WORD FORM (PASSAGE)

1.The Warrunmbungle National Park

The Warrungungle National Park is (0) …………..increasing in (1)… ………..with visitors in Australia.
Walking, camping and rock climbing are the favourite leisure-time (2) ……………in this area,but the
landscape and wildlife, which are (3) ………..varied, also attract (4) ………and naturalist throughout the
different seasons of the year. Visitors share the park with hundred of native animals, such as kangaroos
and koalas. The wonderful (5)…… ……….in Warrumbungle National Park is the result of (6) …………volcanic
activity over a massive area. This produced the many (7) ……………..rock formations and numerous lakes
visible today, and also the rich soil which enables the abundant vegetation topgrow and flourish.
Walking tracks in the park are clearly marked, and visitors are (8)…… …..to keep to these. Many of the
walks can be done by children and some are (9) ………….for pushchairs and wheelchairs. A relatively easy,
but highly rewarding, walk in the 5-kilometre trek up to Belougery Split Rock, where visitors may be
lucky enough to see eagles flying overhead. More (10) ………….walkers can try the more demanding 15-
kilometere walk to Camp Pincham.The view there is unforgettable, but it will take even the fittest walker
four or five hours to get there.

POPULAR SPECTACLE SCENE PHOTOGRAPH EXTRAORDINARY

OCCUPY POWER STEADY SUIT ENERGY COURAGE

2. Capital punishment, also called death penalty, execution of an offender sentenced to death after
conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense. Capital punishment should be distinguished from
(11)_____ executions carried out without due process of law. The term death penalty is sometimes used
(12) ________ with capital punishment, though imposition of the penalty is not always followed by
execution (even when it is upheld on appeal), because of the possibility of (13)_ ______ to life
imprisonment. Capital punishment for murder, treason, arson, and rape was widely employed in ancient
Greece under the laws of Draco, though Plato argued that it should be used only for the (14) _____. The
Romans also used it for a wide range of offenses, though citizens were exempted for a short time during
the republic. It also has been sanctioned at one time or another by most of the world’s major religions.
Followers of Judaism and Christianity, for example, have claimed to find justification for capital
punishment in the (15) _____ passage ‘Whosoever sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be
shed’ (Genesis 9:6). Yet capital punishment has been (16) ____ for many crimes not involving loss of life,
including adultery and blasphemy. The ancient legal principle Lex talionis (talion) – ‘an eye for an eye, a
tooth for a tooth, a life for a life’ – which appears in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, was invoked in
some societies to ensure that capital punishment was not (17) _________ applied. Capital punishment
has long engendered considerable debate about both its morality and its effect on criminal behaviour.
Supporters of the death penalty believe that those who commit murder, because they have taken the
life of another, have forfeited their own right to life. By contrast, opponents of capital punishment,
following the writings of Cesare Beccaria, argue that, by (18) ______ the very behaviour that the law
seeks to repress –killing –capital punishment is (19) _______in the moral message it conveys. Moreover,
they urge,when it is used for lesser crimes, capital punishment is immoral because it is not
corresponding to the harm done. (20) ______________ also claim that capital punishment violates the
condemned person’s right to life and is fundamentally inhuman and degrading.
BIBLE PRODUCE LEGITIMATE ABOLISH CHANGE
PROPORTION SCRIPT CORRECT COMMUTE JUDICIARY

KICK                         LEAVER IKELIHOOD             ECSTASY RELATION 

3. ADVENTUROUS NURTURE COUNT             ATTEND REMARK

Over the years, there have been (11) …………. fans of the classic Hanna-Barbera cartoon
character Yogi Bear. The cartoon series enjoyed by young and old alike revolved mostly around
the (12) ………….of this loveable bear and his (13)  …………. Boo-Boo as they tried
unsuccessfully to snag “pic-a-nic” baskets in the made-up land of Jellystone Park. It is not often
that people think about where the ideas for these cartoon characters come from, which brings up
an interesting point: do bears actually search for food (14) ………….
in Picnic baskets and (15) …………. campsites? 
(16) ………….enough, bears have been known to seek out food from some (17) ……….sources,
including picnic baskets, on top of their usual diet of berries, insects, and fish. Bears work
throughout the summer and fall to build up fat stores so as to have energy enough to last them
through their winter hibernations. (18) …………. to this is their need to replenish their depleted
reserves when they wake up in the spring. Food is generally scarce in the early spring, and
consequently they will (19) ……….indulge in any foods that are (20) ……….. This is the main
reason for many incidents involving bears entering campsites in search of food.

