Algebra: Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Vectors
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Algebra 7
Chapter 7 Vectors
7.1 Fundamental Concepts 2
7.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors 2
7.3 Scalar Multiplication 3
7.4 Vectors in Three Dimensions 5
7.5 Linear Combination and Linear Independence 7
7.6 Products of Two Vectors 13

A. Scalar Product
B. Vector Product
7.7 Scalar Triple Product 22
Matrix Transformation* 24
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 1
Vectors
7.1 Fundamental Concepts
1. Scalar quantities: mass, density, area, time, potential, temperature, speed, work, etc.
2. Vectors are physical quantities which have the property of directions and magnitude.
e.g. Velocity v , weight w , force f , etc.
3. Properties:
r
(a) The magnitude of u is denoted by u .
(b) AB = CD if and only if AB = CD , and AB and CD has the same direction.
(c) AB = −BA
r
(d) Null vector, zero vector 0 , is a vector with zero magnitude i.e. 0 = 0 .
The direction of a zero vector is indetermine.

r
(e) Unit vector, û or e u , is a vector with magnitude of 1 unit. I.e. u = 1 .
u r r
(f) uˆ = r ⇔ u = u uˆ
u
7.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
1. Geometric meaning of addition and subtraction.
AB + BC + CD = AD
PQ = q − p
Page 2
Vectors
r r r
2. Properties: For any vectors u , v and w , we have
(a) u + v = v +u ,
(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w ,
(c) u +0 =0+u
(d) u + (−u ) = ( −u ) + u = 0
N.B. (1) u − v = u + (−v )
(2) c = a + b ⇒ a = c − b
7.3 Scalar Multiplication
When a vector a is multiplied by a scalar m, the product ma is a vector parallel to a such that
(a) The magnitude of ma is m times that of a .
(b) When m > 0 , ma has the same direction as that of a ,

When m < 0 , ma has the opposite direction as that of a .
These properties are illustrated in Figure.
Theorem Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Let m, n be two scalars. For any two vectors a and b , we have
(a) m( na) = ( mn) a
(b) ( m + n) a = ma + na
(c) m( a + b) = ma + mb
(d) 1a = a
(e) 0a = o
(f) α0 = 0
Page 3
Vectors
Theorem Section Formula
Let A,B and R be three collinear points.
AR m mOB + nOA
If = , then OR = .
RB n m+n
Example Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Solution
Properties
(a) If a, b are two non-zero vectors, then a // b if and only if a = mb for some m ∈ R .
(b) a + b ≤ a + b , and a − b ≤ a − b
Page 4
Vectors
7.4 Vectors in Three Dimensions
(a) We define i , j, k are vectors joining the origin O to the points (1,0,0) , ( 0,1,0) , ( 0,0,1) respectively.
(b) i, j and k are unit vectors. i.e. i = j = k = 1 .
(c) To each point P( a, b, c ) in R 3 , there corresponds uniquely a vector
OP = p = ai + bj + ck
where is called the position vector of P .
(d) p = a 2 + b2 + c 2
ai + bj + ck
(e) p=
a2 +b2 +c2
(f) Properties : Let p1 = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k and p 2 = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k . Then
(i) p1 = p 2 if and only if x1 = x 2 , y1 = y 2 and z1 = z 2 ,
(ii) p1 + p2 = ( x1 + x2 )i + ( y1 + y 2 ) j + ( z1 + z 2 ) k
(iii) αp1 = α( x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ) = αx1i + αy1 j + αz1 k
N.B. For convenience, we write p = ( x, y, z )
Example Given two points A( 6,8,−10) and B(1,−2,0) .

(a) Find the position vectors of A and . B .
(b) Find the unit vector in the direction of the position vector of A .
(c) If a point P divides the line segment AB in the ration 3 : 2 , find the coordinates of P .
Solution
Page 5
Vectors
Example Let A( 0,2 ,6 ) and B( 4 ,−2 ,−8 )
(a) Find the position vectors of A and B . Hence find the length of AB .
(b) If P is a point on AB such that AP = 2PB, find the coordinates of P .
(c) Find the unit vector along OP .

