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Reviewer in
Fire Technology & Arson Investigation
By: Jonathan R. Budaden

A. HISTORY
A. Definition of Terms
1. FIRE – A reaction involving fuel and oxygen that produces heat and light.
2. COMBUSTION –The chemists term of burning; when fuel and oxygen chemically react, or burn, to produce fire.
3. OXIDATION - a chemical reaction in which oxygen is added to an element or compound.
4. FLAME - The region in which a gaseous medium takes place, accompanied with the evolution of heat and, usually
light.
5. ARSON – The intentional and malicious destruction of property by means of fire.

B. Important Dates
1. 1.4 million years – The earliest use of fire by humans may have occurred this age; evidence for this was found in
KENYA.
2. 1777 – It was discovered that burning is the result of rapid combination of Fuel with other gases to form combustion.
3. 1879 - American inventor Thomas Edison developed the incandescent lamp, or light.
4. 1901 – Establishment of the first Fire Department in the Philippines – the Manila Fire Department.
5. 1977 - The Fire Code of the Philippines, enacted into law to serve as a yardstick to determine the suitability of an
establishment for people’s occupancy.
6. 1990 – Establishment of the BFP of the Philippines through RA 6975.

C. Personalities
1. HOMO ERECTUS – They were the first to use fire on a regular basis.
2. PROMETHEUS – In Greek mythology, he was bestowed godlike powers when he stole the gods’ fire to give it to
humanity.
3. VESTA – The Roman goddess of the hearth. To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman religion periodically chose
six priestesses, called Vestal Virgins, to keep a fire going in a community hearth.
4. AUGUSTUS - The Roman emperor who is credited of instituting a corps of fire brigade - vigiles (“watchmen”) in 24
BC. Regulations for checking and preventing fires were made.
5. JAN VAN DER HEYDEN - A dutch who invented the fire hose in 1672. Constructed of flexible leather and coupled
every 50 feet (15 m).
6. RICHARD NEWSHAM – Develop the “fire engine” in 1725. Pulled as a cart to the fire, these manual pumps were
manned by teams of men.
7. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN - Created the “Union Fire Company” in 1736 in Philadelphia, the first volunteer fire company
in America.
8. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE - Created the first professional firefighters in 1810, known as “Sapeurs-Pompiers”, from
the French Army.
9. ANTOINE LAVOISIER - A French Chemist who proved that burning is the result of the rapid union of oxygen with
other substances.
10. THOMAS ALVA EDISON - An American inventor who was able to sent current to a filament that simultaneously
burns because it became so hot.
11. John Walker – British Chemist who invented in 1827 a match made of phosphorus and ignited by friction.

Brimstone match - made by dipping thin strips of wood into melted sulfur.

12. Capt. F.R. Dodge – The first Chief of the Manila Fire Department. (1901)

D. Related Laws
1. RA 6975 (Art. VIII, Sec. 49) – Created the Bureau of Fire Protection of the Philippines.
2. RA 1185 – known as the “FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES”
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3. PD 1096 – the “BUILDING CODE of the Philippines

E. Early Fire Making Techniques:

1. Percussion Method – “Sparks”
2. Friction Method – “Gradual heating”

B. THE TECHNOLOGY OF FIRE

Three Elements of Fire:

1. HEAT – a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in combustion or burning.
2. OXYGEN – a colorless, odorless gas and one of the composition of air which is approximately 21% by volume.
Oxygen Sources: Oxygen Requirements:
21% of normal oxygen 12% - no fire
78% of nitrogen 14% - flash point
1% of other gases 21% - fire point
3. FUEL – any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.

The Theory of Combustion:

1. FIRE TRIANGLE – the graphical representation of the three elements of fire, namely: Oxygen, heat, and fuel. Each side is
just as important as either of the other two sides. Solid-gas reaction.
2. FIRE TETRAHEDRON – Four-sided to include uninhibited chemical chain reaction. A gas-gas reaction

Phases of Burning/ The Three Stages of Fire:

1. INCIPIENT/BEGINNING PHASE – the initial stage of fire.
2. FREE – BURNING PHASE – the second phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the presence
of adequate oxygen.
3. SMOLDERING PHASE – the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat completely fill the
confined room.

