FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOTICS

1. INTRODUCTION
Robotics is the science of designing and building robots suitable for real-life applications in
automated manufacturing and non-manufacturing environment. Robotics is a form of industrial
automation. The term ‘robot’ was derived from Robota which is the English translation of a
fantasy play written in Czechoslovakia around 1920. ‘Robota’ means either a slave or
mechanical item that would help its master. A robot carries out the task done by a human being.

Robotics Industries Association (RIA) in November, 1979 defined Robot as “a re-

programmable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or
specialized device through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks”.

1.1 Laws of Robotics

Law 1: A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human to be
harmed.
Law 2: A robot must obey orders given by humans except when they conflict with the first law.
Law 3: A robot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the first or second law.

2. ROBOT ANATOMY
A system is nothing but the integration of whole of parts or subsystems. A robot is a system as
it combines many sub-systems that interact among themselves as well as with the environment
in which the robot works. A robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction of the
body, arm, and wrist of the machine.

The basic anatomy of robot is shown in the Figure 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Anatomy of a Robot

A robot has many components which include:

1. A base-fixed or mobile.
2. A manipulator arm with several degrees of freedom (DOF).
3. An end-effector or gripper holding a part.
4. Drives or actuators causing the manipulator arm or end-effector to move in a space.
5. Controller with hardware and software support for giving commands to the drives.
6. Sensors to feed back the information for subsequent actions of the arm or gripper as
well as to interact with the environment in which robot is working.
7. Interfaces connecting the robotic subsystems to the external world.

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3. ROBOT JOINTS
A robot joint permits relative movement between parts of a robot arm. The joints of a robot
are designed to enable the robot to move its end-effector along a path from one position to
another as desired. The end effector is mounted on a flange or some plate secured to the wrist.
It is most of the times, is the tool to perform some operation or some gripper for pick and place
operations. The robot movements are broadly classified into two main categories, namely
(i) arm and body motions
(ii) wrist motions.

The individual joint motions associated with these two categories are also referred to as the
degrees of freedom. The first three axes of the robot are referred to as the major axes, most of
the time the position of the end-effector of the robot is determined by the position of the major
axes. Similarly, three more axes associated with the wrist, are called minor axes and are used
to establish the orientation of the tool or the gripper at wrist. Thus, a minimum of six axes are
required to achieve any desirable position and orientation in the robot’s work volume or work
envelop or workspace. The locus of the points in the three-dimensional space that can be
reached by the wrist by the various combinations of the movements of the robot joints from
base up to wrist, is called the gross work envelop of the robot.

The robot motions are accomplished by means of powered joints. The rigid members connected
at the joints of the robot are called links. In the link-joint-link chain the link closest to the base
is referred to as the input link. The output link is the one which moves with respect to the input
link.

There are basically two types of joints commonly used in industrial robots, which are:
(i) prismatic or linear joints, which have sliding or linear (translational) motion along an
axis
(ii) and revolute, which exhibits the rotary motion about an axis

Figure 1.2 shows some examples of the physical arrangements of the linkages to have prismatic
or the revolute motions in robotics.

Fig. 1.2 Robot Joints (a) Prismatic (b) Rotational (c) Twisting (d) Revolving

The prismatic joints are called so because the cross section of the joint is considered as a
generalized prism. They permit links to move in a linear relationship and are denoted by P. In
a prismatic joint (P), the links are generally parallel to one another. In some cases, adjoining
links are perpendicular but one link slides at the end of the other link. The joint motion is
defined by sliding or translational movements of the links. The orientation of the links remains
the same after the joint movement, but the lengths of the links are altered.

The Revolute joints (R) permit only angular motion between links. Their various types are (i)
Rotational joint, (ii) Twisting joint and (iii) Revolving joint. A rotational joint is identified by

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its motion, rotation about an axis perpendicular to the adjoining links. Here, the lengths of
adjoining links do not change but the relative position of the links with respect to one another
changes as the rotation takes place. A twisting joint is also a rotational joint, where the rotation
takes place about an axis that is parallel to both adjoining links. A revolving joint is another
rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis that is parallel to one of the
adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned perpendicular to one another at this kind of joint.
The rotation involves revolution of one link about another.

4. JOINT NOTATIONS FOR MAJOR AXES

These motions are accomplished by movements of individual joints of the robot arm. The joint
movements are basically the same as relative motion of adjoining links. The basic movements
required for a desired motion of most industrial robots are:

1. Rotational movement: This enables the robot to place its arm in any direction on a
horizontal plane.
2. Radial movement: This enables the robot to move its end-effector radially to reach
distant points.
3. Vertical movement: This enables the robot to take its end-effector to different heights.

