Module 5

Module:5
Signal Conditioning
Amplification, Filtering, Multiplexing, Conversion techniques,
Sensor interface design: Wheatstone bridge and operational
amplifier circuits for various applications.
INTRODUCTION
• Signal conditioning refers to operations performed on signals
to convert them to a form suitable for interfacing with other
elements in the process-control loop.
• In this, we are concerned only with analog conversions,
where the conditioned output is still an analog representation
of the variable.
• Even in applications involving digital, some type of analog
conditioning is usually processing required before analog-to-
digital conversion is made.
PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG SIGNAL CONDITIONING
• Signal-Level and Bias Changes
• One of the most common types of signal conditioning involves
adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero value) of some
voltage representing a process variable.
• For example, some sensor output voltage may vary from
0.2 to 0.6 V as a process variable changes over a
measurement range.
• However, equipment to which this sensor output must be
connected perhaps requires a voltage that varies from 0 to 5 V
for the same variation of the process variable.
• A sensor measures a variable by converting information
about that variable into a dependent signal of either
electrical or pneumatic nature.
• To develop such transducers, we take advantage of change
the circumstances in nature where a dynamic variable
influences some characteristic of a material.
• We often describe the effect of the signal conditioning by
the term transfer function. By this term we mean the effect
of the signal conditioning on the input signal.
We perform the required signal conditioning by first
changing the zero to occur when the sensor output is 0.2V.
• This can be done by simply subtracting 0.2 from the sensor
output, which is called a zero shift, or a bias adjustment.
• Now we have a voltage that varies from 0 to 0.4 V, so we need to
make the voltage larger. If we multiply the voltage by 12.5, the
new output will vary from 0 to 5 V as required.
• This is called amplification, and 12.5 is called the gain. In some
cases, we need to make a sensor output smaller, which is called
attenuation.
• We distinguish between amplification and attenuation by noting
whether the gain of the amplifier is greater than or less than unity.
• In designing bias and amplifier circuits, we must be concerned with
issues such as the frequency response, output impedance, and input
impedance.
• Linearization
• As pointed out at the beginning of this section, the

process-control designer has little choice of the
characteristics of a sensor output versus a process
variable. Often, the dependence that exists between input and
output is nonlinear.
• Historically, specialized analog circuits were devised to linearize signals.
• For example, suppose a sensor output varied nonlinearly with a process
variable, as shown in Figure 1a.
• A linearization circuit, indicated symbolically in
Figure 1b, would ideally be one that conditioned
the sensor output so that a voltage was produced
which was linear with the process variable, as
shown in Figure 1c.
• Conversions
• Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one type of
electrical variation into another. Thus, a large class of sensors
exhibit changes of resistance with changes in a dynamic
variable.
• In these cases, it is necessary to provide a circuit to convert
this resistance change either to a voltage or a current signal.
• Signal Transmission: An important type of conversion is
associated with the process-control standard of transmitting
signals as 4- to 20-mA current levels in wire.
• This gives rise to the need for converting resistance
and voltage levels to an appropriate current level
at the transmitting end and for converting the
current back to voltage at the receiving end.
• Of course, current transmission is used because
such a signal is independent of load variations
other than accidental shunt conditions that may
draw off some current.
• Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage
converters are often required.
• Digital Interface: The use of computers in process control
requires conversion of analog data into a digital format by
integrated circuit devices called analog-to-digital converters
(ADCs).
• Analog signal conversion is usually required to adjust the
analog measurement signal to match the input requirements of
the ADC.
• For example, the ADC may need a voltage that varies between
0 and 5 V, but the sensor provides a signal that varies from 30
to 80 mV. Signal conversion circuits can be developed to
interface the output to the required ADC input.
• Filtering and Impedance Matching

