2.1.

Level Crossing

The level crossing is an arrangement provided to regulate the flow of water

through the drainage and the canal when they cross each other approximately at the same
bed level (figure 2.1). The level crossing consists of the following components:
(i) Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at the upstream side of the crossing point.
The top level of the crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the canal.
(ii) Drainage Regulator: It is provided across the drainage just at the downstream side of the
crossing point. The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.
(iii) Canal Regulator: It is provided across the canal just at the downstream side of the crossing
point. This regulator also consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.

Figure 2.1

2.2. Inlet and outlet

In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic structure is

constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of water in their respective directions. This
arrangement is known as inlet and outlet (Figure.2.2).
 (i) In this system, an inlet is provided in the channel bank simply by open cut and the drainage
water is allowed to join the channel
(ii) At the points of inlet and outlet, the bed and banks of the drainage are protected by stone
pitching.

Figure 2.2

3.1. Selection of type of cross-drainage works

The selection of a particular type of cross drainage work depends upon the
following factors.

(i) Relative bed levels

(ii) Position of water table
 (iii) Availability of suitable foundation
(iv) Economical consideration
(v) Discharge of the drainage
(vi) Construction problems
(vii) Suitable canal alignment

The relative bed levels and discharge of the canal and drainage are the primary
factors which govern and dictate the type of cross drainage work that may prove to be most suitable
at a particular place. The relative bed levels of the canal and drainage may be changed and
manipulated by suitably changing the canal alignment, so that the point of crossing is shifted
upstream or downstream of the drainage. The canal alignment is finalized after deciding the
location of cross drainage works.

3.2. Design considerations for cross drainage works

The design of aqueduct or siphon aqueduct, a super passage and a siphon is done in
the following steps.

3.2.1. Determination of maximum flood discharge and high flood level

The maximum flood discharge and high flood level is determined with the help of
empirical formulae for small drains and with the help of hydrograph analysis etc. for large drains.

3.2.2. Fixation of the waterway

The value of waterway of drain can be obtained by the use of Lacey’s equation i.e.
P= 4.75√�; where P is the wetted perimeter in meters and Q is the total discharge in cumecs. For
wide drains, the wetted perimeter is taken equal to the width of the drain and therefore, equal to
the waterway required. No extra provision is made for the space occupied by piers. Hence, if the
total waterway provided is equal to P, the effective or clear waterway will be less than P by as
much extent as is occupied by pier width. For smaller drains, a smaller figure for the waterway
than that given by Lacey’s regime perimeter is chosen. The maximum permissible reduction in
waterway from Lacey’s perimeter is 20%. After fixing the waterway width and number of bays
the height of the drain barrels is fixed. In case of an aqueduct, the canal trough is carried clear
above the drain HFL and drain bed is not to be depressed. Therefore, the height of bay openings
is automatically fixed in aqueducts, as equal to the difference between HFL and DBL of the drain.
In siphon-aqueducts, the required area of drainage waterway can be obtained by dividing the
drainage discharge by the permissible velocity through the barrels. This velocity through the
barrels is generally limited to 2 to 3 m/sec. The waterway area is then divided by the decided
waterway width of the openings, to compute the height of the openings and the extent of depressed
floor. Due to the reduction in the width of the drainage, afflux is produced near the work site. The
afflux will increase more and more, if the waterway is reduced more and more. The value of afflux
is limited, so that there is no flooding of the adjoining area.

3.2.3. Afflux and head loss through siphon barrels

A velocity higher than 2 to 3 m/sec can cause quick abrasion of the barrel surfaces
by rolling grit etc. and result into higher amount of afflux on the upstream side of the siphon or
siphon aqueduct, thus requiring higher and longer banks. Therefore, velocity is limited to about 2
to 3m/sec through siphon barrels. The head loss through siphon barrels and velocity through the
barrels are generally related by Unwin’s formula, as given below:

� �2 ��2
h=[1 + � +� ] - (19.1)
� � �

Where L= Length of the barrel

R= Hydraulic mean radius of the barrel

Va= Velocity of approach, often neglected

f1 = Coefficient of head loss at entry= 0.505 for unshaped mouth and 0.08 for bell shaped mouth

�
f2= a [1+ ], (19.2)
�

Where the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ for different materials may be taken as given in Table_____1.

Table______1___

S.No. Nature of surface of A B

barrel
 1 Smooth iron pipe 0.00497 0.025

2 Encrusted pipe 0.00996 0.025

3 Smooth cement 0.00316 0.030

plaster

4 Ashlar or brick work 0.00401 0.070

5 Rubble masonry or 0.00507 0.250

stone pitching

After fixing the velocity (v= 2 to 3 m/sec) through the barrels, head (h) required to
generate that much velocity can be found by the equation 19.1. The HFL of the drain downstream
of work remains unchanged, but the HFL of the upstream sides increases by the amount ‘h’, called
afflux or total head loss as calculated by Unwin’s equation. The top of guide banks and or other
marginal bunds etc. should be governed by this raised HFL. The extent of bed protection in the
drain to downstream of the work depends upon the value of afflux. Thus by permitting a higher
value of afflux, thereby higher velocity through the siphon barrel, the cross-sectional area of the
siphon barrel is reduced, but there is corresponding increase in the cost due to higher guide banks
etc. and greater length of protection downstream of the work. Also, in order to reduce the afflux,
the entry should be smooth, by providing bell mouth shaped piers. The inside surface of the barrel
should be made as smooth as possible.

3.2.4. Fluming of the canal

The fluming of the canal or the contraction in the waterway of the canal will reduce
the length of barrels or the width of the aqueduct. It is likely to help economy in many cases. When
the canal section is in earthen banks, the fluming of the canal is generally not done. The fluming
is governed by the rule that velocity in the trough should remain subcritical (3m/sec), because if
supercritical velocities are generated then the transition back to the normal section on the
downstream side of the work may involve the possibility of the formation of a hydraulic jump.
The hydraulic jump where not specifically required and designed for, would lead to undue loss of
head and would induce large stresses on the work. The extent of fluming is further governed by
the economy. More the fluming more is the length of transition wings, upstream as well as
downstream. The extra cost of transition wings is balanced by the saving obtained due to the
reduction in the width of the aqueduct. Hence, an economic balance has to be worked out for any
proposed design.