5. WRIST MOVEMENTS
The robot wrist movements are designed to orient the end effector or tool attached to the wrist
of the robot in the desirable orientation. The robot wrist is generally having three degrees of
freedom associated with it. These three degrees of freedom at the wrist are called wrist roll,
wrist pitch and wrist yaw, as illustrated in the figure 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Robot Wrist

1. Wrist Roll: it involves the rotation of the wrist mechanism about the arm axis. Wrist
roll is sometimes also referred to as wrist swivel.
2. Wrist Pitch: if the wrist roll is in its center position, the wrist pitch is the up or down
rotation of the wrist. This is also called wrist bend.
3. Wrist Yaw: if the wrist roll is in center position of its range, wrist yaw is the right or
the left rotation of the wrist.
The wrist yaw and pitch definitions are specified with respect to the central position of the wrist
roll, as the rotation of the wrist about the arm axis will change the orientation of the pitch and
yaw movements. The robot would have a spherical wrist if the axes used to orient the tool
intersect at a common point.

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6. ROBOT CLASSIFICATION
Robots may be classified, based on:
• Drive Technologies
• Physical Configuration
• Control Systems

6.1 Classification based on drive technologies

An important element of a robot is the drive system that supplies the power for the actuation
of various linkages and joints of a robot and thus enabling the robot to move. The dynamic
performance of a robot mainly depends on the type of power source. There are basically three
types of power sources for robots, which are mentioned below:

Electric drive
Most of the industrial robots use electric drive system, in the form of either DC stepper motor
drive (open loop control), or, DC servo motor drive (closed loop control). The main advantages
of using electric drive system are that this drive system gives better positioning accuracy and
repeatability, and is suitable to keep cleaner environment around. But it gives slower movement
compare to the hydraulic robots and the electric drive system is good for small and medium
size robots only.

Hydraulic drive
In case when industrial robot is required to work at higher speeds and at substantial loads
hydraulic drive robot are preferred. The main disadvantage of using hydraulic drive system is
that it occupies large space area and there is a danger of oil leak to the shop floor.

Pneumatic drive
For both electrical and hydraulic drive robots most of the time make use of the pneumatic tools
or end effectors. Pneumatic drives are used especially when the gripping action of the end
effectors is simple open and close operation to pick light objects. But the pneumatic drive
system is preferred for smaller robots as these are less expensive than electric or hydraulic
robots and suitable for relatively less degrees of freedom design for simple pick and place
application.

6.2 Classification based on work envelop geometries

The definition of the robots work volume is conventionally done based on the positions in the
space surrounding the robot which can be reached by the robot wrist. The positions of the robot
wrist are used for the purpose of defining the robots work volume mainly to avoid the
complication of different sizes of the end effectors that may be attached to the robot wrist. The
end effector is in addition to the basic robot and it should not be accounted as the part of the
robot’s work volume. The work volume of an industrial robot is determined by the
following physical characteristics of the robot:
(i) The robot’s physical configuration
(ii) The sizes of the links for the body, arm and wrist of robot
(iii)The limits of the robot’s joint movements.

The end-effector, or tool, of a robotic manipulator is typically mounted on a flange or plate

secured to the wrist of the robot. The gross work envelope of a robot is defined as the locus of
points in three-dimensional space that can reached by the wrist. The axes of the first three joints
of a robot are termed as the major axes. The major axes are used to determine the position of
the wrist. The axes of the remaining joints, the minor axes, are used to establish the orientation

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of the tool. As a consequence, the geometry of the work envelope is determined by the sequence
of joints used for the first three axes. Six types of robot joints are possible such as Revolute,
Planar, Cylindrical, Prismatic, Spherical and Screw. However, only two basic types prismatic
(P) and Revolute (R) are commonly used in industrial robots.

Revolute joints (R) exhibit rotary motion about an axis. They are the most common type of
joint. The next most common type is a prismatic joint (P), which exhibits sliding or linear
motion along an axis. The particular combination of revolute and prismatic joints for the three
major axes determines the geometry of the work envelope, as summarized in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Robot Work Envelopes based on Major Axes

Robot Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Total
Configuration Revolute
Cartesian P P P 0
Cylindrical R P P 1
Spherical R R P 2
SCARA R R P 2
Articulated R R R 3

The list in Table 1.1 is not exhaustive, since there are many possibilities, but it is representative
of the vast majority of commercially available robots. As far as analysis of the motion of the
arm is concerned, prismatic joints tend to be simpler than revolute joints. Therefore, the last
column in Table 1.1, which specifies the total number of revolute joints for the three major
axes, is a rough indication of the complexity of the arm.