• Two other common signal-conditioning requirements are
• filtering and matching impedance.
• Often, spurious signals of considerable strength are present in the
industrial environment, such as the 50/60- Hz line frequency
signals.
• In many cases, it is necessary to use high-pass, low-pass, or notch
filters to eliminate unwanted signals from the loop.
Input Output
Sensing
element Measured value
True value
Signal Signal Data

conditioning processing presentation
element element element
Components of a General Measurement System
Signal conditioning element:
Receives the output/SIGNAL from the sensing

element then it
converts into a more suitable signal for further
processing, like a DC Voltage, DC Current or
frequency signal.
Example:
1)Deflection bridge which converts an impedance
change into voltage change
2)Amplifier which converts milivolts to volts
3)Oscillator which converts an impedance change
into variable frequency voltage.
Introduction
o Signal from detector/sensing stage has to be modified
(conditioned) in order to make it more usable.
o This signals is then to be use in later stage of system that may

consist of processing elements.
o Proper selection of signal conditioning circuit can improve the

quality and system performance.
o Example of signal conditioning can be amplification and

filtering.
Sem 2, 2010/2011 15
Introduction
Amplification
Increase the level of input signal to better suit
further processing.
Improve the sensitivity and resolution of the
measurement.
Filtering
 Reject useless noise within certain frequency
range.
 Prevent signal aliasing and distortion.
Sem 2, 2010/2011 16
Amplifier
o Required in the system to improve the signal strength which is

typically in the low level range of less than a few mV.
o In some cases, amplifiers is necessary in providing impedance

matching and isolation.
o One of the very known important amplifier is the operational

amplifiers
Sem 2, 2010/2011 17
Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)
o An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic

voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended
output.
o An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of

thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its input
terminals.
o Can be used to performs an important functions for signal conditioning

and processing like isolation, addition, inversion, multiplication,
subtraction and division.
o Other mathematical operations can be also perform such as integration

and differentiation.
Fairchild
semiconductor,
LM741
Sem 2, 2010/2011 18
Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown, where:
V+ : non-inverting input
V- : inverting input
Vout : output
Vs+ : positive power supply
Vs- : negative power supply
Gain, A = Vout/Vin where Vin = V+ - V-
Gain (dB), AdB = 20 log (Vout/Vin)
Sem 2, 2010/2011 19
Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter – Input

Parameters
Input Offset Voltage

Voltage that must be applied to one of the input pins in order to give zero
output voltage.
Input Offset Current

Differences of two input bias current when the output voltage is zero.
Input Bias Current

Average of both current flowing into both of the inputs.
Input Resistance
Resistance of the operational amplifier at either input when the other
grounded.
Input Voltage Range

Voltage that common to both inputs and ground.
Sem 2, 2010/2011 20
Sem 2, 2010/2011 21
Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter – Output

Parameters
Output Short Circuit Current

Maximum output current that the operational amplifier can
deliver to the load.
Output Voltage Swing

Maximum output voltage (peak) that the operational amplifier
can give without distortion or clipping. This depends on the load
resistance.
Output Resistance
Resistance at the operational amplifier’s output.
Sem 2, 2010/2011 22
Sem 2, 2010/2011 23
Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter – Dynamic
Parameters
Large Signal Voltage Gain
The ratio of the maximum voltage swing to the change in the input voltage required to
drive the output from zero to a specified voltage.
Slew Rate
Rate of change of the output voltage with the operational amplifier having a unity gain.
Open-Loop Voltage Gain

Output voltage to input voltage ratio of the operational amplifier without feedback.
Supply Current
Current that the operational amplifier will draw from the supply.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio

A quantify of the ability of the operational amplifier to reject signals that are
simultaneously present at both inputs
Bandwidth
Usually specified as unity gain bandwidth.
Power Consumption
The power consume by the operational amplifiers when operated. 24
25
Ideal Operational Amplifier
oCharacteristics of ideal operational amplifier can be

listed as follows:
 Infinite input impedance
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite open loop gain
 Infinite bandwidth, slew rate and CMRR
oFor ideal operational amplifier the output voltage is

zero whenever there is equal voltage is applied to
both of its inputs.
Sem 2, 2010/2011 26
Type of operational amplifier

circuits
 Inverting Amplifier
 Non-Inverting Amplifier
 Differential Amplifier
 Instrumentation Amplifier
Sem 2, 2010/2011 27
Inverting Amplifier
o R2 is used to feedback
the output to the
inverting input, Vin
o R1 is the impedance
connected to Vin.
o This connection is known as summing point
o Sum of current at summing point must be zero; I1  I 2  0
o Thus, Ohm’s law; V Vout

