that help the
organisms survive underneath.
Limiting Factors
Crops need around 20 chemical elements at just the right amounts, at the correct
times, and in the right proportions to each other. There life-important chemical elements
can be divided into two groups:
Macronutrients. Macronutrients are essential chemical elements that are necessary

for all living organisms in relatively large quantities. The macronutrients are
phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, nitrogen, potassium, oxygen, hydrogen,
and carbon.
Micronutrients. Micronutrients are essential chemical elements that are only

needed in small quantities – ranging from tiny amounts to moderate amounts,
depending on the organism. Micronutrients are the rarer metals, like copper, zinc,
molybdenum, manganese, and iron.
PESTS AND PESTICIDES
The pesticide is a general term for a chemical that kills pests, usually a toxic
chemical, but sometimes we also consider chemicals that drive pests away from pesticides.
Some pest control compounds kill a wide range of living things and are called biocides.
Herbicides are chemicals that kill plants; insecticides kill insects, and fungicides kill fungi.
The scientific, industrial revolution brought significant changes in agriculture pest control,
which we can divide into four stages:
Stage 1: Broad-Spectrum Inorganic Toxins. During the start of modern science-

based agriculture, the abundance of pests drove people to search for chemicals that
would reduce their amounts. The goal was a "magic bullet," a chemical (referred to
as narrow-spectrum pesticide) that would eliminate a single kind of pest, and leave
the rest unharmed, but this proved to be very difficult. It was common in earlier
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pesticides to be made of pure organic compounds, but they were widely toxic.
Arsenic was used in one of the previous pesticides. Arsenic was toxic to all life, even
to humans. It was useful in eliminating pests, but beneficial organisms went along
with them. It was considered very dangerous to use.
Stage 2: Petroleum-Based Sprays and Natural Plant Chemicals. (from the 1930s
onward) Plants produce natural pesticides as a defense mechanism against
herbivores and disease. The tobacco plant produced nicotine, an insecticide, and
even used it today as the primary agent. Natural plant pesticides are safer than most,
but it wasn’t the same as the desired effectiveness.
Stage 3: Artificial Organic Compounds. Artificial organic compounds have

created a revolution in agriculture, but they have some significant drawbacks. One
problem is secondary pest outbreaks, which occur after extended use (and possibly
because of a pesticide's prolonged use). Secondary pest outbreaks can come about
in two ways:
1. The reduction of the target species caused the competing second species to
flourish because of the lack of competition between the two species. This caused
the second species to become pests.
2. The pest develops resistance to pesticides through evolution and natural
selection, which favor those who have more excellent immunity to the chemical.
Resistance has grown to many insecticides.
Stage 4: Integrated Pest Management and Biological Control Integrated pest

management. (I.P.M.) uses a combination of biological control, certain chemical
pesticides, and some methods of planting crops. The key idea underlying I.P.M. is
that the goal can be control rather than the complete elimination of a pest. This
course of action can be justified for several reasons: in economics, eliminating or
even just a high percentage of the pests becomes very expensive. In contrast, the
value of ever-greater elimination becomes less and less in terms of crops to sell.
Biological control uses the natural enemy of the target pests to limit their
growth. Caterpillars and other larvae pests can be combatted with using the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, also known as B.T., which is very useful.
Types of Pesticides
One way to classify pesticides is by their chemical structure and main components.
Some are organic (carbon-based) compounds. Others are toxic metals (such as arsenic) or
halogens (such as bromine).
Organophosphates are among the most abundantly used synthetic pesticides.

Glyphosate, the single most heavily used herbicide in the United States, is also
known by the trade name Roundup. Glyphosate is applied to 90 percent (90%) of
U.S. soybeans and other crops. "Roundup-ready" soybeans and corn— varieties
genetically modified to tolerate glyphosate while other plants in the field are
destroyed—are the most commonly planted genetically modified crops.
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Chlorinated hydrocarbons, also known as organochlorines, are highly toxic and

persistent to sensitive organisms. In the U.S., atrazine was a heavily used herbicide
until overtaken by the usage of glyphosate. Corn crops in the U.S., around 96
percent, are applied with atrazine to control weeds in the cornfields.
Fumigants are generally small molecular compounds, like ethylene dibromide,