For the simplest robot listed in Table 1.1, the three major axes are all prismatic; the resulting
notation for this configuration is PPP. This is characteristic of a Cartesian-coordinate robot;
also called a rectangular-coordinate robot. An example of a Cartesian-coordinate robot and its
work envelope is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Cartesian Robot

Note that the three sliding joints correspond to moving the wrist up and down, in and out, and
back and forth. It is evident that the work envelope or work volume that this configuration
generates is a rectangular box. When a Cartesian-coordinate robot is mounted from above in a
rectangular frame, it is referred to as a gantry robot. The major advantages of Cartesian
coordinate robot are:
1. Ability to do straight line insertions into furnaces.
2. Easy computation and programming.

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 3. Most rigid structure for given length.

But Cartesian coordinate robots do have certain disadvantages also as listed below:
1. Requires large operating volume.
2. Exposed guiding surfaces require covering in corrosive or dusty environments
3. Can only manipulate the objects in front of it.
4. Axes of robot are hard to seal

If the first joint of a Cartesian-coordinate robot is replaced with a revolute joint (to form the
configuration (RPP), this produces a cylindrical-coordinate robot. An example of a cylindrical-
coordinate robot and its work envelope is shown in Fig. 1.5. The revolute joint swings the arm
back and forth about a vertical base axis. The prismatic joints then move the wrist up and down
along the vertical axis and in and out along a radial axis. Since there will be some minimum
radial position, the work envelope generated by this joint configuration is the volume between
two vertical concentric cylinders.

Fig. 1.5 Cylindrical Robot

The cylindrical coordinate robots are commonly used for handling at die-casting machines,
assembly operations, handling machine tools, and spot welding operations. The cylindrical
coordinate robots have the following major advantages over other robot configurations:
1. can reach all around itself
2. rotational axis easy to seal
3. relatively easy programming
4. rigid enough to handle heavy loads through large working space
5. good access into cavities and machine openings

The main disadvantages of the cylindrical coordinate robots are:

1. can't reach above itself
2. linear axes is hard to seal
3. won’t reach around obstacles
4. exposed drives are difficult to cover from dust and liquids

If the second joint of a cylindrical-coordinate robot is replaced with a revolute joint (so that the
configuration is then RRP), this produces a spherical-coordinate robot. It is also called a polar
robot. An example of a spherical-coordinate robot and its work envelope is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Here the first revolute joint swings the arm back and forth about a vertical base axis, while the
second revolute joint pitches the arm up and down about a horizontal shoulder axis. The
prismatic joint moves the wrist radially in and out. The work envelope generated in this case is

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the volume between two concentric spheres. The spheres are typically truncated from above,
below and behind by limits on the ranges of travel of the joints.

Fig. 1.6 Spherical (Polar) Robot

Like a spherical-coordinate robot, a SCARA robot (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot

Arm) also has two revolute joints and one prismatic joint (in the configuration RRP) to position
the wrist. However, for a SCARA robot the axes of all three joints are vertical. An example of
a SCARA robot along with its work envelope is shown in Fig. 1.7. The first revolute joint
swings the arm back and forth about a base axis that can also be thought of as a vertical shoulder
axis. The second revolute joint swings the forearm back and forth about a vertical elbow axis.
Thus, the two revolute joints control motion in a horizontal plane. The vertical component of
the motion is provided by the third joint, a prismatic joint which slides the wrist up and down.
The shape of a horizontal cross section of the work envelope of a SCARA robot can be quite
complex, depending upon the limits on the ranges of travel for the first two axes.

Fig. 1.7 SCARA Robot

Following are the main advantages of SCARA:

1. High speed.
2. Height axis is rigid.
3. Large work area for floor space.
4. Moderately easy to program.
The main disadvantages of SCARA are:
1. Limited applications.
2. Two ways to reach a point.
3. Difficult to program off-line.
4. Highly complex arm.

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When the last remaining prismatic joint is replaced by a revolute joint (to yield the
configuration RRR), this produces an articulated-coordinate robot. An articulated-coordinate
robot is the dual of a Cartesian robot in the sense that all three of the major axes are revolute
rather than prismatic. The articulated-coordinate robot is the most anthropomorphic
configuration; that is, it most closely resembles the anatomy of the human arm. Articulated
robots are also called revolute robots. An example of an articulated-coordinate robot along with
its work envelope is shown in Fig. 1.8. Here the first revolute joint swings the robot back and
forth about a vertical base axis. The second joint pitches the arm up and down about a horizontal
shoulder axis, and the third joint pitches the forearm up and down about a horizontal elbow
axis. These motions create a complex work envelope, with a side-view cross section typically
being crescent-shaped.