in
 0
R1 R2
R2
Vout   Vin
R1
28
Inverting Amplifier – Summing

amplifier
o Modification of the
inverting amplifier.
o Used as an summing
amplifier, that sum two
or more input voltages.
o The output voltage TF;
 R2 R2 
Vout    V1  V2 
 R1 R3 
Sem 2, 2010/2011 29
Signal Conditioning – Inverting Op Amp
The most common circuit used for signal conditioning is the inverting
amplifier circuit as shown below, this amplifier was first used when
op-amps only had one input, the inverting (-) input. The voltage gain
of this amplifier is (-R2/R1) x Vin .
Thus the level of sensor outputs can be matched to the level necessary
for the data acquisition system. The input impedance is
approximately ∞ and the output impedance is nearly zero.
Thus, this circuit provides impedance transformation between the

sensor and the data acquisition system.
Inverting Amplifier
It is important to remember that the voltage swing of the output of the

amplifier is limited by the amplifier's power supply as shown in
Figure below, In this example, the power supply is +/- 13V. When the
amplifier output exceeds this level, the output is ``clipped''.
Non Inverting Amplifier
o Assume again, voltage

at summing point, S is
zero;
I1  I 2  0
o And from Ohm’s law;

Vin Vout  Vin
 0
R1 R2
o Solving for Vout;
 R2 
Vout  1   Vin
 R1  32
Another commonly used amplifier configuration is shown below.
The gain of this circuit is given as 1+(R2/R1).
The input impedance is nearly infinite (limited only by the op-amp's

input impedance) and the output impedance is nearly zero.
The circuit is ideal for sensors that have a high source impedance and
thus would be affected by the current draw of the data acquisition
system.
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Voltage Follower
o Unity gain
o High impedance
o Vin = Vout
o Function: an impedance transformer

in the sense of converting a voltage at
high impedance to the same voltage
at low impedance.
Sem 2, 2010/2011 34
Differential Amplifier
o The op-amp can also be used to

subtract two signals.
o This circuit is commonly used to remove
unwanted DC offset.
o It can also be used to remove
differences in the ground potential of the
sensor and the ground potential of the
data acquisition circuitry (so-called
ground loops).
o The output of this circuit is;

Vo  Ad (V2  V1 )
o Where Ad is the differential op amp gain.
o Thus V2 can be the output of the sensor and V1 can be the signal
that is to be removed.
Inverting Amplifier 35
CMMR Differential Amplifier
o The common-mode input voltage is the average of voltage applied

to the two terminals;
V1  V2
Vcm 
2
o The CMMR for of a differential amplifier is defined as the ratio of
the differential gain to the common-mode gain;
A
CMMR 
Acm
o CMR is the expression of CMMR in dB;
CMR  20log10 (CMMR)

o The larger the dB number, the better the differential amplifier.
Typical values of CMR range from 60 ~ 100 dB.
36
Instrumentation Amplifier
 Dedicated differential amplifier with very high

input impedance.
 High common mode rejection features make

instrumentation amplifier useful in recovering
small signals hidden in large common mode
offsets and noise.
 Instrumentation amplifier is a close loop devices

with certain value of gain.
 Can be optimised as signal conditioner for low

level signals (DC) in high noise environments.
37
 Instrumentation amplifier is divided into two

stages;
 first stage give a very high input
impedance to both of input signals and
with single resistor gain setting,
 second stage is a differential amplifier with
the negative feedback, ground
connections and output are all taken out.
 Input stage consists of two matched

operational amplifiers.
38
39
FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE 40

First Stage
 Both of input signals is applied to the

noninverting input terminal of the
 The operational amplifier are

configured as voltage follower which
give the instrumentation amplifier a
very high input impedance.
 Rg is a gain setting resistor in the

following formulae for computing vo:
 2R 
vo   v2  v1  1  
 R
 g 
 From the equation, the smaller the value of Rg, the larger the
output voltage vo. It is clear that Rg can be used in setting the
gain of this first stage.
41
Second Stage
 The second stage of the

instrumentation amplifier is a
differential amplifier with unity
gain.
 The full instrumentation

amplifier circuit uses three
 Hence it is called three amplifier

configuration.
42
Important features of instrumentation amplifier:
 Differential input capability with high gain common

mode rejection.
 Selectable gain with high gain accuracy and

linearity.
 High stability of gain with low temperature

coefficient.
 Low DC offset and drift errors referred to input.
 Low output impedance.