4. fertility - help - initial - retrieve - sleep 

special - success - surgery - swell - treat 
One of the things people think about when a young woman is diagnosed with cancer is that the
chemotherapy will almost certainly leave her (11).………….afterwards. In other words, she will
be unable to have a baby. One woman, Theresa, explained her experience. She told how one day
she had found a strange (12) ………….lump. She had gone to the hospital and, to her horror,
found she had cancer. She had recently married and had been thinking of starting a family. She
had had many (13) …………. Nights worrying about how she and her husband would cope
without children. (14) ………….the doctors did not even broach the baby issue. Although
Theresa found her own oncologist (15) …………., one enlightened (16) …………. told her
about the possibility of egg (17) ………….This is when the woman’s eggs are removed and
kept safe while she has chemotherapy. She was determined to recover from cancer and have
children. She had to go to a (18) ………….to find out that there was a hormone (19) ………….
that could help protect the ovaries during chemotherapy. Happily, Theresa’s cancer was (20)
………….treated and now she is expecting her first child.
5.
NECESSARY       RELY       VISION           EXCEED GRADE
SIGNIFICANT    MODE    DESCEND    ADVANTAGE  
PERSUADE
Ancient man
used sticks of charcoal to draw pictures on cave walls in order to communicate (with, probably,
their deities and trainee huntsmen). Today, some of their direct (1) ………are still using ‘chalk
and talk’ and other (2) ………equipment to make presentations to sophisticated business
audiences. Now, there’s nothing wrong with whiteboards, flip charts and overhead projectors. In
their right context, they are still (3) ……… useful presentation tools. But in a business
environment in which the presentation of clear, easily understandable information is a (4)
……… and in which memorability is key, managers should be constantly (5)………their
equipment to keep pace with developments. Audiences are coming to expect high - quality
presentations that are (6) ………stimulating and get the message across without wasting time.
Professionally - made presentations clearly (7) ………that the person giving them has thought
through the issues and knows what they are talking about. They can put a (8)………case that
wins over an audience in a way that pieces of paper can’t. And they can put you, or your
company, in the most (9) ……light possible by delivering a well thought - out message (10)
……….every time.
6. ESTIMATE    SUSPECT    SIGNIFY        FULFIL       ANATOMY 
ADHERE      NOTIC ABLE   SEDUCE   EMPHATIC   SUBSTANCE 

There is little to disagree about in the notion that a good voice, whether in opera or rock music, is
one which moves its audience and brings a sense of release and (1) ………to the singer. But
contemporary pop and rock music have come about due to (2) ………advances in technology.
Here, the impact of the microphone should not be (3) …………, as it has enabled the
magnification of quiet, intimate sounds.
This, in turn, allows the singer to experiment with the (4) ……on mood rather than on strict (5)
…… to proper breathing and voice control. Donna Soto Morettin, a rock and jazz vocal trainer,
feels that (6) ………reasons may account for the raspy sound produced by certain rock singers.
Her (7) ……… is that swollen vocal chords, which do not close properly, may allow singers to
produce deeper notes. She does not, however, regard this as detracting (8) ………from the value
of the sound produced. Singing, she maintains, has an almost (9) ………quality and so our
responsd to it has more (10) ……  than its technical qualities.
7. CREDIT CARDS
The first exprimental step towards creating a credit card was taken by a US company in 1914.
They issued a………….(1. SOPHISTICATED) metal token to their customers, allowing them to
defer their bills. But ………… (2. NEAR) half a century was to pass before the………..(3.
POSSIBLE) of establishing a………....(4. UNIVESE) credit card would be taken………( 5.
SERIOUS). France was the …………. (6. LEAD) creating the “Carte Bleue”. Barclays bank in
Britain…………. (7. QUICK) followed. When the Visa system was developed in 1977, credit
rose, with most credit holders joining this …………. (8. GLOBE) credit network. By 1944 the
Visa system had a credit total of $ 207.4 billion in 2.8 million………. (9. LOCATE) in Europe.
The credit card has…………. (10. TRUE) become intertnatiọnal.
8. know         prefer         notice great research
recognize     vary respond rely contain