methylene bromide, and carbon tetrachloride. These compounds can be delivered
in the form of gas for easy penetration into the soil and other materials. Fumigants
are used to control fungus in strawberry fields and other low-growing crops and
prevent decay, rodent, and insect infestations in stored grain.
Inorganic pesticides are compounds made from toxic elements, like sulfur, copper,
arsenic, and mercury. These elements are considered a broad-spectrum poison,
because they are highly poisonous and indestructible, which means they stay in the
environment forever. They usually act nerve toxins. Historically, the primary
pesticide applied to apples, and other orchard crops were arsenic powder, but
traces of the dust remain in groundwater or soil in many agricultural areas.
Natural organic pesticides, also known as botanicals, are extracts from plants. An
example before was nicotine and nicotinoid alkaloids extracted from tobacco, and
pyrethrum, extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. These compounds
also include turpentine, phenols, and other aromatic oils from conifers. These
extracts are toxic to insects, and may even prevent wood decay.
Microbial agents and biological controls use living organisms or toxins extracted
from them that are used instead of pesticides. A natural soil bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis, is one of the chief pest control agents allowed in organic farming.
When eaten, this bacterium targets caterpillars and beetles and eliminates them by
producing a toxin that destroys their digestive tract lining.
FOOD AND NUTRITION
Despite dire predictions that runaway population growth would soon lead to terrible
famines, world food supplies have more than kept up with increasing human numbers over
the past two centuries. The past 40 years have seen especially encouraging strides in
reducing world hunger. More than 850 million people today are considered chronically
hungry: their diets don’t provide the 2,200 kcal per day, which is deemed necessary for a
healthy and productive life. Poverty is the greatest threat to food security or the ability to
obtain sufficient food on a day-to-day basis. Food security occurs at multiple scales. In the
poorest countries, hunger may affect nearly everyone.
GREEN REVOLUTION AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
Around 50 years ago, agricultural research stations started breeding tropical wheat
and rice varieties to provide food for developing countries with a growing population. From
Mexico, Norman Borlaug developed one of the first "miracle" variations, a dwarf, high-
yielding grain. Around the same period, the International Rice Institute in the Philippines
also developed a dwarf rice strain produced three or four times more than other varieties
during that time. This production of new types that caused dramatic increases of yield was
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called the green revolution. It is one of the main reasons why food production was able to
keep up with the rapid rise in the world population over the past decades.
The green revolution varieties are considered "high responders" because they yield
more product if given optimum water, fertilizers, and pesticides. On the other hand, under
suboptimum conditions, high responders may not produce as well as traditional varieties.
Impoverished farmers cannot afford expensive fertilizers, seeds, and water to be part of the
green revolution movement, and they become left behind.
Organic farming believes to have three essential qualities: minimization of adverse

environmental impacts, more like natural ecosystems than monocultures, and not
containing artificial compounds in the food produced.
Genetic engineering is the process where genetic material from one organism is removed
and introduced into the chromosomes of another organism. This new technology has the
potential to increase both the quantity and quality of our food supply significantly. Building
entire new genes, and even organisms is now a strong possibility. Taking bits of desired
D.N.A. and synthesizing D.N.A. sequences are done to produced genetically modified
organisms (G.M.O.s), which exhibit the desired characteristics. Proponents predict
dramatic benefits from genetic engineering. Current research is done to improve the yield
and development of crops that resist drought, frost, or diseases.
Genetic engineering done for agriculture involves several different practices that are
grouped as follows:
1. faster and more efficient ways to develop new hybrids

2. introduction of the “terminator gene”; and
3. transfer of genetic properties from widely different kinds of life.
Terminator genes are present in crop seeds to make it sterile (unable to form offspring).
This gene added for economic and environmental reasons. In theory, it prevents a
genetically modified crop from growing elsewhere.
AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture can be extremely productive on a per-area basis, partly because flowing water
brings food from outside into the pond or enclosure. Farming of marine and freshwater
protein sources is growing and can become a significant way to provide food of high
nutritional quality. Mariculture is the farming of saltwater fishes. It includes only produces
a fraction of the total marine fish catch, but has increased in the last decades and will likely
to increase further in the future.
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson.
Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA
Earthscan, USA
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Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M., 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern.
11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D., and Keller, E., 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA
Activity No. 4. Now that you have known the most essential terms in the study of
environmental science. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms. In the space
provided, write the terms, being asked in the following statements:
_______________________1. The state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being,

not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
_______________________2. Refers to the impairment of an individual’s well-being and