Solution
Page 6
Vectors
7.5 Linear Combination and Linear Independence
Definition Consider a given set of vectors v1 , v 2 ,K , v n . A sum of the form

a1 v1 + a 2 v 2 + L + an v n
where a1 , a 2 , K, a n are scalars, is called a linear combination of v1 , v 2 ,K , v n .
If a vector v can be expressed as v = a1 v1 + a2 v 2 + L + a n v n
Then v is a linear combination of v1 , v 2 ,K , v n . .
Example r = u − 2v + w is a linear combination of the vectors u, v, w .
Example Consider u = (1,2,−1), v = (6,4,2) ∈ R 3 , show that w = (9,27) is a linear combination of u

and v while w1 = ( 4,−1,8) is not.
Solution
Page 7
Vectors
Definition If v1 , v 2 , K, v n are vectors in R n and if every vector in R n can be expressed as the linear
combination of v1 , v 2 , K, v n . Then we say that these vectors span (generate) R n or
{v1 , v 2 , K, v n } is the set of the basis vector.
Example {i, j} is the set of basis vectors in R2.
Example {(1,0,0), ( 0,1,0), ( 0,0,1)} is the set basis vector in R 3 .
Remark : The basis vectors have an important property of linear independent which is defined as follow:
Definition The set of vector {v1 , v 2 , K, v n } is said to be linear independent if and only if the vectors
equation k1 v 1 + k 2 v 2 + L + k n v n = 0 has only solution k1 = k 2 = L = k n = 0
Definition The set of vector {v1 , v 2 , K, v n } is said to be linear dependent if and only if the vectors
equation k1 v 1 + k 2 v 2 + L + k n v n = 0 has non-trivial solution.
(i.e. there exists some k i such that k i ≠ 0 )
Example Determine whether v1 = (1,−2,3), v 2 = (5,6,−1), v 3 = (3, 2,1) are linear independent or dependent.
Solution
Page 8
Vectors
Example Let a = i + j + k , b = 2i − j − k and c = j − k . Prove that
(a) a, b and c are linearly independent.
(b) any vector v in R 3 can be expressed as a linear combination of a, b and c .
Solution
Example If vectors a, b and c are linearly independent, show that a + b, b + c and c + a are also
linearly independent.
Solution
Page 9
Vectors
Example Let a = ( 2 ,3 − t ,1 ) , b = ( 1 − t ,2 ,3 ) and c = ( 0 ,4 ,2 − t ).
(a) Show that b and c are linearly independent for all real values of t .
(b) Show that there is only one real number t so that a , b and c are linearly dependent.
For this value of t , express a as a linear combination of b and c .
Solution
Page 10
Vectors
Theorem
(1) A set of vectors including the zero vector must be linearly dependent.
(2) If the vector v can be expressed as a linear combination of v1 , v2 , Kv n , then the set of vectors
v1 , v2 , Kv n and v are linearly dependent.
(3) If the vectors v1 , v2 , Kv n are linearly dependent, then one of the vectors can expressed as a linear
combination of the other vectors.
Proof
Example Let a = i + 3 j + 5k , b = i and c = 3 j + 5k .

Prove that a, b and c are linearly dependent.
Solution
Page 11
Vectors
Theorem Two non-zero vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they are parallel.
Proof
Theorem Three non-zero vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they are coplanar.
Proof
Page 12
Vectors
7.6 Products of Two Vectors

A. Scalar Product
Definition The scalar product or dot product or inner product of two vectors a and b , denoted by
a ⋅ b , is defined as a ⋅ b = a b cos θ ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ π)
where θ is the angle between a and b .
a ⋅b
Remarks By definition of dot product, we can find θ by cos θ = .
ab
Example If a = 3, b = 4 and angle between a and b is 60° , then
a ⋅b =
Theorem Properties of Scalar Product

Let a , b, c be three vectors and m be a scalar. Then we have
(1) a ⋅ a = a
2
(2) a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a
(3) a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
(4) m( a ⋅ b) = ( ma) ⋅ b = a ⋅ ( mb)
(5) a ⋅ a > 0 if a ≠ 0 and a ⋅ a = 0 if a = 0
Theorem If p = a1i + b1 j + c1 k and q = a 2 i + b2 j + c 2 k . Then

(1) p ⋅ q = a1 a 2 + b1b2 + c1 c 2
p ⋅q
(2) cos θ = ( p, q ≠ 0)
pq
a1 a 2 + b1 b2 + c1 c 2
=
a1 2 + b1 2 + c1 2 a 2 2 + b2 2 + c 2 2
(3) p ⋅ q = 0 if and only if p ⊥ q .