GENETIC GENIUS
According to a recent study the best musicians are born, not made. (31) ……….at St Thomas’s
Hospital in London claim that genes are responsible for up to 80 per cent of our ability to
recognize pitch, the key to musical (32) ……….. The discovery by the hospital’s Twin Research
Unit, the largest of its kind in the world, account for the prevalence of musical families from the
Bachs to the Corrs and the Strausses to the Jacksona. In a “distorted tunes test” over 500 twins
were played a (33) ……….of popular songs, each (34) ……….a number of errors. A comparison
of the (35) …….of identical twins with those of non-identical twins revealed that the former
were (36) ………. better at spotting the mistakes. The results of the study suggest that for some
children, music lesson may only go so far in improving musical abilities such as  pitch (37)
………….. However, parents hoping to save money on lessons cannot use the test as an early
indicator of musical potential: It is (38) …………. , for children under 12, who do not have
sufficient (39) ………….of the tunes played. For its next project, the Twin Research Unit will
test whether identical twins can tell us if genes have a role to play in a (40)………..for classical,
jazz or pop music.
9. A MUSICAL GENIUS
For many people Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) is the most (0) INFLUENCE
influential figure in the history of western classical music. His (1) ……………
talent was already clearly evident as a young man, (2) ……………surviving ORDINARY
a somewhat MERCY
unconventional (3) ……………during which his eccentric father  BRING
would often force him to take music lessons in the middle of the night.
The young Beethoven’s ability won him the admiration of the leading
contemporary musical figures. Throughout the 1790s he worked hard to secure
the interest of wealthy patrons.
Such patronage (4) ……………  himto concentrate on becoming a successful ABLE
composer.
Whatever his awe-inspiring musical (5) …………… however, ACHIEVE
his personal life was something of a disaster. His day-to-day
(6) ……………with people invariably turned out to be rather RELATE
turbulent. Although he apparently fell in love with a number of society 
women, the identity of the girl who lay closest to
his heart remains (7) ……………to this day.
However, just at the point when Beethoven was beginning ELUDE
 to reap the rewards of his early endeavours, he had to come
to terms with the (8) ……………realisation that his increasing
CRUSH 
deafness was (9) ……………From that point on, his music
CURE 
displayed a (10) ……………change in style, becoming both
STRIKE
heavier in tone and larger in scale.

10. A WORRYING DISEASE

Rubella, also called German measles, is an epidemic (0) viral (VIRUS) disease of mild course
(1. INTENSE) ..................study of epidemics in Germany in the 19 century gave rise to the
th

popular name of the disease. Although rubella may occur in young children,(2.
SUSCEPTIBLE) ..................to the disease is more commonly seen in older children and young
adults.
Usually the (3. COMFORT) ..................rash is the first sign noted (4 LARGE) .................of the
lymph glands in the neck, behind the ears, and perhaps elsewhere in the body is
(5.CHARACTER) .................. Although it is certainly not pleasant to suffer from rubella,(6.
COMPLICATE) ..................are rare. A day or so of bed rest and a light diet with plenty of fluids
is the only (7. TREAT) .................required in most cases. In 1941 it was discovered that rubella
early in pregnancy maybe (8.THREAT) .................to the health of the foetus, especially the eyes
and heart. Years later it was demonstrated that infants may be bom with active rubella and may
manifest many additional (9 NORMAL) .................In fact, it has been found capable of causing
extensive damage to almost any organ of the infant's body. Methods of (10.
IMMUNE) ................. have been recommended in the hope of stamping out the virus from the
environment.
11.
precise           intend         practice             clear      
designer
depend engine manufactory specify         implicit 

Designers do not (1) ……………things. All good designers ask questions of their client and
spend time helping the client to (2) ……………what he or she really wants. If the product is to
be made to the designer’s (3) …………, then the designer must ensure that the factory has the
tools and the intelligence and that each element specified is (4) ………. On complex jobs several
product (5) …………… will be involved, today with computer-aided software packages, to help
to realize a design (6) …………. The greatest difference between the designer and the single (7)
………… craftsperson is that the craftsperson does not have the problem of communicating his
or her (8) ………to others for translation into objects. The designer; however, must make his or
her intentions (9) ………… communication is at the heart of (10) ……………
12. define           reason     confuse think       doubt
conceive explain        logic sense        
assume
Students learning English
as a second language are sometimes given a word by their teacher and asked to give an (1)
…………… as to what that word means; in other words, to provide a (2) ……………The(3)
…………… is that if you know a word, you can define it. (4) .................., that might make
sense, but in reality it is not always (5) .................. to assume that. They are words and phrases
that even native speakers use in conversation without much (6) .................. which can lead to (7)
…………… when you ask a native speaker to define them. Take the (8) .................. of
“zeitgeist”, for example, which has entered English from German, It’s (9) ……………much
easier to use thán it is to define. With a word like “zeitgeist”, it may be more (10) ………………
to test the student’s understanding in ways other than asking thèm to define it. 