ability to function often due to poor adjustments between the
individual and the environment.
_______________________3. Refers to the unwanted change in the environment caused by

the introduction of harmful materials or the production of
harmful conditions.
_______________________4. A toxin that increases the risks of cancer.
_______________________5. Refers to substances that activate the immune systems.
_______________________6. It refers to chemicals that disrupt normal hormone functions.
_______________________7. An agent which damage or alter genetic materials in cells.
_______________________8. It occurs when toxic burden of a large number of organisms at

a lower trophic level is accumulated and concentrated by a
predator in a higher trophic level.
_______________________9. A waterborne contaminant left over from propellants and

rocket fuels.
_______________________10. An interaction in which one substance exacerbates the effects

of another.
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Activity No. 4. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying environmental
toxicology and health, evolution, ecosystems, and interactions will not be sufficient. What
matters is that you should be able to identify and discuss different toxic elements present
in the environment, whether naturally occurring or human-induced. It is also important to
determine the route and persistence of these pollutants to develop measures and
mechanisms to reduce the risk of potential food contamination and other agricultural
resources. Now, I will require you to explain your answers thoroughly.
1. What is biomagnification? Why is it essential in toxicology?

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2. Differentiate acute effects from chronic effects.

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3. Identify and discuss comprehensively the components of risk management.

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4. How are toxic elements being deposited in the environment? Can these toxic
elements/ chemicals contaminate the food chain?
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Activity No. 4. Studying the environment and its components requires a deeper
understanding of the core areas of environmental science. This involves understanding the
influence of human dimensions as well as the natural phenomena that resulted in different
alterations of the natural ecosystems, which eventually creates threats and danger both the
biological, physical, and chemical components of an ecosystem. Also, this includes the
analysis and understanding of how humanmade and natural components react with one
another. Based on the definitions and the essential elements in the study of environmental
and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to indicate your arguments
or lessons learned below.
1. Different types of elements, whether naturally present or human-induced, have
implications for biological safety as these elements tend to persist in the
environment due to its non-biodegradable nature. Since it continues, it poses
threats to human health as well as security and food safety.
2. The disease is considered an environmental response or an imbalance within an

ecosystem. This signifies that the carrying capacity of the environment has been
reached which makes a particular ecosystem unable to function very well that
resulted in the or reduce the ability to assimilate pollutants and recover.
YOUR TURN
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
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5. ___________________________________________________________________________
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6. ___________________________________________________________________________
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7. ___________________________________________________________________________
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8. ___________________________________________________________________________
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9. ___________________________________________________________________________
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10. ___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Carcinogens Mortality Exposure

Antigens Morbidity Persistence
Risk assessment Mutagens Lethal Dose
Toxicology Solubility Tolerance
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -2. Discuss biodiversity and the species concept and explain
some environmental problems associated with biological diversity.
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of biodiversity and environmental
associated problems. You will encounter these terms as we go through the reviews of
ecological science, particularly on biological diversity, threats and challenges, and how
people and intimately connected and the implications of rapid population growth and
towards the environment. It involves a broader understanding of environmental problems,
making judgments evaluating different environmental and their functions. Please refer to
the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding of environmental
science concepts.
1. Population. A group of interbreeding individuals of the same species, which is

isolated from other groups.
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1.1. In population ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same

species inhabiting the same area.
2. The aesthetic is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and
taste, as well as the philosophy of art.
2.1. It examines subjective and sensory-emotional values, or sometimes called
judgments of sentiment and taste.
3. Mutation. An alteration in the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism,
virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.
3.1. Viral genomes can be of either DNA or RNA.
4. DNA. A molecule composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each
other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development,
functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.
4.1. DNA and ribonucleic acid are nucleic acids.
5. Adenine. A nucleobase. It is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA
that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The three others are guanine, cytosine,
and thymine.
6. Guanine. One of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and
RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine.
6.1. In DNA, guanine is pair with cytosine.
6.2. The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine.
7. Cytosine. One of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine,
guanine, and thymine.
7.1. It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two
substituents attached.
7.2. The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine.
7.3. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.
8. Thymine. One of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are
represented by the letters G–C–A–T.
8.1. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-
methyl uracil, a pyrimidine nucleobase.
8.2. In RNA, thymine is replacing by the nucleobase uracil.
9. Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention
of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location.
9.1. The movement is often over long distances and from one country to another,
but internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form
globally.
10. Founder effect. The loss of genetic variation occurs when a new population
establishes a minimal number of individuals from a larger population. It was first fully
outlined by Ernst Mayr in 1942, using existing theoretical work by those such as
Sewall Wright.
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11. Ecological extinction. The reduction of a species to such low abundance that,
although it is still present in the community, no longer interacts significantly with
other species".
11.1. Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a
species that is important for conservation work.
12. Invasive species. A species that is not native to a specific location tends to spread
to a degree believed to damage the environment, human economy, or human
health.
13. Forest. A large area dominated by trees.