(4) a1 a 2 + b1b2 + c1 c2 = 0 if and only if p ⊥ q .
Example Find the angle between the two vectors a = 2i + 2 j − k and b = 2i − 2k .

Solution
Page 13
Vectors
Remarks Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal if their scalar product is zero. Obviously, two
π
perpendicular vectors must be orthogonal since θ = , cos θ = 0 , and so their scalar product
2
is zero. For example, as i, j and k are mutually perpendicular, we have
i⋅ j = j⋅ k = k ⋅i = 0.
Also, as i, j and k are unit vectors, i ⋅ i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅ k = 1 .
Example State whether the two vectors i − 3 j + 4k and − i + j + k are orthogonal.

Solution
Example Given two points A = ( 2s ,− s + 1, s + 3) and B = ( t − 2 ,3t − 1,t )

and two vectors
r1 = 2i + 2 j − k and r2 = −i + j + 2 k
If AB is perpendicular to both r1 and r2 , find the values of s and t .
Solution
Example Let a, b and c be three coplanar vectors. If a and b are orthogonal, show that
c⋅a c ⋅b
c= a+ b
a ⋅a b⋅b
Solution
Page 14
Vectors
Example Determine whether the following sets of vectors are orthogonal or not.
(a) a = 4i − 2 j and b = 2i + 3 j
(b) a = 5i − 2 j + 4 k and b = i + 2 j − k
(c) a = 3i + j − 4k and b = 2i + 2 j + 2k
Solution
B. Vector Product
Definition If u = ( u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) and v = ( v1 , v 2 , v3 ) are vectors in R 3 , then the vector product and cross
product u × v is the vector defined by
u ×v = (u 2 v 3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v 3 , u1 v 2 − u2 v1 )
i j k
= u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
Example Find a × b , a ⋅ (a × b) and b ⋅ ( a × b) if a = 3i + 2 j − k and b = i + 4 j + k .

Solution
Page 15
Vectors
Example Let a = −i + k , b = 2i + j − k and c = i + 2 j − 2k . Find
(a) a ⋅b (b) b ⋅ c (c) a ×b (d) a × c
(e) ( a ⋅ b)c (f) a ⋅ ( b × c)
(g) a ×b + b× c + c ×a (h) ( a × b ) ⋅ c − (c × b) ⋅ a
(i) [( a + b) × c] ⋅ a (j) [( a + b ) × ( c + a)] ⋅ b
(k) a × (b × c ) (l) ( a × b) × c
Solution
Page 16
Vectors
Theorem If u and v are vectors, then
(a) u ⋅ ( u × v) = 0
(b) v ⋅ (u × v ) = 0
u × v = u v − ( u ⋅ v) 2
2 2 2
(c)
Proof
Page 17
Vectors
u ×v
2
u v − ( u ⋅ v) 2
2 2
Remarks (i) By (c) =
u v − u v cos 2 θ , where θ is angle between u and v .

2 2 2 2
=
u v (1 − cos 2 θ )
2 2
=
u v sin 2 θ
2 2
=
∴ u ×v = u v sin θ
The another definition of u × v is u × v = u v sin θ e n where en is a unit vector
perpendicular to the plane containing u and v .
(ii) u × v = −v × u and u × v = v × u
(iii) i × j = j ×k = k× j =
Definition The vector product (cross product) of two vectors a and b , denoted by a × b , is a vector
such that (1) its magnitude is equal to a b sin θ , where θ is angle between a and b.
(2) perpendicular to both a and b and a , b, a × b form a right-hand system.
If a unit vector in the direction of a × b is denoted by en , then we have
a × b = a b sin θ e n ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ π)
Geometrical Interpretation of Vector Product
(1) a × b is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b .
(2) The magnitude of the vector product of a and b is equal to the area of parallelogram with a and b
as its adjacent sides.
Corollary (a) Two non-zero vectors are parallel if and only if their vector product is zero.
(b) Two non-zero vectors are linearly dependent if and only if their vector product is zero.
Theorem Properties of Vector Product

(1) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
(2) m( a × b ) = ( ma) × b = a × ( mb)
Page 18
Vectors
Example Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the points A(1,2,3), B(−1,4,8) and
C (5,1, −2) .
Solution
Example If a + b + c = 0, show that a × b = b × c = c × a

Solution
Example Find the area of the triangle formed by taking A( 0, −2,1), B(1,−1,−2) and C (−1,1,0) as vertices.
Solution
Example Let OA = i + 2 j + k , OB = 3i + j + 2 k and OC = 5i + j + 3k .
(a) Find AB × AC .
(b) Find the area of ∆ABC .
Hence, or otherwise, find the distance from C to AB .