43
Op Amp (Example)
1) What kind of amplifier is this?

2) What is the ‘main rule’ of an op amp?
3) Express Vout in terms of Vin, R1, and R2.
44
Filter
 Filter is the network used to attenuate certain frequencies but

allow others without attenuation.
 Consist at least one pass band, which is a band of

frequencies that the output is approximately equal to input
and attenuation band that the output is equal to zero.
 Cut-off frequencies is the frequencies that separate the

various pass and attenuation bands.
 Important characteristic of filter networks is its construction

make use of purely reactive elements.
 Two types of filter:

 Passive Filters
 Active Filters
Sem 2, 2010/2011 45
Filter
Types of Filters
 Passive filters only use passive circuit component such as

resistors, capacitors and inductors.
 Active filters use active elements like operational amplifiers in
addition to passive elements like resistance, capacitance and
inductance.
 Both of passive and active filters can be classified as follows:
a) Low Pass Filter: deliver low frequencies and eliminate

high frequencies
b) High Pass Filter: send on high frequencies and reject low
frequencies
c) Band Pass Filter: pass some particular range of
frequencies, discard other frequencies outside that band
d) Band Stop Filter: stop a range of frequencies and pass
all other frequencies
46
Filter
Types of Filters
47
Filter
Passive Filter - Low Pass Filter
o Blocks high frequencies and

passes low frequencies.
o Ideal LPF: signals above cut-

off frequency, fc are simply
rejected.
o In terms of resistor and o At low frequencies, the

capacitor, cut-off frequency, fc capacitive reactance is very
is given by: high, therefore the capacitor
1 circuit acts like an open circuit.
fc 
2 RC These condition gives Vout Vin
o Gain is given by; o At very high frequencies, the

capacitive reactance is very
1 low therefore Vout is very small
ALPF 
1   f fc 
2 compared to Vin.
48
Filter
Passive Filter - Low Pass Filter (Design Example)
A measurement signal has a frequency <1kHz, but there

are unwanted noise at about 1MHz. Design a signal
conditioning circuit, by means of LPF that attenuates the
noise to 1%.
49
Filter
Passive Filter – High Pass Filter
o Passes high frequencies and

blocks/rejects low
frequencies..
o Ideal LPF: signals below cut-

off frequency, fc are simply
rejected.
o At low frequencies, the
o In terms of resistor and
gain is small, therefore
capacitor, cut-off frequency, fc
Vout is small compared to
is given by:
1 Vin.
fc 
2 RC o As the frequencies goes
high the gain approaches
o Gain is given by;
unity.
AHPF 
 f fc 
1   f fc 
2
50
Filter
Passive Filter – High Pass Filter (Design Example)
Pulses for a stepping motor are being transmitted at

2000Hz. Design a filter to reduce 60Hz noise.
51
Filter
Passive Filter – Band Pass Filter
o Blocks frequencies below a low
limit and above a high limit, while
passing frequencies between the
limits.
o Can be constructed by cascading

LPF and HPF.
o At frequencies below the pass

band, BPF behave like HPF while o Lower cut-off freq.;
above the pass band frequencies 1
the BPF acts like LPF. f clower 
2 R2C 2
o In pass band, the BPF circuit is
almost as a resistive network. o Upper cut-off freq.;
1
o Thus, gain is given by; f cupper 
R2
2 R1C1
ABPF 
R1  R2 52
Filter
Passive Filter – Band Stop Filter
1
fo 
2 RC
o Blocks a specific range of frequencies.
o Cam be realized. but not very affective one, simple RC combination

also known as notch filter.
o The circuit is called twin-T filter.
o Twin T BSF; At the very low and high frequencies the gain is almost
unity, but between the two there is a frequency where the gain
become zero.
o The frequency is known as Notch Frequency, fo. 53
Filter
Active Filter
o Generally the impedances are used in the

inverting amplifiers using operational amplifiers.
o Basic relationship can be used to obtain the

desired filter sections is as follows (in the case
of inverting amplifiers).
Vo Z f