13.1. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the
world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal
standing, and ecological function.
14. Savannas. A mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees

being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.
14.1. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an
unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.
15. Open canopy. Describes a kind of forest or woodland in which the tops or crowns
of the trees do not touch each other or overlap, as with a closed canopy.
16. Primary forests are forests of native tree species, where there are no clearly visible
indications of human activities, and the ecological processes are not significantly
disturbed.
16.1. Secondary forests regenerate on native forests, which have been cleared
by natural or human-made causes, such as agriculture or ranching.
17. Pollution. The introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
causes adverse change.
17.1. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise,
heat, or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
18. Geographic isolation. A term refers to a population of animals, plants, or other

organisms separated from exchanging genetic material with other organisms of the
same species.
18.1. Typically, geographic isolation is the result of an accident or coincidence.
19. Genes. A sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA encodes the synthesis of a gene
product, either RNA or protein. During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into
RNA.
19.1. The RNA can be directly functional or be the standard template for a protein
that performs a function.
20. Genotype. The part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of any individual,
which determines one of its characteristics.
20.1. The term was coined by the Danish botanist, plant physiologist, and
geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1903.
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To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the eighth to nineth weeks
of the course, you need fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid
down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to refer to these
resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and
other available resources in the university library. e.g.,e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.
BIODIVERSITY AND INVASIONS
Biological diversity has become one of the “hot-button” environmental topics—there

is a lot of news about endangered species, loss of biodiversity, and its causes. Biological
diversity refers to the variety of life-forms, commonly expressed as the number of species
or the number of genetic types in an area.
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area
or interbreeding and sharing genetic information. A species is all individuals that are
capable of interbreeding. A species is made up of populations. There are nine primary
reasons: utilitarian, public service, ecological, moral, theological, aesthetic, recreational,
spiritual, and creative.
Utilitarian means that a species or group of species provides a product that is of

direct value to people.
Public service means that nature and diversity provide some service, such as taking
up carbon dioxide or pollinating flowers that are essential or valuable to human life
and would be expensive or impossible to do ourselves.
Ecological refers to the fact that species have roles in their ecosystems. Some of
these are necessary for the persistence of their ecosystems, perhaps even for the
persistence of all life. Scientific research tells us which species have such ecosystem
roles.
The moral reason for valuing biodiversity is that species have a right to exist,
independent of their value to people.
The theological reason is that some religions value nature and diversity, and a
person who subscribes to that religion supports this belief.
Aesthetic refers to the beauty of nature, including a variety of life.
Recreational is self-explanatory— people enjoy getting out into nature, not just
because it is beautiful to look at but because it provides us with healthful activities
that we enjoy.
Spiritual describes the way contact with nature, and its diversity often moves
people, and uplifting often perceived as a religious experience.
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Creative refers to the fact that artists, writers, and musicians find stimulation for their
creativity in nature and its diversity.
Basics of Biodiversity
Biological diversity involves the following concepts:
Genetic Diversity. The total number of genetic characteristics of a specific species,

subspecies, or group of species. In terms of genetic engineering and our new
understanding of DNA, this could mean the entire base-pair sequences in DNA, the
total number of genes, active or not, or the total number of active genes.
Habitat Diversity. The different kinds of habitats in a given unit area.
Species Diversity. Which, in turn, has three qualities:
1. species richness—the total number of species