Fig. 1.8 Articulated Robot

6.3 Classification based on motion control commands

Another fundamental classification criterion is the method used to control the movement of the
end-effector or tool as described below.

Limited Sequence Robots

The limited sequence robots do not make use of the feedback control to indicate the relative
positions of the joints, and hence we get no feedback that the desired position has been achieved
or not. In these robots the joint motions are controlled by the limit switches to detect the end
point of travel of the respective joints. Thus, in this method of robot control the individual
joints can only be moved to their respective extreme limits of travel. This limits the number of
distinct positions which can be specified for the robot in a program. The sequence in which
the robot’s various joints will move to get the desired motion of the end effector is controlled
by a sequencing device, which is called robot controller. The robot controller gives the input
signals to each actuator to operate in a particular sequence. These types of robots generally
make use of pneumatic drives and are used for rather simpler applications like pick and place
operations.

Point to Point Control Robot (PTP)

The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to another point. These point locations are
taught to the robot and recorded in the memory of robot control unit. During operation cycles
the robot controller commands the actuation of the various robot joints in a proper sequence so
that the robot’s end effector moves from one point to another in a desired sequence. Point to
point robots do not control the path followed while moving from one point to the next point.
Thus, if the programmer wants the robot to follow a particular path while moving from one
position to another, then he must specify a series of intermediate points along the desired path

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between the given points. Some common applications of the point-to-point robots include:
component insertion, spot welding, hole drilling, machine loading and unloading, and assembly
operations.

Continuous-Path Control Robot (CP)

The continuous-path control robot is capable of performing movements in which the path
followed by the robot is controlled. For continuous-path control, the points along the path must
be stored explicitly in the robot’s control memory. Thus, actually continuous-path control is
accomplished by making the robotic manipulator move through the sequence of closely spaced
points which describe the path to be followed by the robot. These individual points along the
path are defined by the robot controller unit. Straight-line motion is the simplest example for
this type of robot, where the task of the programmer is to just specify the start and the end point
of the path, and the controller calculate the intermediate points along the path and allow the
robot to move along the straight-line path. Some continuous-path controlled robots also have
the capability to follow a smooth curve path that has been defined by the programmer. In such
cases the programmer manually moves the robot arm through the desired path and the
controller unit stores a large number of individual point locations along the path in memory.
Some typical applications of continuous-path control robot include: spray painting, gluing, and
arc welding operations

Controlled-Path Robot
In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate paths of different geometry such
as straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy. Good accuracy
can be obtained at any point along the specified path. Only the start and finish points and the
path definition function must be stored in the robot's control memory. This controlled path
control is accomplished by making the robot move through a series of closely spaced points
which fall along the desired path to be followed by the robot. These intermediate points along
the path are defined by the controller of the robot, not by the programmer. Straight line motion
is the common type of controlled path robots, where in the task of the robot programmer is to
specify the start and the end points of the path, and the robot’s control unit determines the
sequence of the intermediate points along the straight-line path. Similarly, robots for certain
industrial applications possess the capability to follow a smooth curved path that is defined by
the robot programmer by manually moving the robotic arm through the desired complicated
curved path. Here in such case the controller memory should be sufficiently large to store the
large number of individual point locations that define the curved path with sufficient accuracy.
It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct their
path.

Intelligent robots
Intelligent robots are the type of industrial robots that possess the capability to interact with the
environment they are working in addition to play back the programmed motion cycles. These
robots possess the capability to alter the programmed instructions by perceiving the change in
the working environment through the data received from the various robotic sensors. These
robots also possess the capacity to communicate with the humans or the computer-based
systems. These robots are programmed using the higher level (English like and symbolic)
language so that the complex activities could be accomplished, like complex assembly
operations etc.

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7. ROBOT SPECIFICATIONS
The robots are broadly classified based upon the drive technologies, work volume geometries,
and the motion control methodologies. However, in addition to these three things, there are
several additional characteristics that help us categories the industrial robots which are
mentioned below:
(i) Number of axes
(ii) Load carrying capacity (kg)
(iii) Maximum speed (mm/sec)
(iv) Reach and stroke (mm)
(v) Tool orientation (deg)
(vi) Precision, accuracy and Repeatability of movement (mm)
(vii) Robot compliance
(viii) Operating environment

7.1 Number of Axes

The robots have got a number of axes about which its various links rotate or translate. As
explained earlier the first three axes of the robot called major axes are used to establish the
position of the wrist. The remaining axes of the robot are used to establish the orientation of
the robot wrist, called minor axes. Thus, a six axes robot is a general manipulator which can
move its end effector to both an arbitrary location and an arbitrary orientation with in its work
volume. Some industrial robots have more than six axes, where the additional axes after the six
axes in a robot are termed as the redundant axes, which are generally used to avoid certain
obstacle in the robots work volume. The mechanism to activate the robot tool (end effector),
or the opening and closing of the robot’s gripper, is not considered as the independent robot
axis, as this mechanism (axis) do not contribute to acquire either the position or the orientation
of the end effector in robots working space.