V1 Z1
o The voltage can also be amplified.
54
Filter
Active Filter
Active filters have three main advantages over passive filters:
o Inductors can be avoided. Passive filters without inductors cannot

obtain a high Q (low damping), but with them are often large and
expensive (at low frequencies), may have significant internal
resistance, and may pick up surrounding electromagnetic signals.
o The shape of the response, the Q (Quality factor), and the tuned
frequency can often be set easily by varying resistors, in some
filters one parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others.
Variable inductances for low frequency filters are not practical.
o The amplifier powering the filter can be used to buffer the filter
from the electronic components it drives or is fed from, variations
in which could otherwise significantly affect the shape of the
frequency response.
55
Filter
Active Filter – Low Pass Filter
56
Filter
Active Filter – High Pass Filter
57
Filter
Active Filter – Low Pass Filter (non-inverting op amp
configuration)
58
Filter
Active Filter – High Pass Filter (non-inverting op amp
configuration)
59
Filter
Active Filter – Band Pass Filter
60
61
Instructional Objectives
In this lesson, the students shall be able to understand the

principle of Signal Conditioning focusing mainly on the
following topics:
1. Multiplexers
•
Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of handling multiple
measurement inputs from the analog sensors or a
number of different measurements from different
locations in quick succession over a period of time before
sampling and holding process, and eventually to analog
to digital conversion(ADC).
Sample and Hold
Multiplexing with AA Filter
1) Multiplexers
Frequently there is a need for measurements to be sampled from
a number of different locations, or perhaps a number of different
measurements need to be made.
Rather than use a separate microprocessor for each measurement
, a multiplexer can be used.
The multiplexer is essentially a switching device which enables
each of the inputs to be sampled in turn.
Analog Inputs
Sequence of digital Signals

Multiplexers
• A multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of
several analog or digital input signals and forwards the selected input
into a single line.
• A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines, which are used to select
which input line to send to the output.
• Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can
be sent over the network within a certain amount of time
and bandwidth.
Multiplexer as a Controlled Switch
Schematic of a 2-to-1 Multiplexer. It can be equated to a

controlled switch.
Mux - DeMux
The basic function of a multiplexer: combining multiple inputs

into a single data stream. On the receiving side, a demultiplexer
splits the single data stream into the original multiple signals.
Types of Multiplexers
A 2-to-1 mux

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Module:5

• As pointed out at the beginning of this section, the

• Filtering and Impedance Matching

Signal Signal Data

Signal conditioning element:

Receives the output/SIGNAL from the sensing

o This signals is then to be use in later stage of system that may

o Proper selection of signal conditioning circuit can improve the

o Example of signal conditioning can be amplification and

o Required in the system to improve the signal strength which is

o In some cases, amplifiers is necessary in providing impedance

o One of the very known important amplifier is the operational

o An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic

o An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of

o Can be used to performs an important functions for signal conditioning

o Other mathematical operations can be also perform such as integration

Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter

The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown, where:

Gain, A = Vout/Vin where Vin = V+ - V-

Gain (dB), AdB = 20 log (Vout/Vin)

Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter – Input

Input Offset Voltage

Input Offset Current

Input Bias Current

Input Voltage Range

Operational Amplifier Notation and Parameter – Output

Output Short Circuit Current

Output Voltage Swing

Open-Loop Voltage Gain

Common Mode Rejection Ratio

Ideal Operational Amplifier

oCharacteristics of ideal operational amplifier can be

oFor ideal operational amplifier the output voltage is

Type of operational amplifier

o Sum of current at summing point must be zero; I1  I 2  0

o Thus, Ohm’s law; V Vout

Inverting Amplifier – Summing

o The output voltage TF;

Thus, this circuit provides impedance transformation between the

It is important to remember that the voltage swing of the output of the

Non Inverting Amplifier

o Assume again, voltage

o And from Ohm’s law;

o Solving for Vout;

Another commonly used amplifier configuration is shown below.

The gain of this circuit is given as 1+(R2/R1).

The input impedance is nearly infinite (limited only by the op-amp's

o Function: an impedance transformer

o The op-amp can also be used to

o The output of this circuit is;

CMMR Differential Amplifier

o The common-mode input voltage is the average of voltage applied

CMR  20log10 (CMMR)

 Dedicated differential amplifier with very high

 High common mode rejection features make

 Instrumentation amplifier is a close loop devices

 Can be optimised as signal conditioner for low

 Instrumentation amplifier is divided into two

 Input stage consists of two matched

FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE 40

 Both of input signals is applied to the

 The operational amplifier are

 Rg is a gain setting resistor in the