2. species evenness—the relative abundance of species and
3. species dominance—the most abundant species.
Biological Evolution
Biological evolution refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a population from

generation to generation. It can result in new species—populations that can no longer
reproduce with members of the original species but can (and at least occasionally do)
reproduce with each other. Along with self-reproduction, biological evolution is one of the
features that distinguish life from everything else in the universe. The word evolution in the
term biological evolution has a special meaning. Outside biology, evolution is used
broadly to mean the history and development of something.
Four Key Processes in Biological Evolution
Mutation. Mutations are changes in genes. It is contained in the chromosomes

within cells, each gene carries a single piece of inherited information from one
generation to the next, producing a genotype. This genetic makeup is characteristic
of an individual or a group. Genes are made up of a complex chemical compound
called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In turn, DNA is made up of chemical building
blocks that form a code, a kind of alphabet of information. The DNA alphabet
consists of four letters that stand for specific nitrogen-containing compounds, called
bases, which are combined in pairs: (A) adenine, (C) cytosine, (G) guanine, and
(T) thymine. Each gene has a set of the four base pairs, and how these letters are
combined in long strands determines the genetic “message” interpreted by a cell to
produce specific compounds. The number of base pairs that make up a strand of
DNA varies. To make matters more complex, some base pairs found in DNA are
nonfunctional—they are not active and do not determine any chemicals produced
by the cell. Furthermore, some genes affect the activity of others, turning those other
genes on or off. And creatures such as ourselves have genes that limit the number
of times a cell can divide and determine the individual's maximum longevity.
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Natural Selection. When there is variation within a species, some individuals may
be better suited to the environment than others. (Change is not always for the better.
Mutation can result in a new species whether or not that species is better adapted
than its parent species to the environment.) Organisms whose biological
characteristics make them better able to survive and reproduce in their environment
leave more offspring than others. Their descendants form a larger proportion of the
next generation and are more “fit” for the environment. This process of increasing
the proportion of offspring is called natural selection. Which inherited
characteristics lead to more offspring depends on the specific characteristics of an
environment, and as the environment changes over time, the characteristics’ “fit” will
also change. In summary, natural selection involves four primary factors:
1. The inheritance of traits from one generation to the next and some variation
in these traits—that is, genetic variability.
2. Environmental variability.
3. Differential reproduction (differences in numbers of offspring per individual)
which varies with the environment.
4. Influence of the environment on survival and reproduction.
Migration and Geographic Isolation. Sometimes two populations of the same

species become geographically isolated from each other for a long time. During
that time, the two populations may change so much that they can no longer
reproduce together even when they are brought back into contact. In this case, two
new species have evolved from the original species. This can happen even if the
genetic changes are not more fit but simply different enough to prevent
reproduction. Migration has been an important evolutionary process over geologic
time (a period long enough for geologic changes). Darwin’s visit to the Galápagos
Islands gave him his most powerful insight into biological evolution.10 He found
many species of finches that were related to a single species found elsewhere. On
the Galápagos, each species was adapted to a different niche. Darwin suggested
that finches isolated from other species on the continents eventually separated into
a number of groups, each suited to a more specialized role. The process is called
adaptive radiation. This evolution continues today, as illustrated by a recently
discovered new species of finch on the Galápagos Islands.
Genetic Drift refers to changes in the frequency of a gene in a population due not
to mutation, selection, or migration, but simply to chance. One way this happens is
through the founder effect. The founder effect occurs when a small number of
individuals are isolated from a larger population; they may have much less genetic
variation than the original species (and usually do), and the characteristics that the
isolated population has will be affected by chance. In the founder effect and genetic
Drift, individuals may not be better adapted to the environment; they may be more
poorly adapted or neutrally adapted. Genetic Drift can occur in any small population
and may present conservation problems when it is by chance isolated from the main
population.
Factors That Tend to Increase Diversity
1. A physically diverse habitat

2. Moderate amounts of disturbance (such as fire or storm in a forest or a sudden
flow of water from a storm into a pond).
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3. A small variation in environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, nutrient

supply, etc.).
4. High diversity at one trophic level increases the diversity at another trophic level.
(Many kinds of trees provide habitats for many kinds of birds and insects.)
5. An environment highly modified by life (e.g., a rich organic soil).
6. Middle stages of succession.
7. Evolution.
Factors That Tend to Decrease Diversity
1. Environmental stress.
2. Extreme environments (conditions near the limit of what living things can
withstand).
3. A severe limitation in the supply of an essential resource.
4. Extreme amounts of disturbance.
5. Recent introduction of exotic species (species from other areas).
6. Geographic isolation (being on a real or ecological island).
Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction. The elimination of a species is a normal process of the natural world.