7.2 Load Carrying Capacity

The load carrying capacity of robots is mainly determined by various factors such as robot’s
size, configuration, type of drive system and the type of application for which the robot is
designed. The load carrying capacity of modern robots has a very wide range, from few grams
to several thousand of kilograms. The maximum load carrying capacity of the robot’s arm
should be specified for the condition that it is in its weakest position. The weakest position
most of the time is the position when the robot arm is at maximum horizontal extension. This
can be understood in a way that if compared with the human arm, it is most difficult to lift a
heavy load when the arm is fully extended rather than a position when some load is to lifted
which is placed close to the body.

The specification of load carrying capacity provided by the most of the robotic manipulator
manufacturers is actually the gross weight capacity that can be put at the robotic wrist. Thus,
to make use of this specification the user must be aware of the weight of the end effector. For
an example, if the gross load carrying capacity of a robot is 10.0 kg and it’s end effector weigh
3.0 kg, then the net load carrying capacity of the robot would be only 7.0 kg.

7.3 Maximum Speed of Motion

The maximum tool tip speed of the robots also varies widely, from a few mm per second to a
magnitude of several meters per second. The speed of the robot is measured at robot’s wrist.
Thus, the highest speeds can be achieved by the larger industrial manipulators with maximum
horizontal extension of the arm away from the base of the robot. Also, the type of the drive

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system of the robot affects the joint speeds, for example, the hydraulic robots are having faster
joint motions than the electrical drive robots.

A more meaningful measure of the robot speed is the cycle time, which is the time required to
accomplish a given work cycle, consisting of several periodic motions of robot. As it is
desirable for any production operation to minimize the cycle time of the given task, most of
the robots have the provision to regulate or adjust the speed. The selection of the desirable
speed of the robot depends upon the number of other factors as well, like:
(i) The accuracy of positioning of the end effector or robot’s wrist
(ii) The distance to be moved by the robot’s wrist
(iii)The load at the wrist.

7.4 Reach and Stroke

Reach and stroke of the robot are the measure of the work volume of the robot. The horizontal
reach is the maximum radial distance at which the robotic wrist can be positioned away from
the vertical axis about which the robot rotates, or the base of the robot. The horizontal stroke
is the total radial distance the wrist can move. There is always a certain minimum distance the
robot’s wrist will remain away from the base axis. Thus, the horizontal stroke is always less
than equal to the horizontal reach. For a cylindrical coordinate robot, the horizontal reach is
the outer cylinder of the workspace, while the horizontal stroke is the difference between the
radii of the concentric outer cylinder and the inner cylinder, as shown in figure 1.9.

Fig. 1.9 Reach and Stroke of a Cylindrical Robot

The vertical reach is the maximum vertical distance above the working surface that can be
reached by the robot’s wrist. The vertical stroke is the total vertical distance that the wrist can
move. Similar to the horizontal stroke, the vertical stroke is also always less than equal to the
vertical reach. Figure 1.9 shows the concept of horizontal and vertical stroke, and maximum
and minimum reach along horizontal and vertical direction.

7.5 Tool Orientation

While the three major axes of a robot determine the shape of the work envelope, the remaining
axes determine the kinds of orientation that the tool or hand can assume. If three independent
minor axes are available, then arbitrary orientations in a three-dimensional workspace can be
obtained. The tool orientation convention that that is commonly used is the yaw-pitch-roll
(YPR) system as shown in figure 1.10.

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 Fig. 1.10 Yaw, Pitch and Roll of Tool

To specify tool orientation, a mobile tool coordinate frame M = {m1, m2, m3} is attached to the
tool and moves with the tool, as shown in Fig. 1.10. Here, m3 is aligned with the principal axis
of the tool and points away from the wrist. Next, m2 is parallel to the line followed by the
fingertips of the tool as it opens and closes. Finally, m1 completes the right-handed tool
coordinate frame M.

By convention, the yaw, pitch, and roll motions are performed in a specific order about a set
of fixed axes. Initially, the mobile tool frame starts out coincident with a fixed wrist coordinate
frame F = {f1, f2, f3} attached at the end of the forearm. First the yaw motion is performed by
rotating the tool about wrist axis f1. Next, the pitch motion is performed by rotating the tool
about wrist axis f2. Finally, the roll motion is performed by rotating the tool about wrist axis f3.
In each case positive angles correspond to counterclockwise rotations as seen looking along
the axis back toward the origin.