13. A live broadcast of any public event, such as a space flight or sporting occasion, is almost (1)
……… (VARIABLE) accompanied by the thoughts of a (2) ………….. (COMMENT). This
may be on television, along with the relevant pictures, alternatively on radio. The technique
involved (3) ………….. (DIFFERENT)
between two media, with radio broadcasters needing to be more explicit and (4) …………..
(DESCRIBE) because of the absence of visual information. TV commentators do not need to
paint a picture for their audience; instead, their various (5) …………..(OBSERVE) should add to
the images that are already there.
There will sometimes be silences and pauses in a TV commentary, although these are becoming
(6)…………. (INCREASE) rare. Both types of commentators should try to be informative, but
should advoid sounding (7) ………….. (OPINION). In sports commentaries, fairness and (8)
………….. (IMPART) to both types is vital, but spontaneity and enthusiasm are valued by those
watching or listening. Sport commentators usually broadcast live in an essentially unscripted
way, although they may refer to previously prepared materials such as sports statistics. Because
of the (9) ………….. (PREDICT) nature of live events, thorough preparation in advance is vital.
The internet has helped enormously with this aspect of the job. Anyone interested in becoming a
commentator should have excellent (10) ………….. (ORGANISE) skills, the willingness to
work irregular hours, and a strong voice. 
14. south       lie           exploit     ultimacy ornament
hill migrate front     conserve originate

The whooping crane is a grand, (11)…….. waterfowl native only to North America. Its features
are striking, as a mature whooping crane is all white and stands five feet tall with a wingspan of
about eight feet. Previously, wild flocks spent the warmer parts of the year in their native habitat
of northern Canada, and, around August, they made the 2,500-mile (12)……..journey to the gulf
coast of Texas in the United States. Today, only one flock remains in the wild, and it consists of
about one hundred and fifty to two hundred whooping cranes. Continuing (13)………..efforts are
attempting to increase its populations, which face, as they traditionally have, a/an (14)
……..battle, by introducing new habitats and educational methods of migration.
There are two major factors which (15) ……….. the decline of the whooping crane in the early
twentieth century. First, they were (16)…….. hunted by people for food as well as beautiful
feathers, which were used for (17) ………..purposes. Second, their natural habitat wetlands were
beginning to dry up due to agricultural (18)……..and development. Thirdly, which perhaps had
the most dramatic effect, was the fact that the eggs of the whooping crane were prized by
collectors. Once the eggs were pillaged from nests, future generations became placed even more
in jeopardy. Fortunately, the whooping crane, like other endangered species such as the bald
eagle, (19)……..became a protected species by federal law. The issue of how to increase their
numbers back to comfortable levels, therefore, has moved to the (20) ……….  of attention.
15. KNOW FRONT             FINE   PASS RANGE
GROW BACK FOCUS HEAD   OPERA
So (1)………….was the first decades of cinema that America and Europe can be forgiven for
assuming that they were the only game in town. In less than twenty years, western cinema has
grown out of all recognition; its (2)……….became the most famous people in the world; it made
millions. German directors used it as an analogue to the human mind and the modernizing city,
Soviet emphasized its agitational and intellectual properties, and the Italians reconfigured it on
a/an (3)……….scale. It never occurred to its financial (4)………. that another continent might
borrow their magic box and make it its own. But film industries were emerging in Shanghai,
Bombay and Tokyo, some of which would (5)……….those in the west.
Between 1930 and 1935, while China produced more than 500 films, mostly conventionally
made in studios in Shanghai, without soundtracks, India followed a different course. Indian films
were stylistically more (6)…….than the western musical, (7)…….realism and escapist dance
witbin individual consequences, and they were often three hours long rather than Hollywood’s
90 minutes. In Japan, the film industry did not rival India’s in size but was unusual in other
ways. In Tokyo, the director chose the stories and hired the producer and actors, which led to the
production of some of Asia’s finest films in the 1930s and 1940s.
The films of Kenji Mizoguchi were among the greatest of these. His films were usually set in the
nineteenth century and analyzed the way in which the lives of the female characters whom he
chose as his (8)…….point were constrained by the society of the time. He also evolved a sinuous
way of moving his camera in and around a scene, advancing towards significant details but often
retreating at moments of (9)
…….or strong essence        critic various           efficient feeling. No one
had used the logic camera with
such (10) centre         press exceed retail avoid ……….before.
16.
FOOD MILES
In Britain, what is described as “food miles”, the distance which food is transported from the
place where it is grown to its point of sale, continues to rise. This has major economic, social and
environmental consequences, given the traffic congestion and pollution which (11)
…………..follow.
According to (12)………….. groups, the same amount of food is traveling 50 percent further
than twenty year ago. What’s more, the rise in the demand for road haulage over this period has
mostly been due to the transport of food and drink. The groups assert that the increase in the
number of lorry journeys is (13)…………..and that many of these are far from (14)…………..
In the distribution systems employed by British food (15)……….., fleets of lorries bring all
goods into more (16)………..located warehouses for redistribution across the country.(17)
………..as this might appear, the situation whereby some goods get sent back to the same areas
from which they came is (18)……
In response to scathing (19)…………..from environmentalists, some food distributors
now aim to minimize the impact of food miles by routing vehicles, wherever possible, on
motorways after dark. This encourages greater energy (20)…………..while also reducing the
impact on the residential areas through which they would otherwise pass.
17.
revolt   persist          alter electric           process
endure   continue place modern capable
Born in 1940, UK businessman Sir Clive Sinclair has an (1)………place in the minds of British
people for two reasons. First, he was the man who (2)……home computing with the ZX series of
computers, and secondly, he was the man whose (3)……to the car, the C5, failed spectacularly
to capture the public imagination.
Sinclair’s products, the ZX81 and its successful (4)………,the ZX Spectrum, were small,
affordable computers that sold in huge numbers in the early 1980s. Despite limited (5) …………
they allowed people to play computer games in their own home for the first time, and even
introduced people to the word (6)……………
The C5, a one-person vehicle that ran on (7)……, was produced in 1984 and was Sinclair’s
attempt to (8)………transport. However, it was (9)……criticized in the press for being
unsafe and impractical in the British climate and production of the C5 was (10)……in August,
1985. 