Four Classes of Fire:

1. CLASS A – Ordinary combustibles like wood and paper.
2. CLASS B – Liquid and gaseous fuels like gasoline, kerosene, LPG.
3. CLASS C – Fires involving electrical motors, electrical appliances and apparatus.
4. CLASS D –Combustible metals like Sodium, Magnesium, Titanium, Sodium Potassium, and Uranium

C. FIRE SUPPRESSION, CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENT

Fire suppression - slowing down the rate of burning, whereas, control means keeping the fire from spreading or holding the
fire to one area. Extinguishment, of course, means putting the fire completely out.

How each of the Four Methods of Fire Extinguishment Works:

1. Cooling - Uses an extinguishing agent whose primary characteristic is heat absorption. Water is the best general cooling
agent for firefighting purposes. Used on Class A fires, the water absorbs the heat generated at the surface of the burning
material, thus reducing the temperature of the material below its flash point. As with a Class A fire, the water absorbs
much of the heat, reducing the vaporization rate of the liquid fuel.
2. Smothering - This excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that gases or vapors of the fuel cannot ignite and continue the
combustion. CO2 foam (AFFF) are used for this purpose.

3. Separation - The removal of the fuel, as in the example of turning off a valve in a gas line prevents the fuel and oxygen
from coming together. If fuel is not available, then heat, regardless of the temperature, cannot affect the fuel. Therefore,
there is no fire.
4. Inhibition – interruption of the chemical chain reaction.

D. EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
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1. WATER – used only on Class A fires. Water is most effective cooling in cooling the burning material below its ignition
temperature. It is the most commonly used agent in firefighting. In its natural state, it is highly stable and may be used to
extinguish most types of fire if properly applied. Due to its conductive properties, water should not be used on electrical
fires.
2. CARBON DIOXIDE – a number of its properties make carbon dioxide a desirable extinguishing agent. It is non –
combustible and non – reactive with most substances. CO2 also provides its pressure for discharge from storage cylinders
or extinguishers. Being a gas, carbon dioxide can penetrate and spread to all parts of life. Extinguishment with CO2 is
primarily smothering. It covers the burning materials and reduces oxygen content to below to below levels needed for
combustion.
3. CO2 - very effective for use on Class C fires. Always use caution around CO2, as it can cause unconsciousness and death in
connections needed or extinguishment. A 9% concentration is about all most person can take without becoming
unconscious within just a few minutes.
4. DRY CHEMICAL – the dry chemical extinguishing agents in use today are mixtures or powders and various additives that
improve the storage, flow, and water repellency of the powders.
5. DRY POWDER – dry powder is a generally accepted term for agents used to extinguish combustible metal fires. Dry
powder generally extinguishes fires by excluding air from the combustible metal. Primarily used only on Class D fires and
should not be used on other types of fire, due to its limited value on these fires.
6. HALONS – halogenated agents work chemically to extinguish fire. They stop combustion process by breaking the fire
chain reaction and prevent further fire propagation. The chemical fire – stopping action happens with only a low
concentration of halogenated agent.Halogenated agents are very effective on Class B and Class C fires and have some
effects or success on Class A fires.