The order. in which the yaw, pitch, and roll motions are performed is significant because it
affects the final orientation of the tool. For example, a yaw of π/2 is followed by a pitch of π/2
yields a different final tool orientation from the orientation produced by a pitch of π/2 followed
by a yaw of π/2. Thus, implicit in the YPR convention is the order of rotations summarized in
Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Yaw, Pitch and Roll motion

Operation Description Axis
1 Yaw f1
2 Pitch f2
3 Roll f3

An alternative way to specify the YPR motions is to instead perform the rotations in reverse
order about the axes of the mobile tool frame M rather than the fixed wrist frame F. That is,
first a roll motion is performed about m3, then a pitch motion is performed about m2, and finally
a yaw motion is performed about m1. This is equivalent to performing the rotations about the
axes of the fixed wrist frame in the original YPR order, in the sense that the tool ends up at the
same orientation. For this reason, the YPR system is often referred to as the RPY system. A
sequence of rotations about the mobile frame M axes is often easier to visualize, particularly
when the angles are not multiples of π/2.

7.6 Precision, Accuracy and Repeatability of movement

The precision of movement for the robotic manipulator is basically a function of three features
namely, special resolution, accuracy, and repeatability. These terms are defined for the robot's

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wrist end without any tool attached and for the conditions under which the robot's precision
will be at its worst. Generally, the robot has least precision of movement with the robot's arm
is fully extended. For any robotic configuration, it is easier to define the various precision
features in a static context rather than a dynamic context.

(i) Spatial Resolution

The spatial resolution of a robot can be defined as the smallest increment of movement into
which the robot can divide its work volume. It depends on the system’s control resolution and
the robot's mechanical inaccuracies.

The control resolution for a robot is determined by the position control system and the feedback
measurement system. It is the controller’s ability to divide the total range of movement for the
particular joint into individual increments that can be addressed in the controller. The ability to
divide the joint range into small special increments depends on the bit storage capacity in the memory
of the control units.

The number of separate, identifiable increments of movements for a particular axis is equal to
2n. Here n is the number of bits in the control memory. For example, a robot with 8 bits of
storage can divide the range of a joint movement into 256 discrete positions. The control
resolution would be defined as the total motion range divided by the number of increments. A
robot with several degrees of freedom would have a control resolution for each joint of motion.

Example 1.1
If we have a robot’s one particular joint’s motion range from Rmin to Rmax and the position
control signal is generated by controller of the robot through a n bit digital to analog converter.
Determine the precision of movement (control resolution) of the robot joint.

Solution:
The number of control increments obtainable in the specified range of joint movement = 2n.
The total range of movement = (Rmax - Rmin).
Thus, the control resolution or the special resolution for robot joint will be = (Rmax - Rmin)/
2n

To determine the control resolution for the entire robot, component resolutions for each joint
would have to be summed vectorially. Since some of the joints are likely to be rotary while
others are sliding, the robot's control resolution can be a complicated quantity to determine.
Mechanical inaccuracies which arise from imperfections in the mechanical system in the robot,
is another factor that degrades the spatial resolution. The inaccuracies would also be influenced
by such factors as the load being handled, the speed with which the arm is moving.

Figure 1.11: Accuracy and control resolution of a robot

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(ii) Accuracy
Accuracy can be defined as the ability of a robot to position its wrist end at a desired target
point within its reach. In terms of control resolution, the accuracy can be defined as one-half
of the control resolution. This definition of accuracy applies in the worst case when the target
point is between two control points. The reason is that displacements smaller than one basic
control resolution unit (BCRU) can be neither programmed nor measured and, on average, they
account for one-half BCRU.

The accuracy of a robot is affected by many factors. The accuracy of robot varies within the
work volume. It is worse when the arm is in the outer range of its work volume and better when
the arm is closer to its base. The reason for this is that when the arm is fully stretched out, the
mechanical inaccuracies tend to be larger. Another factor influencing accuracy is the load being
carried by the robot. Heavier workloads cause greater deflection of the mechanical links of the
robot, resulting in lower accuracy. This relationship is il1ustrated in figure 1.11. In fact, the
mechanical inaccuracies would affect the ability to reach the target position.

(iii) Repeatability
Repeatability is the measure of the ability of the robot to position the tool tip at same position
repeatedly. There is always some repeatability error associated because of backlash in gears,
flexibility of the mechanical linkages and drive systems. The repeatability errors are generally
very small in magnitude for well-designed robotic manipulators.