Solution
Page 19
Vectors
Example Let a and b be two vectors in R 3 such that
a ⋅ a = b ⋅ b = 1 and a ⋅ b = 0
{
Let S = αa + βb ∈ R 3 : α, β ∈ R . }
(a) Show that for all u ∈ S ,
u = ( u ⋅ a ) a + (u ⋅ b )b
(b) For any v ∈ R 3 , let w = (v ⋅ a) a + ( v ⋅ b )b. Show that for all u ∈ S , ( v − w) ⋅ u = 0 .
Solution
Example Let a , b, c ∈ R 3 .
If a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c = 0 , prove that a ⋅ b = b ⋅ c = c ⋅ a = 0 .
Solution
Page 20
Vectors
Example Let u, v and w be linearly independent vectors in R 3 .
Show that :
(a) If u = ( u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) , v = ( v1 , v 2 , v3 ) and w = ( w1 , w2 , w3 ) ,
u1 v1 w1
then u 2 v2 w2 ≠ 0
u3 v3 w3
(b) If s ∈ R 3 such that s ⋅ u = s ⋅ v = s ⋅ w = 0 , then s = 0 .
(c) If u × (v × w) = (u × v) × w = 0 , then u ⋅ v = v ⋅ w = w ⋅ u = 0 .
(d) If u ⋅ v = v ⋅ w = w ⋅ u = 0 ,
r ⋅u r ⋅v r⋅w
then r = u+ v+ w for all r ∈ R 3 .
u ⋅u v ⋅v w⋅w
Solution
Page 21
Vectors
7.7 Scalar Triple Product
Definition The scalar triple product of 3 vectors a, b and c is defined to be ( a × b) ⋅ c .
Let the angle between a and b be θ and that between a × b and c be φ.

π
As shown in Figure, when 0 < φ < , we have
2
Volume of Parallelepiped = Base Area × Height
∴ ( a × b) ⋅ c =
Geometrical Interpre tation of Scalar Triple Product
The absolute value of the scalar triple product ( a × b) ⋅ c is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped with
a, b and c as its adjacent sides.
Theorem Properties of Ve ctor Product

Let a , b and c be three vectors. Then
( a × b ) ⋅ c = (b × c) ⋅ a = ( c × a) ⋅ b
a1 a2 a3
Remarks Volume of Parallelepiped = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Page 22
Vectors
Example Let A(3,−5,6), B( 2,3,−2) , C ( −1,8,−8)
(a) Find the volume of parallelepiped with sides OA, OB and OC .
(b) What is the geometrical relationship about point O, A, B, C in (a).

Solution
Example A, B, C are the points (1,1,0) , ( 2,−1,1), ( −1,−1,1) respectively and O is the origin.
Let a = OA, b = OB and c = OC .
(a) Show that a, b and c are linearly independent.

(b) Find
(i) the area of ∆OAB , and
(ii) the volume of tetrahedron OABC .
Solution
Page 23
Vectors
Matrix Transformation*
Linear transformation of a plane (reflections, rotation)
Consider the case with the point P( x, y ) → P' ( x' , y' ) such that x = x' , y = y '
 x'  1 0  x 
  =   
 y'  0 − 1 y 
1 0 
r' = Ar , where A =  
 0 − 1
A is a matrix of transformation of reflection.
In general, any column vector pre-multiplied by a 2 × 2 matrix, it is transformed or mapped ( x' , y' ) into
another column vector.
 a b   x '   a b  x 
Example A =   ,   =   
 c d   y '   c d  y 
We have x ' = ax + by
y ' = cx + dy
If using the base vector in R 2 , i.e (1,0), (0,1) .
 a b  1   a   a b  0   b 
∴    =   ,    =  
 c d  0   c   c d  1   d 
then a , b, c, d can be found.
The images of the points (1,0), (0,1) under a certain transformation are known. Therefore, the
matrix is known.
Eight Simple Transformation
I. Reflection in x-axis
II. Reflection in y-axis
Page 24
Vectors
III. Reflection in x = y .
IV. Reflection in the line y = − x
V. Quarter turn about the origin
VI. Half turn about the origin
VII. Three quarter turn about the origin
VIII. Identity Transformation
Page 25
Vectors
2
Some Special Linear Transformations on R
I. Enlargement
If OP = r , then OP ' = kr .
k 0
A =  
0 k 
II. (a) Shearing Parallel to the x-axis
The y-coordinate of a point is unchanged but the x-coordinate is changed by adding to it a