Species die out and are replaced by others, often their own descendants, as part
of evolutionary change. Extinction is a natural process. The rate at which species
are disappearing appears to have increased dramatically over the last 150 years.
Habitats Destruction. The most important extinction threat for most species—
especially terrestrial ones—is habitat loss. Perhaps the most obvious example of
habitat destruction is clear-cutting of forests and conversion of grasslands to crop
fields.
Invasive Species. A major threat to native biodiversity in many places is from

accidentally or deliberately introduced species. Called a variety of names—alien,
exotic, non-native, non-indigenous, unwanted, disruptive, or invaders—invasive
species are organisms that move into new territory. These migrants often flourish
where they are free of predators, diseases, or resource limitations that may have
controlled their population in their native habitat. Although humans have probably
transported organisms into new habitats for thousands of years, the rate of
movement has increased sharply in recent years with the vast increase in speed and
volume of travel by air, water, and land.
Pollution. We have known that toxic pollutants can have disastrous effects on local
populations of organisms for a long time. Pesticide-linked declines of top predators,
such as eagles, osprey, falcons, and pelicans, were well documented in the 1970s.
Declining populations of marine mammals, alligators, fish, and other wildlife alert us
to the connection between pollution and health. Lead poisoning is another major
cause of mortality for many species of wildlife.
Population. Human population growth represents a threat to biodiversity in several

ways. If our consumption patterns remain constant, with more people, we will need
to harvest more timber, catch more fish, plow more land for agriculture, dig up more
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fossil fuels and minerals, build more houses, and use more water. All of these
demands impact wild species.
Overharvesting. It is responsible for the depletion or extinction of many species.

Fish stocks have been seriously depleted by overharvesting in many parts of the
world. A massive increase in fishing fleet size and efficiency in recent years has led
to a crash of many marine populations.
Commercial Products and Live Specimens. In addition to harvesting wild species

for food, we also obtain a variety of valuable commercial products from nature.
Much of this represents a sustainable harvest, but some forms of commercial
exploitation are highly destructive and represent a serious threat to certain rare
species. Despite international bans on trade in products from endangered species,
smuggling of furs, hides, horns, live specimens, and folk medicines amounts to
millions of dollars each year.
ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT
Over the years, we have gradually become aware of the harm we have done—and continue
to do—to wildlife and biological resources. Slowly, we are adopting national legislation and
international treaties to protect these irreplaceable assets. Parks, wildlife refuges, nature
preserves, zoos, and restoration programs have been established to protect nature and
rebuild depleted populations. Where earlier regulations had been focused almost
exclusively on “game” animals, these programs seek to identify all endangered species and
populations and to save as much biodiversity as possible, regardless of its usefulness to
humans.
Endangered species are those considered in imminent danger of extinction,

Threatened species are those that are likely to become endangered—at least
locally—within the foreseeable future.
Vulnerable species are naturally rare or have been locally depleted by human
activities to a level that puts them at risk.
A variety of terms are used for rare or endangered species thought to merit special
attention:
Keystone species have significant effects on ecological functions and whose

elimination would affect many other members of the biological community;
examples are prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) or bison (Bison bison).
Indicator species are those tied to specific biotic communities or successional

stages or set of environmental conditions. They can be reliably found under certain
circumstances but not others; an example is brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).
Umbrella species require large blocks of relatively undisturbed habitat to maintain

viable populations. Saving this habitat also benefits other species. Examples of
umbrella species are the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) and
elephant (Loxodonta africana).
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Flagship species are especially interesting or attractive organisms to which people