Repeatability and accuracy refer to two different aspects. Accuracy is an absolute concept,
repeatability is relative. Accuracy relates to the robot's capacity to be programmed to achieve
a given target point. The actual programmed point will probably be different from the target
point due to limitations of control resolution. Repeatability refers to the robot's ability to return
to the programmed point when commanded to do so. A robot that is repeatable may not be very
accurate, and vice versa.

The repeatability could be better understood from figure 1.12. Let T be the desired target point
to where the robot is commanded to move, but because of the limitations on its accuracy, the
programmed position becomes point P. The distance between points T and P is robot's
accuracy. When, the robot wrist is commanded to the programmed point P, however, it does
not return to the exact same position. Instead, it returns to position R. The difference between
P and R is a result of limitations on the robot's repeatability. The robot will not always return
to the same position R on subsequent repetitions of the motion cycle. Instead, it will form a
cluster of points on both sides of the position P as shown in figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: Repeatability and Accuracy

Repeatability errors form a random variable and constitute a statistical distribution as shown in
the figure 1.12. It would be convenient if the repeatability errors formed a nice bell-shaped

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curve, suggesting a normally distributed random variable. Mechanical inaccuracies of the
various joints of the robot which are basically responsible for the repeatability errors do not
have the nice symmetric bell-shaped distribution as shown in the figure 1.12. However, when
the errors from several axes of motion are combined together, the resulting aggregate error is
influenced by the central limit theorem in probability. This theorem states that the sums of
random variables tend to form a normally distributed variable, even though the individuals
come from a distribution other than the normal. Thus, we can say that the repeatability error of
a multi-jointed robot will follow the normal distribution. In three-dimensional space, the
repeatability errors will surround the programmed point P, forming a distribution whose outer
boundary can be conceptualized as a sphere. A robot manufacturer typically quotes the
repeatability of its manipulator as the radius of an idealized sphere, usually expressing the
specification as plus or minus a particular value. The size of the sphere will tend to be larger in
the regions of the work volume that are further away from the center of the robot. It is likely
that the shape of the sphere is not perfectly round, but instead is oblong in certain directions
due to compliance of the robot arm.

7.7 Robot Compliance

The compliance of the robotic arm refers to the displacement of the wrist end in response to a
force or torque exerted against it. Higher compliance will tend to displace the robotic wrist by
a large amount with a relatively small force, where as a low compliance robotic arm would be
relatively stiff and will not be displaced by a significant amount. Robot manipulator
compliance is a directional feature, which means that the compliance of the robot arm will be
greater in certain directions than in other directions because of the mechanical construction of
the arm. Compliance is important aspect to be considered for robot design because it reduces
the robot's precision of movement under load. If the robot is handling a heavy load, the weight
of the load will cause the robot arm to deflect and the robot's performance will be degraded
because of compliance when it operates under loaded conditions.

7.8 Operating Environment

The uses of the robots are justified for the jobs which are repeated in nature, or to get the work
in some harsh or dangerous environment by the robot. For example, for transportation of
radioactive materials, spray painting, welding, and the loading and unloading of furnaces. For
each of these applications the robot must be specifically designed to operate in extreme
working conditions. The various robot joints must be protected from the exposure to dust and
foreign contaminating materials, so that the robot may be able to perform its stipulated task
with desired accuracy and precision.

8. SPEED OF RESPONSE AND STABILITY OF ROBOT

The characteristics which determine the dynamic performance of the robot are speed of
response and stability. These characteristics are the inherent features of the control systems of
robot. The speed of response corresponds to the ability of robotic manipulator to move its wrist
to the next desirable position in its work volume in a short span of time and it is directly related
to the motion speeds of various joint actuators of robot.

The stability of robot manipulation is a parameter to determine the amount of oscillations

occurring in the robotic arm when it moves from one position to another. Robot with higher
stability will have little or no oscillations, either during start of operation, during intermediate
joint motions or at the end of the arm movement. Whereas poor stability would be indicated by
a large amount of oscillation. The most desirable aspect about the design of the robot control
system is to design the controller which can provide good stability and a fast response time.

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But these two characteristics are just opposite to each other, as if we increase the stability the
response time increases, and vice versa. The stability of a robot can be improved by using
damping elements into the robot's design and this will reduce its tendency toward oscillation.
But this will not be desirable as use of high damping reduces the speed of response. Thus, one
must find an optimum balance between the two conflicting parameters.

Figure 1.13 Speed of response and damping in robotics: (a) low damping and fast
response, (b) high damping and slow response

A good robot is one that is fast enough but at the same time has good stability. The figure 1.13
below shows the concept of stability and its relation to damping. Figure 1.13(a) shows the
position of the robot's wrist as a function of time for small damping; whereas figure 1.13(b)
shows the position of the robot's wrist as a function of time for large damping. With low
damping, the robot arm moves to the target position rapidly, but experiences large amount of
oscillation about the final position. And in the second case, with a large amount of damping,
the arm movement becomes is very slow but will not have oscillatory motion about the final
position.