quantity which is equal to a multiple of the value of its y-coordinate.
(b) Shearing Parallel to the y-axis
III. Rotation
Page 26
Vectors
IV. Reflection about the line y = (tan α) x
Example If the point P( 4,2) is rotated clockwise about the origin through an angle 60° , find its final
position
Solution
x
Example A translation on R 2 which transforms every point P whose position vector is p =  
 y
 x'
To another point Q with position vector q =   defined by
 y' 
 x'  x   2 
  =   +  
 y'  y   3 
Find the image of (a) the point (−4,2)
(b) the line 2 x + y = 0
Solution
Page 27
Vectors
Linear Transformation
Definition Let V and U be two sets. A mapping σ : V → U is called a linear transformation from
V to U if and only if it satisfies the condition:
σ( au + bv) = aσ(u ) + bσ( v), ∀u , v ∈ V and ∀a , b ∈ R.
Example Let V be the set of 3 ×1 matrices and A be any real 3× 3 matrix. A mapping f : V → V
Such that f ( x ) = Ax, ∀x ∈ V . Show that f is linear.
Solution
In R 3 , consider a linear transformation σ : R 3 → R 3 , let v ∈ R 3 , v = ( a, b, c) = ai + bj + ck .
We are going to find the image of v under σ .
σ( v) = σ( ai + bj + ck ) = aσ(i ) + bσ( j ) + cσ (k )
Therefore, σ (v ) can be found if σ( i ), σ( j ) and σ(k ) are known. That is to say, to specify σ
completely, it is only necessary to define σ( i ), σ( j ) and σ(k ) .
For instance, we define a linear transformation
σ : R3 → R3 by σ( i ) = 2i − j − 3k ,σ ( j ) = i + 2k , σ( k ) = 3i − 2 j + 2 k .
∴ σ( 3i + 2 j − 4k ) =
= − 4i + 5 j − 13k
We form a matrix A such that A = (σ(i) σ( j ) σ( k ) )
 2 1 3 
 
=  −1 0 − 2
−3 2 2 
 
 3   2 1 3  3   −4
      
Consider A 2  =  − 1 0 − 2  2  =  5 
 − 4  − 3 2 2  − 4   − 13 
      
The result obtained is just the same as σ( 3i + 2 j − 4k ) .

The matrix A representing the linear transformation σ is called the matrix representation of the linear
transformation σ
Page 28
Vectors
Example Let σ : R → R , defined by σ( i ) = i + 2 j , σ( j ) = − j , σ( k ) = 4i − 3 j.
3 2
1 0 4 
The matrix represent representation of a linear transformation is   .
 2 − 1 − 3  2 ×3
1 2 
 
Example The matrix B =  0 − 1 represents a linear transformation
1 1 
 
σ : R 2 → R 3 , defined by σ( i ) = i + k , σ( j ) = 2i − j + k .
Example Let σ, τ : R 3 → R 3 be two linear transformations whose matrix representations are

respectively
 1 0 − 1 0 − 2 1 
   
A =  0 1 2  and B =  1 1 0 .
1 1 0   2 1 − 1
   
Find the matrix representation of σ o τ.