DEFINITIONS

1. FLAME – it is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more oxygen.
Flame fades when carbon burns completely, so flame is considered a product of incomplete combustion.
2. HEAT – a form of energy measured in degree of temperature, is the product of combustion that spread the fire. It causes
burns and other injuries such as dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiratory tract injuries.
3. SMOKE – a visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, finely divided particles of soot and carbon, and assortment of products released from the burning material.
4. FLASHOVER – occurs when a room or other area is heated enough that flames sweep over the entire surface. Fire –
fighters originally believed that combustible gases released during the early stages of the fire cause flashover by
collecting at the ceiling and mixing with air until they burst into flames.
5. BACKDRAFT – is the sudden and rapid burning of heated gasses in a confined area that occurs in the form of explosion.
This may occur because of improper ventilation. It room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe
accumulated such that when a door or window is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen and
simultaneously, a sudden combustion may occur which may happen as an explosion.
6. BITEBACK – a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguished operation and becomes stronger and
bigger instead.
7. FLASHFIRE – is better known as dust explosion. This may happen when a metal post that is completely covered with dust
is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical
reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.
8. VAPOR DENSITY – the term used to explain the weight of vapors is “vapor density”. In order to measure the weight of
these vapors we usually compare them to air, which is considered to have a vapor density of 1.00.
9. INTENSITY OF FIRE – means how hot the fire is burning. Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter than others. For
example, a gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene flame is hotter than a gasoline flame.
10. MAGNITUDE OF FIRE – means the size of fire, and it is governed by the surface area of fuel exposed to the air.
11. FLASHPOINT – the temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough vapors
to cause a flame to “flash” across the surface.
12. FIREPOINT – the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning.
13. AUTO IGNITION POINT – or self ignition is the lowest temperature at which substance can be heated to releases vapors
that will ignite without application of flame or spark. It refers to the temperature at which spontaneous combustion take
place. Auto ignition point is usually much higher than the fire point.
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14. IGNITION TEMPERATURE – the degree of heat necessary to ignite flammable vapors. This temperature can come from an
external source; or if the fuel itself is raised to this temperature, auto ignition will occur.
15. RESCUE – this is the operation of removing (extricating), thus saving people and other livestock from the burning and
other involved properties, conveying them to a secure place.
16. COVER EXPOSURE – this is the activity of securing other buildings near the burning structure in order to prevent the fire
from extending to another building.
17. CONFINEMENT – this is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started, the process of preventing
fire from extending from another section or from one section to another section of the involved building.
18. VENTILATION – this is an operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases. It includes the process of displaying the
heated atmosphere within the involved building with normal air form outside atmosphere.
19. SALVAGE – the activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the fire.
20. EXTINGUISHMENT – this is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the four general methods of fire
extinguishment. The combination of cooling, smothering and separation.
21. OVERHAUL – this is the complete and detailed check of the structure.
22. EXPLOSION – a violent effect of chemical reaction when combustion process is confined so that appreciable pressure
occurs.
23. PROPAGATION OF FIRE - simply means spread of fire.
24. FIRE EXPOSURE – refers to the property exposed to the fire, such as property directly across alleys or beside the fire
building.
25. LIFE EXPOSURE – refers to the danger to the lives of the occupants of any building that is in line with the travel of
dangerous fumes or gases thrown off by fire as well as to the occupants in any building that is seriously exposed to the
fire from the fire building.
26. SALVAGE – preventing excessive damage by fire, smoke and water. Keeping a fire loss at a minimum requires a
knowledge of salvage operations and the ability to improvise or “make do” as the need arises.
27. SALVAGE COVERS – these are tarpaulins, known as “tarps”. They are made of cotton canvas material treated with a
waterproofing compound.
28. OVERHAUL – this operation involves complete and detailed check of the structures and materials involved in the fire to
make sure that every spark and ember has been extinguished and to have definite assurance against re – ignition.

Chemical Properties:

1. ENDOTHERMIC REACTION – are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
2. EXOTHERMIC REACTION – reactions or changes that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce substances with
less energy than the reactants.
3. OXIDATION – chemical change in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent reacts.
4. COMBUSTION FLAME – the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas phased combustion. A matter that is produced
by fire.

TEMPERATURE SCALES:

1. CELSIUS – the Celsius scale, with a freezing point of 0 C and a boiling point 100 C, is widely used throughout the world,
particularly the scientific work, although it was supersede officially in 1850 by the international temperature.
2. FAHRENHEIT – in the Fahrenheit used in English – speaking countries for purpose other scientific work and based on the
mercury thermometer, the freezing point of water is defined as 32 F and the boiling point as 212 F.
3. KELVIN OR ABSOLUTE – in the Kelvin scale, the most commonly used thermodynamics temperature scale; zero is defined
as the absolute zero of temperature, that is -273.15 C or -459.67 F,
4. RANKINE – another scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point is the Rankin scale, in which each degree of
temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing point of water on the Rankin scale is 492
R, and the boiling point is 672 R.
5. INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE – In 1933 scientist of 31 nations adopted a new international temperature scale
with additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and thermodynamic principles. The international
scale is based on the property of electrical resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature between – 190
C and 660 C above 660 C, to the melting point of gold, 1063 C, a standard thermocouple which is a device that measures
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temperature by the amount of voltage produced between two wires of different metals, is used: beyond this point
temperature are measured by the so-called optical pyrometers, which uses the intensity of light of wavelengths emitted
by a hot body for the purpose.

E. COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS (FUEL)

General Categories of Fuels:

1. SOLID COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS – includes organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic solid materials.
2. LIQUID COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS – includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. GASEOUS SUBSTANCE – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

Fibers and Textiles – fibers are also the basic components of wood products, such as paper. Almost all fibers and textile are
combustible.
▪ fiber – very fine thin strand ( thread-like)
▪ fabric – twisted or woven fibers
▪ textiles – machine woven or knitted fabric

Natural Fibers:
1. from plants - cellulose fibers, coil (coconut fiber), cotton, pinya fiber, pulp (wood fiber)
2. from animals – wool, silk, protein fibers (leather)
3. from minerals – asbestos

Plastic – are included as ordinary fuels under Class A except those materials composed of or containing cellulose nitrates.
Cellulose nitrate is a chemical (powder) used in bombs. Materials that use cellulose nitrate are also called Pyroxylin.

Gases

A. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – the chemical properties of gases are of prime interest to firefighters, as they reflect the ability
of the gas to react within it or with other materials.
1. Flammable Gases – any gases which burn in normal concentrations of oxygen in the air. These gases are subjected
to the same conditions as flammable vapors.
2. Nonflammable Gases – any gases that will not burn in air or oxygen. Some of these will support combustion and are
called Oxidizers. Those that do not support combustion are called inert gas.
3. Reactive Gases – any gases that will react within itself or with other materials under conditions other than fire, e.i,
shock, heat.
4. Toxic Gases – any gases that may complicate firefighting efforts due to its serious life hazards.

B. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – the physical behavior of a gas both outside and inside its container and when accidentally
released, are of prime interest of fire fighters.
1. Compressed Gases – matter which is solely in a gaseous state in its container.
2. Liquefied Gases – matter which exist partly as gas and partly as a liquid at normal temperature inside the container
and remain under pressure as long as any liquid is in the container.
3. Cryogenic Gases – gas which remains as liquefied gas in its container at temperature far below normal
temperature.

F. FIRE INVESTIGATION

Why fire should be investigated?

a. to determine the cause
b. to prevent similar occurrence

Fires spread and heat is transferred by three methods:

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1. Conduction - the transmission of heat through a medium or conductor, such as pipe, hot – air duct, wire or even
wall.
2. Radiation - – the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or burning object. This radiation takes place through
the air or through space, sometimes causing another flammable objects to ignite.
3. Convection - the transmission of heat by moving currents of liquid or gas. When these gases or liquids are heated,
they begin to move within themselves; and by their free motion, circulation starts.

THERMAL BALANCE AND THERMAL IMBALANCE

 THERMAL BALANCE – is the normal pattern or movement of fire, smoke, and fire gases within a building or structure or
the natural condition created by the fire.
 THERMAL IMBALANCE – on the other hand, as the products of combustion, rise in a building, or flow out of an opening,
an equal volume of air places them. If, during extinguishment, water is distributed in such a manner as to upset the
thermal balance, a condition known as thermal imbalance may occur. When this happens, not spot may develop in the
center of the fire area. Turbulent circulation of steam and smoke may replace the normal flow of the products of
combustion. Heat may concentrate and form into pockets which may burn holes on the floor. These holes may mislead
the investigator to believe erroneously that the fire originated therefrom.

FIREMEN’S ROLE IN FIRE INVESTIGATION

Fireman who usually arrived at the scene ahead of the investigator are valuable source of information. They are, so
to speak, the “eyes and ears” of the police before, during and after the fire has been placed under control.

The Role of the Fireman - Information received from firemen fall into three categories:
a. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival at the scene
b. Information available to firemen at the fire scene
c. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.

Meaning of Color of Smoke and Fire:

1. Black smoke with deep red flames – petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics, etc.,
2. Heavy Brown smoke with bright red flames – nitrogen products
3. White smoke with bright white flames – magnesium
4. Black smoke with red and blue green flames – asphalt shingles
5. Purple, violet, or lavender flames – potassium
6. Greenish yellow flames – chlorine or manganese
7. Bright reddish yellow flames – calcium
8. Smoke of the usual color found in most fires that changes to yellow or grayish yellow – usually indicative of a
backdraft condition.