18. conceive    history knowledge obrserve    continue

document   replace believe planet little       discover 
(0) Historically, Mars was thought to be the most likely planet to harbour life There is a
reflection of such (11) …………..in popular culture as expressed in literature, radio and film.
Public fascination with Martians began in the late 19 century when, in 1877, astronomer
th

Giovanni Sciaparelli reported (12).…………..of large channels on Mars.

In 1897, H. G. Wells’ The War of the World was the first major work to explore the (13)………..
of the “extraterrestrial invader" and exerted a substantial influence on the public psyche. A few
years later, even (14)…………..astronomers such as Percival Lowell seriously advocated the
possibility of life forms as described in his book Mars as the Adobe of Life (1910).
Consequently, Mars began to take a special place in popular culture around the turn of the 20 th

century, (15)………..until today. However, this does not (16)…………..the unique role of Mars
in the history of science.
Specifically, the (17)………..of the movement of Mars, by Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630), led to
the formation of his three laws of (18)………..motion which shattered mediaeval
anthropocentric notions of astronomy and laid the foundations for the (19) .………….. of Isaac
Newton (1643 - 1727). Like no other planet, Mars has left (20)…………..marks on human
imagination and thought.
19. SKILLED / SUCCEED ! PHYSICAL / CRITICS / AESTHETE
ART / INUNDATION / VISIONARY / DUST /
DISPOSITION
Native Americans
probably arrived from Asia in (1)……..waves over several millennia, crossing a plain hundreds
of miles wide that now lies (2) ……..by 160 feet of water released by melting glaciers. For
several periods of time, the first beginning around 60, 000 B.C. and the last ending around 7,000
B.C., this land bridge was open. The first people traveled in the (3)……..trails of the animals
they hunted. They brought with them not only their families, weapons, and tools but also a broad
(4)……..understanding, sprung from dreams and (5)……..and articulated in myth and song,
which complemented their scientific and historical knowledge of the lives of animals and of
people. All this they shaped in a variety of languages, bringing into being oral literatures of
power and beauty.
Contemporary readers, forgetting the origins of western epic, lyric, and dramatic forms, are
easily (6)……..to think of “literature” only as something written. But on reflection it becomes
clear that the more (7)………..useful as well as the more frequently employed sense of the term
concerns the (8)………..of the verbal creation, not its mode of presentation. Ultimately,
literature is (9) …….. valued, regardless of language, culture, or mode of presentation, because
some significant verbal achievement results from the struggle in words between tradition and
talent. Verbal art has the ability to shape out a compelling inner vision in some (10)
…………..crafted public verbal form.
20. populate fall coast delete     interfere
pollute            inhere    use limit         reserve

