● Types of Elements

○ Metals
○ Non-metals
○ Metalloids

● The structure of an atom

○ Neutrons
○ Protons
○ Electrons
● Atoms
○ Highly reactive
○ Don’t have a stable structure:
■ Uncharged (neutral)
○ Atoms become stable when:
■ Electrons are transferred between metal atoms and a non-metal atom to
form ionic compounds (E.g. Na⁺Cl⁻)
■ Electrons are shared between two non-metals to form molecular
compounds (E.g. NH₃)
○ As individual entities, they play virtually no role in living systems
○ Atomic number
■ Number of protons (p⁺) = number of electrons (e⁻)
○ Mass number
■ Number of protons (p⁺) + number of neutrons (generally close to twice
the atomic number, measured in atomic mass units: a.m.u)
● 1 a.m.u = 1.6606 x 10⁻²⁴ Kg
○ Standard Atomic Notation
■ A: Mass number
■ Z: Atomic number

○ Isotopes
■ Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different numbers of
neutrons.
● Therefore, they have the same atomic number
■ Isotopes of hydrogen
○ Radioisotopes
■ Isotopes in which their nucleus spontaneously decays
● Radioactive
● E.g. C-14 decays in N-14
● Types of radioisotopes
○ Useful
○ Dangerous
● Radioactivity results in:
○ The formation of different elements
○ Release radiation
○ Release a number of subatomic particles
○ E.g (Iodine-131 decays to Xenon-131 and produces beta
particles)
○ Valence electrons
■ Electrons found on the outermost orbital
■ The number of valence electrons is given by the group number
■ The chemical behaviour of an atom is determined by the number and
arrangement of its valence electrons
○ Lewis theory of bonding
■ Atoms and Ions are stable if their electrons structures resemble that of a
noble gas (the outer shell is full)
■ Electrons are most stable when located in a stable octet (a valence shell
which contains 8 electrons)
■ Atoms form bonds to achieve a stable outer shell of electrons
○ Types of Bonds
■ Ionic bond
● Bonds between metals and non-metals
● Transfer of electrons
● Na and CL
● Stronger
■ Covalent bonds
● Bonds between two non-metals
● Share of electrons
● H and O
● Types of covalent bonds
○ Dingle (N-H), Double (O=O), triple (N&N)
○ Polar
○ Non-polar
○ Polar covalent bonds
■ What is electronegativity?
● It is a measure of the ability of an atom to attract a shared pair of
electrons towards itself
■ Is there a correlation between electron affinity and electronegativity?
● Yes! The greater the electron affinity, the greater its
electronegativity will be.

○ Non-polar Covalent bonds

■ When both atoms pull equally on the shared pair of electrons, there is no
Net charge created, meaning there are no poles
■ These are pure covalent bonds
■ E.g. Diatomic molecules
○ Molecular polarity
■ The polarity of a molecule as a whole is dependant on bond polarity and
molecular shape
■ Non-polar molecules
● Non-polar molecules are said to be hydroponic but dissolve in
other non-polar molecules
● Symmetrical molecular structures produce non-polar molecules
(whether the bonds are polar or not)

■ Polar molecules
● Polar molecules are said to be hydrophilic
● Asymmetrical molecular shapes produce polar molecules if the
bonds are polar
○ Intermolecular forces
■ Are weaker than the intramolecular covalent and ionic bonds
■ Determine the physical properties (melting point solubility and brittleness)
of molecular substances at a given pressure and temperature
■ Act between similar molecules and different types of molecules
■ Their strength depends on the shape, polarity and size of the molecule

○ London dispersion forces

 ■ Are the only force that exist between noble gases and non polar
molecules
■ Are formed by the temporary unequal distribution of electrons
■ The weakest force

○ Dipole-dipole Forces
■ Hold polar molecules to one another
■ The partially positive side of one polar molecule attracts the partially
negative side of another polar molecule
■ Stronger than london forces

○ Hydrogen bonds
■ Are strong dipole-dipole forces that only form between an electropositive
h of one polar molecule and an electronegative n, o, or f of a
neighbouring polar molecule.
■ The strongest forces
■ The most significant for the function of the cell and cellular processes
○ Types of substances
○ Types of chemical compounds
■ Inorganic compounds
● Chemical compounds that dont contain a combination of carbon
and hydrogen atoms
■ Organic compounds
● Chemical compounds that always contain a combinaiotn of
carbons and hydrogen atoms and