Types of Ventilation:
1. VERTICAL VENTILATION – to establish vertical ventilation, it must be worked from the top down. Heated gases and
smoke rise to the highest point and, if confined, will tend to “mushroom” or rise to the highest point of the building
exerting their heating effect on everything they touch.
2. CROSS OR HORIZONTAL VENTILATION – if the smoke and gases have not reached the higher levels, cross ventilation can
clear the building one floor at a time. Windows are the easiest and generally most available for the common types of
buildings, but the indiscriminate opening of windows and doors can defeat the purpose of ventilation.
3. MECHANICAL OR FORCED VENTILATION – a process or method of ventilation whereby a device such as smoke ejector is
utilized to remove excessive heat and dense smoke in a confined building.

HOSE, TOOLS, STRUCTURAL HANDTOOL, AND ROPE

1. UNIVERSAL THREAD ADAPTER – a very useful tool in any fire vehicle. It can make a very quick connection to damaged or
unusual size make hose connections. On one side of the adapter is a standard 2 ½ inch make connections with National
Standard Threads.
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2. HOSE JACKET – a hollow cylindrical or barrel – shaped device that opens lengthwise through the center on a set of
hinges. It is rubber lined to make it water tight. When the jacket is clamped around the leaking portion of a hose or over
a leaking hose connection, the water is confined by the hose jacket. This tool can prevent the disablement of the entire
hose layout.
3. HOSE CLAMP – a tool used to stop the flow of water in a fire hose without shutting off the entire source of water supply.
4. SPANNER WRENCH – is used to tighten leaking connections and to loosen connections that are too tight to “break” with
hands alone.
5. HYDRANT WRENCH – are used to open and close fire hydrants and to remove hydrant caps. Some are designed to tighten
or loosen coupling connections.
6. HOSE STRAP – a 36 inch length of cloth strap with a handle on one end and a hook on the other. It is used for moving
hose layouts, usually up ladders or staircases.
7. ROPE – (safety line) used for hoisting tools for various floors of a structure and for anchoring to stationary objects,
ladders, charged hose lines, and other accessories.

G. LADDER OPERATIONS

TYPES OF LADDERS:
1. GROUND LADDER – vary in sizes from 3.1 to 17 meters (10 – 55 feet) long. It is being carried on a pumper or fire trucks.
2. STRAIGHT LADDER – this is a type of ladder that contains only one section. It ranges in length from 12 to 16 feet. The
most common size is the 14 feet straight ladder. The roof or hood ladder is a straight ladder adapter for a special
purpose. Hooks are mounted on a movable socket that permits them to fold inward when not in use.

3. EXTENSION LADDER – consists of a bed and one or more fly ladders. The fly ladder slides through guides on the upper
end of the bed ladder. It contains locks (pawls or dogs) which hook over the rungs of the bed ladder. These secure it in a
designated position, dependent upon the desired length of the ladder. The fly ladder is usually raised by a halyard
fastened to the lower rung and operated over a pulley on the upper end of bed ladder. The 24, 35, or 36 foot ladders are
the types commonly found in pumpers.
4. ATTIC LADDER – provides means of reaching through an opening into attics, lofts, and other areas that are somewhat
difficult to reach without a special ladder. It can be folded or collapsed for a small room or closet works. They are usually
short because they are required to reach only a short distance.
5. WALL LADDER – type of ladder best used in rescue where a ladder in place already falls short of the endangered person.
It allows the user to climb up or down, one story at a time.
6. AERIAL LADDER – are mounted on a turntable, capable of extending up to 30.5 meters (100 feet), have three or four
metal sections of ladder, that can be raised or lowered by hydraulically controlled cables.
7. BANGOR LADDER – an extension ladder that are extended to more than 35 feet.
Ladder Terminology:
 Bed Ladder – the lowest section of an extension ladder
 Fly Ladder – the top section of an extension ladder
 Butt – the bottom end of a ladder
 Heel – the part of the ladder that touches the ground
 Halyard – a rope or cable used to raise the fly ladder
 Pawl / dog – the mechanism on the end of the fly ladder that locks to the bed ladder
 Rung – the cross member used in climbing
 Top or Tip – the top of a ladder
 Hooks – used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls where the heel done not rest on a foundation (found only on
roof type ladder)
 Stops – wood or metal blocks used to prevent the fly of an extension ladder form extending out further from the
ladder
 Guides – light metal strips of an extension ladder while it is being raised of lowered.

