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E3 Module 1
E3 Module 1
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Electric torch
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A Microgrid
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Equivalent circuit of an electrical system
A theoretical circuit that retains all of the electrical
characteristics of the given system.
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INTRODUCTION
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Electric circuit
A closed loop of pathway with electric charges or current
flowing through it.
Electrical Energy
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The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric
charge. Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles that the
charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to
1.602×10−19 C, while a proton carries a positive charge of the same
magnitude as the electron.
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There are two types of elements in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a
passive element is not.
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Independent sources
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Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources
V
V
I I
IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE PRACTICAL VOLTAGE SOURCE
Note that an ideal voltage source can supply arbitrarily large currents without
any decrease in voltage.
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Ideal and Practical Current Sources
V
V
I I
IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE PRACTICAL CURRENT SOURCE
Note that an ideal current source can supply arbitrarily large voltages without
any decrease in current.
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Dependent sources
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What kind of sources used in this fig?
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BASIC LAWS
Ohm’s law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is
directly proportional to the current (i) flowing through it.
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Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is measured in mhos or siemens (S).
It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s law. A
resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor. It has a
constant resistance and thus its current-voltage characteristic is as
illustrated in Fig, its i-v graph is a straight line passing through the
origin. A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law. Its resistance varies
with current and its i-v characteristic is typically shown in fig.
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The i-v characteristic of:
(a) a linear resistor,
(b) a nonlinear resistor.
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NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS
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KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum
of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
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Using KCL
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Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum
of all voltages around a closed path(or loop) is zero.
polarity of
a resistor
voltage is
generally
used to
indicate
the
current
direction.
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Passive sign convention
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P1.2. Find the voltage across the current source and the current passing
through the voltage source.
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Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or
connected sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
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SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION
The two resistors are in series, since
the same current i flows in both of
them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of
the resistors, we obtain
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PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION
Two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,
Circuit is known as a
current divider.
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This is known as the principle of current division.
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P1.3. Find Rab for the circuit.
Answer: 11 Ω
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P1.5. Find the voltages.
I = 4 Amps
Vab = 28 V
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P1.7. Find Vab in the circuit of Fig.
P1.8.
Rab = 24 Ω
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In Electric Circuit Analysis, there are two types of circuit analysis
based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s laws (KCL and KVL).
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MESH ANALYSIS
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P1.15. Using the mesh current method, find the loop currents.
V1 = 12 V; V2 = 6 V;
R1 = 3 ; R2 = 8 ; R3 = 6 ; R4 = 4 .
From loop 1
From loop 2
I1 = 6.9 A
From loop 3 I2 = 6.3 A
I3 = 4.5 A
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P1.16. Apply mesh analysis to find i in Fig. Ans: i=1.188 A
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P1.17. Use mesh and nodal analysis to find vab and io in the circuit in
Fig.
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In general, if the circuit has N meshes, the mesh-current
equations can be expressed in terms of the resistances as
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to calculate the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix, we repeat the first two
rows and cross multiply.
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Nodal Voltage Analysis
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P1.19. Calculate the node
voltages in the circuit shown in
Fig.
At node 1, applying KCL and
Ohm’s law gives
(1)
Multiplying each term by 12 results in
(2)
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To use Cramer’s rule, we need to put Eqs. (1) and (2) in matrix form as
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P1.20. Using node voltage analysis in the circuit of Figure, find the
voltage, v, across the 4-siemens conductance.
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P1.21. write three node equations for nodes A, B, and C, with node D
as the reference, and find the node voltages.
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P1.22. Using node voltage analysis, find the power dissipated in 6Ω
resistor.
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P1.23. Using node voltage analysis in the circuit of figure, find the node
voltages.
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In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N
nonreference nodes, the node-voltage equations can be written in
terms of the conductances as
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THEVENIN’S THEOREM
It often occurs in
practice that a particular
element in a circuit is
variable (usually called the
load) while other elements
are fixed. As a typical
example, a household outlet
terminal may be connected
to different appliances
constituting a variable load.
Each time the variable
element is changed, the
entire circuit has to be
analyzed all over again. To
avoid this problem,
Thevenin’s theorem provides
a technique by which the
fixed part of the circuit is
replaced by an equivalent
circuit.
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In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and
homogeneous. A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear
dependent sources, and independent sources.
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Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
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P1.24. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig.,
to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6, 16,
and 36 .
Solution:
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To find RTh
To find VTh,
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Applying mesh analysis to the two loops, we obtain
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P1.25. Find the Thevenin equivalent looking into terminals a-b of the
circuit in Fig. and solve for ix .
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P1.26. For the circuit of Figure, find the Thevenin equivalent circuit
seen by the load resistor, RL.
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P1.27. Compute the load current, i, by the Thevenin equivalent method
in the circuit of Figure.
V = 24 V; I = 3 A; R1 = 4 ; R2 = 12 ; R3 = 6 .
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P1.28. Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the
circuit in Fig.
Vth = 92 V, Rth = 28 Ω
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P1.29. Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig.
Vth = 4 V, Rth = 4 Ω
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P1.30. Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig.
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P1.31. Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent as viewed from terminals:
(a) a-b (b) c-d
Across a&b
Rth = 2 Ω
Vth = 14 V
Across c&d
Rth = 1.5 Ω
Vth = 19 V
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P1.33. Determine the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of
the circuit in Fig.
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P1.34. Find i.
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P1.35. Determine vo in the circuit of Fig.
V0 = - 125 mV
V1 = 2V
V2 = - 7.125 V
V3 = 5V
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P1.36. Find current ix.
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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
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showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the load
Resistance RL equals the Thevenin resistance RTh.
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Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL =
RTh). called as Impedance matching.
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In Antenna Signal amplifier for radio and TV receivers,
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P1.37. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit
of Fig. Find the maximum power.
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Rth determination:
Vth determination:
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For maximum power transfer,
RL = RTh = 9 Ω
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P1.38. For what value of R is the power dissipated in R maximum?
Calculate that power.
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P1.39. Find the maximum power that can be delivered to the resistor R
in the circuit in Fig.
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P1.40. Find the current in 5 Ω resistor for the circuit shown in fig using
mesh method by applying source transformation.
Ans:
V3 = -8.42V
I5Ω= -3.68 A
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