react emotionally. These species can motivate the public to preserve biodiversity
and contribute to conservation; an example is a giant panda (Ailuropoda
melanoleuca).
BIODIVERSITY AND LANDSCAPES
Forests
Forests have always been important to people; indeed, forests and civilization have always
been closely linked. Since the earliest civilizations—in fact, since some of the earliest human
cultures—wood has been one of the major building materials and the most readily available
and widely used fuel. Forests are widely distributed, but the most significant remaining
areas are in the humid equatorial regions and the cold boreal forests of high latitudes.
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines forest as any area where trees
cover more than 10 percent of the land. This definition includes a variety of forest types
ranging from open savannas, where trees cover less than 20 percent of the ground, to
closed-canopy forests, in which tree crowns overlap to cover most of the ground. Globally,
about one-third of all forests are categorized as primary forests. Unfortunately, an
estimated 6 million ha (15 million acres) of these irreplaceable forests are cleared or heavily
damaged every year.
Four ways that a forest (or a vegetated area) can affect the atmosphere:
1. Some solar radiation is absorbed by vegetation, and some is reflected, changing the
local energy budget, compared to a non-forest environment.
2. evaporation and transpiration from plants, together called evapotranspiration,
transfers water to the atmosphere
3. photosynthesis by trees releases oxygen into the atmosphere and removes carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas, cooling the temperature of the atmosphere
4. near-surface wind is reduced because the vegetation —especially trees—produces
roughness near the ground that slows the wind.
Parks and Preserves
While most forests and grasslands serve utilitarian purposes, many nations have set
aside some natural areas for ecological, cultural, or recreational purposes. Some of these
preserves have existed for thousands of years. Different levels of protection are found in
nature preserves. A park is an area set aside for use by people. Although people may use
it, a nature preserve has as its primary purpose the conservation of some resource, typically
a biological one. Every park or preserve is an ecological island of one kind of landscape
surrounded by a different kind of landscape, or several different kinds.
Ecological and physical islands have special ecological qualities, and island
biogeography concepts are used in the design and management of parks. One of the
important differences between a park and a truly natural wilderness area is that a park has
definite boundaries. These boundaries are usually arbitrary from an ecological viewpoint
and have been established for political, economic, or historical reasons unrelated to the
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natural ecosystem. Many natural parks and preserves are increasingly isolated, remnant
fragments of ecosystems that once extended over large areas.
As park ecosystems are shrinking, they are also becoming more important for
maintaining biological diversity. Principles of landscape design and landscape structure
become important in managing and restoring these shrinking islands of habitat. One of the
reasons large preserves are considered better than small preserves is that they have more
core habitat, areas deep in the interior of a habitat area, and that core habitat has better
conditions for specialized species than do edges. Edge effects is a term generally used to
describe habitat edges. For example, a forest edge is usually more open, bright, and windy
than a forest interior, and temperatures and humidity are more varied. Landscape ecology
is a science that examines the relationship between these spatial patterns and ecological
processes, such as species movement or survival.
Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson.
Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global Concern.

11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA
Activity No. 5. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the study of
biological diversity and invasions. Let us try to check your understanding on these terms
and concepts. In the space provided, identify biodiversity and invasions concepts
described in each of the following statements.
______________________1. It refers to the variety of life forms, commonly expressed as the

number of species or the number of genetic types in an area.
______________________2. It refers to the beauty of nature, including the variety of life.
______________________3. The total number of genetic characteristics of a species.
______________________4. The change in inherited characteristics of a populations from
generation to generation.
______________________5. Refers to the changes in the frequency of a gene in a population
due not to mutation, selection, or migration, but simply to chance.
______________________6. Refers to species considered in imminent danger of extinction.
______________________7. A species with major ecological functions and whose elimination
would affect the other members of the biological community.
______________________8. The science that examines the relationship between these
spatial patterns and ecological processes.
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______________________9. A species that can motivate the public to preserve biodiversity

and contribute to conservation.
______________________10. Refers to species tied to specific biotic communities or
successional stages or set of environmental conditions.
Activity No. 5. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying biodiversity and
invasions, green revolution, genetic engineering as well biological interactions will not be
sufficient, what also matters is you should be able to identify and discuss how biological
diversity is affected by population movement, patterns, and community structure. Now, I
will require you to explain thoroughly your answers.
1. Discuss comprehensively what is species richness, species evenness, and species

dominance.
___________________________________________________________________________
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2. What is migration? Can migration influence biological diversity?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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3. Identify and discuss the key processes of biological evolution.

___________________________________________________________________________
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4. Enumerate at least three (3) threats to biodiversity and discuss comprehensively.

___________________________________________________________________________
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Activity No. 5. Based on the definition of the most essential terms and concepts of
biological diversity and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to write
your arguments or lessons below.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q and A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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KEYWORDS INDEX
Genetic Diversity Endangered species Adaptive radiation
Biological Evolution Threaten Founder effect
Keystone species DNA Migration
Vulnerable Indicator Geographic isolation
BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -3. Explain how rocks and minerals are formed, weather and
climate patterns, and discuss air pollution sources, water pollution, use, and management.
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of geology and Earth's resources,
air pollution, water pollution, and the introduction of environmental are presented. Please
refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding of
environmental science concepts.
1. Geology. An earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time.
2.1. Geology can also include studying the solid features of any terrestrial planet
or natural satellite, such as Mars or the Moon.
2. Tectonics. The process that controls the structure and properties of the Earth's crust
and its evolution through time.
3. Ridges. A geographical feature consists of a chain of mountains or hills that form a

continuous elevated crest for some distance.
3.1. The sides of the ridge slope away from the narrow top on either side.
4. Minerals. A solid chemical compound that occurs naturally in pure form.

