Research methodology Course (PAU):

Session 1: Understanding the concept of research methodology

Meaning of research:

• A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information

on a specific topic.

• Research: “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through

search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
Purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
Its objectives include:
➢Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory
or formulative research studies);
➢Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(descriptive research studies);
➢Determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (diagnostic research studies);
➢Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing
research studies).
• In order to contribute to a solution, research will need to consist of a combination
of theory and (research) methodology that needs to be elaborated into an
appropriate and well-reasoned research design fitting the problem at hand.

What does creating problems – problematizing mean?

• Problematising is the process of going below the surface of what has been offered
as ‘the problem’ and trying to define what is really the matter. In the process of
problematising we make use of facts, figures, concepts, paradigms, opinions,
experiences, emotions and many, many other things.

• What does conceptualizing mean?

• Conceptualising the different roles of these people in relation to the problem

results in the identification of the following stakeholders and their roles: problem
creators, -sponsors, -owners, -solvers and -subjects.
a) Types of research
Descriptive vs. Analytical:
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
• In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Applied vs. Fundamental:
• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.
• Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

• Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.

Conceptual vs. Empirical:

• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally

used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.

• Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard
for system and theory. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Research approaches
Two basic Approaches: quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.

• Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which

can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
It can be sub-divided into:

• The inferential approach whose research purpose is to form a data base from
which to infer characteristics or relationships of population.

• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research

environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their
effect on other variables.

• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within

which relevant information and data can be generated.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour
▪ Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
▪ Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative
form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis.
▪ Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques
and depth interviews are used.

Some significance of research:

(1) Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies; (2) Research
has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business, industry or the society; (3) Research is equally
important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
Distinguish between Research method and Research methodology:

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research.

Research methods can be grouped into:

✓Methods which are concerned with the collection of data;

✓Statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data
and the unknowns;

✓Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.

• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests,
how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation
or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which
are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.

• Mixed methods research has gained a tremendous popularity in social,

behavioral and related sciences in recent years. The rationale for mixed
method design research is to take the best of qualitative (QL) and
quantitative methods (QN) and combine them.
Research process
Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems,
viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to
relationships between variables.
• At the very outset, the researcher must single out the problem he wants to
study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-
matter that he would like to inquire into.
• Formulate the general topic into a specific research problem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are
involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the
problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
analytical point of view.
Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down.
• Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.

• Preparing the research design: State the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The purpose of the research will dictate the design
which could be (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation.

• The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research

problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: (i) the means of
obtaining the information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff (if any); (iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) the
time available for research; and (v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose.
• Determining sample design: definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.

• Collecting the data: Primary data and/or secondary data, with the
help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.

• Execution of the project: The researcher should see that the project is
executed in a systematic manner and in time. Researcher should
respect his schedule.
Analysis of data:
(1) coding operation;
(2) Editing
(3) tabulation.

Then Analysis work to obtain informations like percentages, coefficients,

etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.

• Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the

researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test,
have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
Criteria of a good research:

• Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified

steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined
set of rules.

• Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction.

• Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or

more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.

• Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be

verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.
Distinguish between research and a scientific method

• Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into

the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any particular
set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally
controlled or recorded just as they occur.

• Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical

considerations to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
• Scientific method needs experimentation, observation and logical
arguments combined.
• In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and
accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear.
What is a model?

• A conceptual model is nothing more than an abstraction of the way we choose to

perceive a specific part, function, property or aspect of reality.

Properties of Conceptual Models

• They are verbal or visual ‘constructions’ helping to differentiate between what is

important and what not.

• A model offers a framework illustrating (logical) causal relationships between

factors that matter.

• Models serve to direct focus, thus, facilitating (organisational) communication

which leads to speedier if not better understanding.
Theory and Conceptual Models

• A theory is defined as a systematic attempt to understand what is observable

in the world. It creates order and logic from observable facts that appear
tumultuous and disconnected (See Key, 1999).

• A good theory would: “identify relevant variables and the connections

between them in a way that testable hypotheses can be generated and
empirically established”.

• A ‘good’ theory in the social sciences like economics should meet the
following criteria: it must be (a) falsifiable, (b) logically coherent, (c)
operationalisable, (d) useful and (e) possess sufficient explanatory power in
terms of scope and comprehensiveness.
• Preparation of the report or the thesis (a):

• In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed
by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

• The main text of the report should have the following parts:
• (a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The
scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

• (b) Summary of findings: After introduction, there would appear a statement of

findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive,
they should be summarized.

• (c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
• (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given
in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
General Steps to Follow When Conducting Research in Economics
Step 1 The first step in the process of conducting an economic analysis is to identify appropriate economic indicators for specific
economic forecasts or trends.

Step 2 Data collection is accomplished through observation and/or by reviewing measures of economic performance, such as
unemployment rates, personal income and expenditures, interest rates, business inventories, gross product by industry, and
numerous other economic indicators or indices. Such measures of economic performance may be found in secondary
sources such as business, trade, government, and general-interest publications.

Step 3 Prepare surveys to collect data and figure out what the data mean.
• Qualitative and Quantitative
• Descriptive Statistics, regression analysis, Before and After, Case Studies and forecasting
• Economists develop methods for obtaining the data they need. For example, sampling techniques may be used to
conduct a survey, and various mathematical modeling techniques may be used to develop forecasts. Preparing reports,
including tables and charts, on research results also is an important part of an economist's job

Step 4 Economists will examine, assess, and interpret the economic data collected and the subsequent forecast generated from the
economic data. Decision makers evaluate the data and forecast for accuracy, try to resolve inconsistencies in the
information, and—if it is warranted—assign significance to the findings.

Step 5 Following data analysis, economists restate their research question, then present their findings and conclusions. A sound
methodology requires not only a summary of the findings, but acknowledgement of any weaknesses in the study or the
analytical methods. A strong research methodology also involves identifying areas for future research.
Some sources and websites (source: https://www.bcps.org)
Find scholarly, published economic research. Some websites include: https://ideas.repec.org (free economic
downloadable research); http://ageconsearch.umn.edu (open access repository of full-text scholarly literature in
agricultural and applied economics).
Other economics research engine are:
✓ EconLinks (http://econlinks.com/) provides a directory of links for economists, economics students and anyone
interested in economics.
✓ The economics search engine (http://ese.rfe.org/) uses a beta version of Google Custom Search Engine to
search economics websites.
✓ Scirus (http://www.sciencedirect.com/scirus/) allows researchers to search for journal content but also
scientists' homepages, courseware, pre-print server material, patents and institutional repository and website
information.
✓ ThoughtCo (https://www.thoughtco.com/economics-4133521).
✓ The World Bank ( www.worldbank.org/).
✓ EconPort (http://econport.org/econport/request?page=web_home).
✓ CyberEconomics (http://ingrimayne.com/econ/TOC.html) is an easy-to-read approach to economics with a
variety of interactive problems and questions.