The seas are considered man’s best hope for the future, the last frontier, and breath-space for the
land which is being 11……. The sea is polluted by waste from ships, by rivers and even by the
12.………. air. In 13.………….areas, population pressures are increasing; populations move to
coasts and they are followed by industries. It is necessary to fight any threat to the sea.
Man causes marine pollution by introducing substances, which have 14…….. effects, into the
marine environment. This 15.……. is a hazard to health and it hinders marine activities and
impairs the quality of sea water. Major 16……….processes of the marine environment are seen
as domestic sewage and industrial waste. The ocean is considered by many as a perfect dump
because of the great economy 17.…….in the discharge of urban sewage and industrial waste. Its
vast area and volume and its lack of portability or 18.…….for domestic and most industrial
purposes make it an 19.……….and most attractive 20…….of waste assimilation. Because of this
attitude, certain areas of the ocean are showing signs of severe damage.

21.
EMERGE     KNOW     EXTEND      CONSEQUENCE RIPE   
THREAT 
SUPPLY     MATURE   COMPETE    RECOGNISE
VANILLA
Thanks to the ubiquitous use of vanilla as a flavouring in ice creams and cakes the world over, its
taste is more (1)…………to the majority of people than the appearance of the plant.
The plant itself is actually a native of the tropical forests of Central America and is the only
variety of orchid to be grown on a commercial scale. Its delicate white flowers open in the early
morning and, after pollination by insects or humming birds, a narrow bean- like pod forms and
(2) …………,taking a period of five to seven months to reach (3)……………It is this pod which
is harvested to provide the food crop we know as vanilla.
Despite its American origins, for decades it was only cultivated (4) ………on the Indian Ocean
island of Madagascar, where it was introduced at the end of the nineteenth century. It soon
became clear that the vanilla grown there was of a quality (5)………in other areas, and the island
quickly became one of the world’s major (6)……………  
In recent year, however, new (7)………have entered the vanilla market and, (8)………,
Madagascar’s importance has started to slip. Of course, the (9) ……………of new producers
means a smaller market share, whilst the development of artificial substitutes is (10)…………to
undermine demand for the real thing.
22.
consistent influence conserve else orchestra
direct             ordain             week             act differ
Antonio Vivaldi, an Italian composer and a violinist, was the most (11)… of his age. He was
bom March 4, 1678, in Venice, and was trained by his father, a violinist at Sa Mark’s Cathedral.
(12) …………a priest in 1703, Vivaldi began teaching that year at the Ospedale della Pietà, a
(13) ……… for orphaned girls. He was associated with the Pietà, usually as music (14) ………,
until 1740, training the students, composing concertos and oratorios for (15) ……. concerts, and
meanwhile establishing an international reputation. From 1713 on, Vivaldi was also (16)
…………as an opera composer and producer in Venice and traveled to Rome, Mantua, and (17)
………to oversee performances of his operas. In about 1740 he accepted a position at the court
of Empire Charles VI in Vienna. He died in Vienna on July 28, 1741.
Vivaldi’s concertos provided a model for this genre throughout Europe, affecting the style even
of his older contemporaries. Vivaldi was the first composer who (18) ………used the ritornello
form that became standard for the fast movements of concertos. The ritornello was a section that
recurred in (19) ……… keys arid was played by the full orchestra. It alternated with soloist-
dominated sections (episodes) that in his works were often virtuosic in character. He virtually
established the three-movement format for the concerto and was among the first to introduce
cadenzas for soloists. His opus 8 concertos entitled The Four Seasons are early examples of (20)
………program music. Like much of his music, they are marked by vigorous rhythms and strong
contrasts.