Ladder Carries:
 ONE – MAN CARRY – remove the ladder from the apparatus and pass either arm through the ladder at the middle of
its length. Carry it with the hooks forward and lowered.
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 TWO - MAN CARRY – normally extension ladders from 24 to 36 feet in length require at least two men. To remove
the ladder from the apparatus, place one man near each end. Each man then passes one arm through the ladder
grasps the second rung forward. Both men must be on the same side of the ladder.
 FOUR MAN CARRY – remove the ladder from the apparatus and place it on the ground with the fly up. Have the four
men take positions, two near each other end, on opposite sides of the ladder. Face the top of the ladder. Reach
down and grasp a rung with the hand nearest it. Raise the ladder on the shoulder.
 SIX MAN CARRY – this type of carry is used for very large or heavy ladders and is the same as the four – man carry
except that two additional men are placed in the middle on the opposite sides of the ladder.

H. ARSON INVESTIGATION

In the examining the area of origin, another reliable indicator of the source of the fire within a room or area can be
partially melted glass or electric light bulb. As the heat develops in this area, it also heats the bulb. The heat distorts the bulb
in the direction of the heat. This is just another of the many small signs the fire investigator will observe.
1. BURN PATTERNS - Burn patterns form fires are a kind of sign language. The investigator must be able to recognize
and interpret them correctly. The traditional “V” or inverted cone pattern is probably the most common and easily
recognized. Some of the V-patterns are very sharp in shape; others spread out, making a wide V. The patterns vary as
they moved outside a room or structure through an opening. The width of the opening at its top can affect the
pattern.
2. FIRE LANGUAGE - This gives information about the fire, including the path of spread, temperatures reached, and fuel
involved. The physical signs and substances that reveal by implication, how a fire developed are referred to as “fire
language”. To be effective, as fire investigator must be able to read this technical language.
3. LINES AND AREAS OF DEMARCATION- The line or areas of demarcation appears between the affected area and
adjacent unaffected or less affected areas of the structure and its contents. These demarcations depend on the
material, the rate of the heat release of the fire, fire suppression efforts, the temperature of the heat source, any
ventilation, and the length of time the materials was exposed to the heat.
4. DEPTH OF CHAR - Char is the carbonization of fuel by the action of heat or burning. The term is generally applied to
the combustible residue remaining after the pyrolysis of wood. The depth of char refers to the depth of the charred
material, its value is obtained by measuring the distance from the surface of the original dimensional wood (lumber)
to the boundary of the carbonized fraction, and comparing this with remaining unburned matters.
5. SPALLING- It is a condition ordinarily associated with masonry and cement building materials. It may appear as a
distinctive discoloration of brick or concrete and, in some cases, the surface of the material may be pitted and rough.
Spalling is the result of mechanical forces in the material, particularly between the surface of the concrete and the
underlying aggregate.
6. OXIDATION - Oxidation is the basic chemical process of combustion. Oxidation of some materials that do not burn
can produce lines of demarcations and fire patterns useful to the fire investigator. Some of the effects of oxidation
include changes of color and texture. The higher the temperature and the longer the exposure to heat, the more
pronounced the effect of oxidation.
7. HEAT INDICATORS- Heat indicators are those pieces of fused of metal that suggest both the path of fire spread and
the location of highest temperature. The most severe damage is usually found (use of accelerant excluded) at or
near the point of origin.
8. CALCINATION- It refers to the changes that occur in a fire either plaster or gypsum wall surfaces.
9. GLASS INDICATOR - Glass items such as mirror, windowpanes, etc. are also affected by the heat build up, smoke, and
flame. Heat damages (fusing) and smoke staining on glass items tends to occur in direct relation to; the heat build
up, the intensity of fire, the spread of fire spread, and nearness to the fire.
10. SMOKED – STAINED AND CHECKERED GLASS - An increase in the temperature of a glass item causes a proportional
increase in that item’s molecular activity. The hotter the item, the greater the molecular activity on its surface.
Increased molecular activity on a surface inhibits the amount of soot (smoke stained) that will form. An item heavily
stained by smoke and soot was, therefore, cooler than with light build up of soot. A heavy soot buildup of the glass
surface suggests that the item was far from the fire’s point of origin.
11. CRAZED AND FRACTURE OF GLASS - Crazing refers to the cracking of glass into smaller segments or subdivisions in an
irregular pattern. The extent of which item will crack is related to the type of glass involved, its thickness, the
temperature range to which it was exposed and its distance from the point of origin.
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FIRE CAUSES