Solution
Page 29
Vectors
 x '   a b  x  a b
Example If   =    for any ( x, y ) ∈ R 2 , then   is said to be the matrix
  
y ' c d  y  c d 
representation of the transformation which transforms ( x, y) to ( x' , y' ) .
Find the matrix representation of
(a) the transformation which transforms any point ( x, y) to ( − x, y) ,
(b) the transformation which transforms any point ( x, y) to ( y , x)

Solution
Example It is given that the matrix representing the reflection in the line y = (tan α) x is
 cos 2α sin 2α 
 
 sin 2α − cos 2α
1
Let T be the reflection in the line y = x.
2
(a) Find the matrix representation of T .
(b) The point ( 4,7) is transformed by T to another point ( x1 , y1 ) . Find x1 , y1 .
1
(c) The point ( 4,10) is reflected in the line y = x + 3 to another point ( x2 , y 2 ) .
2
Find x 2 and y 2 .
Solution
Page 30

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Algebra: Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

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Vectors

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

7.1 Fundamental Concepts 2

7.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors 2

7.3 Scalar Multiplication 3

7.4 Vectors in Three Dimensions 5

7.5 Linear Combination and Linear Independence 7

7.6 Products of Two Vectors 13

7.1 Fundamental Concepts

e.g. Velocity v , weight w , force f , etc.

(b) AB = CD if and only if AB = CD , and AB and CD has the same direction.

The direction of a zero vector is indetermine.

7.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

1. Geometric meaning of addition and subtraction.

N.B. (1) u − v = u + (−v )

7.3 Scalar Multiplication

(a) The magnitude of ma is m times that of a .

(b) When m > 0 , ma has the same direction as that of a ,

These properties are illustrated in Figure.

Theorem Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Example Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

7.4 Vectors in Three Dimensions

(b) i, j and k are unit vectors. i.e. i = j = k = 1 .

(c) To each point P( a, b, c ) in R 3 , there corresponds uniquely a vector

where is called the position vector of P .

N.B. For convenience, we write p = ( x, y, z )

Example Given two points A( 6,8,−10) and B(1,−2,0) .

Example Let A( 0,2 ,6 ) and B( 4 ,−2 ,−8 )

(b) If P is a point on AB such that AP = 2PB, find the coordinates of P .

(c) Find the unit vector along OP .

7.5 Linear Combination and Linear Independence

Definition Consider a given set of vectors v1 , v 2 ,K , v n . A sum of the form

Example r = u − 2v + w is a linear combination of the vectors u, v, w .

Example Consider u = (1,2,−1), v = (6,4,2) ∈ R 3 , show that w = (9,27) is a linear combination of u

combination of v1 , v 2 , K, v n . Then we say that these vectors span (generate) R n or

{v1 , v 2 , K, v n } is the set of the basis vector.

Example {i, j} is the set of basis vectors in R2.

Example {(1,0,0), ( 0,1,0), ( 0,0,1)} is the set basis vector in R 3 .

Example Let a = i + 3 j + 5k , b = i and c = 3 j + 5k .

7.6 Products of Two Vectors

where θ is the angle between a and b .

Example If a = 3, b = 4 and angle between a and b is 60° , then

Theorem Properties of Scalar Product

(4) m( a ⋅ b) = ( ma) ⋅ b = a ⋅ ( mb)

(5) a ⋅ a > 0 if a ≠ 0 and a ⋅ a = 0 if a = 0

Theorem If p = a1i + b1 j + c1 k and q = a 2 i + b2 j + c 2 k . Then

(3) p ⋅ q = 0 if and only if p ⊥ q .

Example Find the angle between the two vectors a = 2i + 2 j − k and b = 2i − 2k .

Also, as i, j and k are unit vectors, i ⋅ i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅ k = 1 .

Example State whether the two vectors i − 3 j + 4k and − i + j + k are orthogonal.

Example Given two points A = ( 2s ,− s + 1, s + 3) and B = ( t − 2 ,3t − 1,t )

If AB is perpendicular to both r1 and r2 , find the values of s and t .

product u × v is the vector defined by

Example Find a × b , a ⋅ (a × b) and b ⋅ ( a × b) if a = 3i + 2 j − k and b = i + 4 j + k .

u v − u v cos 2 θ , where θ is angle between u and v .

The another definition of u × v is u × v = u v sin θ e n where en is a unit vector

perpendicular to the plane containing u and v .

(2) perpendicular to both a and b and a , b, a × b form a right-hand system.

If a unit vector in the direction of a × b is denoted by en , then we have

Geometrical Interpretation of Vector Product

(1) a × b is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b .

as its adjacent sides.