4.1. Minerals are most commonly associated with rocks due to the presence of
minerals within.
5. Rocks. Any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid

matter.
5.1. The minerals categorize it included its chemical composition and how it is
formed.
5.2. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks,
metamorphic rocks, and sedimentary rocks.
6. Weathering. The breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and
artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and
biological organisms.
7. Hazards refer to any agent that can harm humans, property, or the environment.
7.1. Risk is defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a
negative consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no
exposure to that hazard.
Page | 96

GE 15 - Week 6 To 7

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GE 15 - Week 6 To 7

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College of Arts and Sciences Education

2nd Floor, DPT Building

Do you have any questions for clarification?

Questions/ Issues Answers

Evolution Natural selection Symbiosis

1. Toxicology. A scientific discipline that overlaps with biology, chemistry,

substances on living organisms and diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins

2. The disease is an abnormal condition that harms the structure or function of an

3. Allergens it is an antigen that produces an abnormally potent immune response

4. Antigens, it is a substance that is present on the surface of a pathogen that binds to

5. Neurotoxins it is referring to toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue. Neurotoxins

6. Mutagens are a physical or chemical agent that causes an increase in D.N.A.

8. Carcinogens are any substance or agents that promote cancer development

9. Solubility. An ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent and measured in terms of

10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (P.O.P.s). Organic compounds are resistant to

15. Risk Management. The evaluation, prioritization, and identification of risks

18. Micronutrients. Nutrients in small quantities include vitamins, microminerals, and

21. Insecticides it is any substances that formulate to eliminate or mitigate insects,

22. Fungicides. Biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms (plants or

23. Aquaculture. A process of cultivating aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans,

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY

World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as a state of complete physical,

The disease— impairment of an individual's well-being and capacity to function—is mostly

Toxicology is the study of toxins

MOBILITY, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE

Factors Related to Toxic agent.

1. Chemical composition and reactivity

Factors Related to Exposure

1. Dose (concentration and volume of exposure)

Related Factors to Organism

1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and resistance to ingestion

1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

§ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). These are known as flame retardants

§ Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also

§ Phthalates (pronounced thalates) These are present in products such as

§ Perchlorate is a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel utilized by rockets and

§ Atrazine is a substance applied to crops such as corn, cereal grains, sugarcanes,

Interactions happen because some substances have antagonistic reactions in which

THE MECHANISMS FOR MINIMIZING TOXIC EFFECTS

A primary concept in toxicology is that every substance is capable of being

Metabolic Mechanisms. Naturally, organisms contain enzymes that process waste

Acute and Chronic Doses

If the effects have resulted in becoming permanent, it is considered to be a Chronic effect.

Exposure assessment is the process of estimating, measuring, characterizing, and

1. Identification of the hazard. It is using to evaluate if any particular

2. Dose-response assessment. This next step involves identifying

3. Exposure appraisal. This step evaluates the duration, frequency, and

4. The risk to an individual is generally more significant closer to the

since it is as small as parts per million, billion, or even trillion.

5. Risk characterization. This final step aims to delineate health risk in

It is the ability to resist or withstand stress from exposure to a pollutant or harmful

The physiological tolerance as a result when the body of an individual adjusts to

AGRICULTURE, ENVIRONMENT, HUNGER

Agro-ecosystem is a farming that creates ecological conditions. It encompasses

Soils are complex ecosystems. It can be thought of as the ecosystem foundation, as

Horizon E is composed of light-colored materials resulting from leaching of clay,

Horizon C is composed of partially altered (weathered) parent material; the rock is

Macronutrients. Macronutrients are essential chemical elements that are necessary

Micronutrients. Micronutrients are essential chemical elements that are only

PESTS AND PESTICIDES

Stage 1: Broad-Spectrum Inorganic Toxins. During the start of modern science-

Stage 3: Artificial Organic Compounds. Artificial organic compounds have