1. PROVIDENTIAL FIRE – are caused by act of God, like lightning, fires and erupting of volcanoes. They cannot be controlled
nor prevented by man.
a. Lightning – strikes result in fires only when sufficient heat is produced to ignite combustible materials. Fire will not
occur when insufficient heat is produced; however, damage may still be extensive. There are two general types of
lightning bolts – the hot bolt and cold bolt.
i. The hot bolt is one of longer duration and will ignite combustibles.
ii. The cold bolt, of shorter duration has a tendency to shatter and splinter the building materials or even literally
blow a structure apart.

b. Spontaneous Heating and Ignition – spontaneous heating and ignition is the result of the slow oxidation of a
combustible material. If this slow oxidation, with its heat production continues long enough and the heat is confined,
the ignition temperature of the material will be reached.
c. Rays of the Sun – fires have also been caused by the rays of the sun, mostly as a result of the sun shining through
older windows with glass panes containing bubbles. Most recently, there have been reports of the sun’s rays coming
through a window and hitting a concave mirror, concentrating the light on combustible materials and igniting them.

2. ACCIDENTAL FIRES
a. Smoking – one of the most common causes of fire according to available statistics, is related to smoking. Cigarette
fire is mostly due to carelessness of the smoker or careless disposal of smoking materials.
b. Electrical fire causes – the source of almost all electrical fires can be classified as originating from three conditions:
are caused mostly by human negligence and human errors, such as smoking in bed, leaving plugged electrical
appliances like flat irons, air – conditioning units, and defective LPG
c. Arcing – if a short circuit or break in electrical conductor occurs, the electric current tries to continue to flow in the
open space created. It creates an arc. The intensity of the arc depends upon the voltage and amount of current
flowing. Arcing on a small scale can occur everytime an electric switch is opened. Its intensity again, depends upon
the amount of current flowing.
d. Sparks – sparks most commonly occur as the result of electric welding operations or from the arcing of short circuits.
The tremendous heat created during the electrical welding process creates a bond between the electrode and the
material being bonded (merge or united). This also creates a bond bet
e. Overheating – damage to electrical conductors can result form heat, exposing them in two ways:
- the fire that heats the conductor from the outside
- overheating from an external source
f. Flammable Liquids – misuse of gasoline and other flammable liquids is one of the major causes of accidental fires in
the Philippines. The use of flammable liquids as cleaning agents is still a very common practice. Using open
containers of gasoline to clean engine parts, machinery parts, paint brushes and other greasy items inside a
structure has resulted in many accidental fires and explosions.

3. INCENDIARY FIRE CAUSES – when all accidental and providential causes have been eliminated, the investigator begins to
look for an incendiary cause. This requires the answers for a series of questions about the fire. A well – trained
investigator will automatically look for the unusual, the absence of normal, the presence of something different from
what one would normally expect for the occupancy. In mercantile occupancy where arson is commonly committed for
insurance profit, it is always wise for the investigator to check if there has been substitution of junk or secondhand
merchandise, for the type that would normally expected.

a. Plants - refers to the preparation and gathering materials to start a fire. Newspapers, combustible plastics, rags,
clothing, curtains, blankets, cotton wastes, wood shavings, and other combustible materials have been used as
plants.
b. Accelerant - Often a combustible liquid is hasten the start of the fire, is used in connection with the plant. The most
commonly used accelerants are gasoline, fuel oil, paint thinner, and lighter fluid.
c. Trailer – Use in order to spread the fire within the room or throughout the structure, a device called the trailer is
utilized by arsonist. Flammable liquids, usually gasoline are used by pouring them on the floor as stated before, toilet
tissue paper, adroitly woven into a rope like pattern were used to connect one plant and accelerants to another
scattered strategically in a room or throughout the building.
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I. LEGAL ASPECT OF ARSON

Arson - the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire. It is the concern of the fire investigation to prove
malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be proved, otherwise, no crime exists. The law presumes that a fire is
accidental, hence designs must be shown. Fire cause by accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
negligence does not constitute arson.