9. ROBOT SELECTION
After the selection of the application which needs to be automated using robot, a suitable robot
should be chosen from the many commercial robots available in the market. The characteristics
of robots generally considered in a selection process include:
(i) Size of class
(ii) Degrees of freedom
(iii) Velocity
(iv) Drive type
(v) Control mode
(vi) Repeatability
(vii) Lift capacity
(viii) Right-left traverse
(ix) Up-down traverse
(x) In-out traverse
(xi) Yaw, Pitch and Roll
(xii) Weight of the robot

The size of the robot is given by the maximum dimension (x) of the robot work envelope.
Based upon the size of work volume the robots are classified as:
(i) Micro (x < 1 m)
(ii) Small (1 m < x < 2 m)

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 (iii) Medium (2 < x < 5 m)
(iv) Large (x > 5 m)

The cost of the robot increases with the number of degrees of freedom. Six degrees of freedom
is suitable for most works. Robots with higher degrees of freedom are called redundant robot,
and are used most of time for complex applications and generally to avoid obstacles in their
work volume.

Velocity consideration is affected by the robot’s arm structure, which may be rectangular,
cylindrical, spherical, and articulated. It also depends upon the drive technology used in the
robots.

There is an inverse relation between the accuracy of wrist positioning and the speed of the
robot motions. As the desired accuracy is increased, the robot needs more time to reduce the
location errors in its various joints to achieve the final desirable position of end effector or the
robot wrist. The load at the wrist also affects the operational speed of the robot as the heavier
loads would generate greater inertia and momentum, which would restrict us to lower robot
speeds for safer manipulator operations. The length of distance to be traveled by the robot
wrist will also affect the operation speeds, as the acceleration and deceleration of the various
joints take some time. Thus, a longer distance will be traveled in relatively shorter time than a
series of short distances. Thus, the shorter distances will prevent the robot to achieve its
maximum operating speeds.

The maximum load carrying capacity and maximum operating speed of industrial robot have
got a wide range, thus we must consider the aforesaid factors while selecting the robot for a
particular application. In some cases, the load carrying capacity required may be more, but
accuracy may not be a constraint, thus we should select the appropriate configuration, as there
is no use of paying for the characteristics which are not at all necessary for a particular required
application where the robot is to be used.

10. ROBOT APPLICATIONS

Industrial robots have been successfully used for almost all industrial applications. Major
applications of industrial robots are as follows:

• Loading/unloading parts to/from the machines:

(i) Unloading parts from die-casting machines
(ii) Loading a raw hot billet into a die, holding it during forging and unloading it from the
forging die
(iii)Loading sheet blanks into automatic presses
(iv) Unloading molded parts formed in injection molding machines
(v) Loading raw blanks into NC machine tools and unloading the finished parts from the
machines
(vi) Multi-machine robotic cell application: Two or three CNC machines are served by a
robot. The cell layout is normally circular.

• Welding:
(i) Spot welding: Widest use is in the automotive industry
(ii) Arc welding: Ship building, aerospace, construction industries are among the many
areas of application.

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• Spray Painting: Robots provide a consistency in paint quality and widely used in
automobile industry for medium batch production.

• Assembly Operations: Electronic component assemblies and machine assemblies are two
areas of application.

• Material handling: Bottle loading, Parts handling, Transfer of components / tools,

Depalletizing / Palletizing and Transporting components through conveyors.

• Inspection: Industrial robots are used for inspection applications, in which the robot end
effector is special inspection probe.

• Hazardous Environment:
(i) Mining- Exploration, Search, Tunneling, Operation in short passage.
(ii) Service- Fire Fighting, Underground cleaning.
(iii) Nuclear- Maintenance of atomic reactors.
(iv) Space- Used in space vehicles.
(v) Under sea- Oil / mineral exploration, Salvage operation.

• Medical: Surgery, Non-invasive / invasive diagnostics, Rehabilitation engineering for

handicapped.

• Distribution: Warehousing, Retailing.

• Others: Agricultural purpose, Hobby / household purpose, Military applications of robot

maybe in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing area.

References:
1. Mikell P. Groover, et. al., “Industrial Robotics, Technology, Programming, and
applications, International Edition,” Mc-Graw Hill.
2. K. S. Fu, R. C. Gonzalez, and C. S. Lee “Robotics: Control, Sensing Vision and
intelligence”, McGraw Hill.
3. Robert J. Schilling, “Fundamentals of Robotics- analysis and control”, PHI.

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