What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

 kind and character of the building burned.
 location of the building
 extent or value of the damage
 whether inhabited or not.

Special aggravating circumstance in arson

 If committed with intent to gain
 if committed with the benefit of another
 if the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned
 if committed by a syndicate

Prima-facie evidence of arson

 if the fire simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment
 If substantial amounts of flammable substances or materials are stored within the building not necessary in the
business of the offender or for household use.
 If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or materials soaked therewith or
containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire, a fire,
or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
 If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of the issuance of the
policy.
 If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have occurred in the same or
other premises owned or under the control of the offender and/ or insured.
 If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building or property had been
withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
 If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in exchange for the desistance of
the offender or the safety of the person or property of the victim.

What constitutes arson?

 Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must take place. In other words, there must be burning or changing, i.e.
the fiber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.
 Willfulness – means intentional, and implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally.
 malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
 Motive – is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
 Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

Methods of proof of arson

Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, corpus delicti must be shown and
identity of the arsonist must be established. Corpus delicti is the fact that a crime has been committed. The following must
show it:
 Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint, firemen responding to the crime,
other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate location.
 Criminal design – must show that it was willfully and intentionally done. The presence of incendiary devices,
flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.
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 Evidence of intent – when valuables were removed from the building before the fire, Ill-feeling between the accused
and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to put off fire and such other indications.

What are the basic lines of inquiry in arson investigation?

a. Point of Origin – This is the important point to be established, a point where the fire had started. It is establish by
examining the witnesses, by inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprints of fire. The
fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic decompositions move upward on
walls leaving a burnt pattern.
b. Motive of Arsonist
Persons with motives:
 those with desire to defraud the insurer
 employees or such other person who have a grievance.
 Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
 Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation

People without motives

 those who are mentally ill
 pathological fire-setters
 pyros and the psychos

Pyromania – A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any motivation. They do not run
away from the fire scene since they love watching fire burning.

Types of pyromaniac
 Abnormal youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons
 Hero type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm or make some
rescue works to appear as hero.
 Drug addicts and alcoholics
 Sexual deviates and perverts.

The tell tale signs of Arson

1. Burned building – the type of the building may indicate a set of fire under certain circumstance. A fire of
considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is a modern concrete or semi-
concrete building.
2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire is certainly suspicious.
3. Color of smoke – some fire with little or no smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has
assumed a major proportion; the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by
the arsonist.
a. When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire, it indicates
humid material burning. E.g. burning hay, vegetable fibers, phosphorus (with garlic odor).
b. Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and casing lacrymation and coughing indicates products and
rubber.
c. Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum products and rubber.
d. Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose,, SO4, HNO3 or HCl
4. Meaning of color of smoke and fire
a. Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics, etc.
b. Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
c. White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products
d. Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
e. Purple-violet – potassium products
f. Greenish-yellow flame – chloride or manganese products
g. Bright reddish yellow flame – Calcium products
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5. Color of flame – the color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an important factor in
determining incendiarism.
6. Amount of heat – a reddish glow indicates heat of 500 degrees centigrade; a real bright read about 100 degrees
centigrade. Red flames indicate petroleum. Blue flame indicates the use of alcohol as accelerant.
7. Smoke marks – Investigator shall determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the character as residue
deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smokes in marks have often been of assistance in determining the possibility of a
fire having more than one place of origin.
8. Size of fire – Fire makes what is termed a normal progress. Such progress can be estimated after an examination of
the material burned the building and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time element and the degree of
headway by the flames to determine factors of possible incendiarism.
9. Direction of travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown that fire
makes normal progress through various types of building materials, combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation
and circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a fire
spread abnormally fast.
10. Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicate that some accelerant
has been added to the material normally present in a building and the investigator must look for further evidence
pointing to use such accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing a fire is often leaded to suspect presence of such fluid as
gasoline and kerosene.
11. Odor – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often used as accelerant is
characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this telltale sign. Most o fire-setters are inclined to
use substance which will make the blaze certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
12. Condition of Content – Persons tending t set their house of fire frequently remove objects of value either materially
or sentimentally. Store and other business establishments oftentimes remove a major portion of their content or
replace valuable merchandise without of style articles.