Digital Communication & Information Theory

Course Code TC-311

LECTURE 4

Dr Sunila Akbar

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 The Unit Impulse Function
❑The unit impulse function or Dirac delta function δ(t) is an abstraction—an
infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width, and unity weight (area
under the pulse), concentrated at the point where its argument is zero.
∞
න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
𝛿 𝑡 = 0 for 𝑡 ≠0
𝛿(𝑡) is bounded at 𝑡 = 0
❑Shifting or Sampling Property
∞
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡𝑜 )
−∞

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 The Unit Impulse Function
❑Some properties of unit impulse function

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 Exercise – The Impulse Function
❑Chapter 1: DCs – Sklar (Exercise 1.13)
1.13. Use the sampling property of the impulse function to evaluate the
following integrals:

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Solution

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 Solution
• 1.13

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 Spectral Density
▪ The spectral density of a signal characterizes the distribution of the
signal’s energy or power in the frequency domain.
▪ This concept is particularly important when considering filtering in
communication systems.
▪ We need to be able to evaluate the signal and noise at the filter
output.
▪ The energy spectral density (ESD) or the power spectral density
(PSD) is used in the evaluation.

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 1. Energy Spectral Density (ESD)
▪ Energy spectral density (ESD) describes the signal energy per unit bandwidth
measured in joules/hertz.
▪ If X(f) is Fourier transform of an energy signal x(t), then its
2
ESD [𝜓𝑥 (𝑓)] is defined
as the squared magnitude spectrum i.e., 𝜓𝑥 𝑓 = 𝑋(𝑓) .
▪ According to Parseval’s theorem*, the energy of x(t) is given as
∞ 2 ∞
𝐸𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑋(𝑓) 2 𝑑𝑓
∞
▪ Therefore, 𝐸𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝜓𝑥 𝑓 𝑑𝑓
▪ As for real signals x(t), |X(f)| is an even function of frequency. Therefore, Energy
spectral density is symmetrical in frequency about origin and total energy of the
signal x(t) can be expressed as
∞
𝐸𝑥 = 2 ‫׬‬0 𝜓𝑥 𝑓 𝑑𝑓
* Parseval’s Theorem: The sum (or integral) of square of a signal is equal to sum (or
integral of square of it’s (Fourier) transform.

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 2. Power Spectral Density (PSD)
▪ The power spectral density (PSD) describes the signal power per unit bandwidth measured in
watts/hertz.
▪ The PSD 𝐺𝑥 (𝑓) of a periodic signal x(t) is a real, even, and nonnegative function of frequency that
gives the distribution of the power of x(t) in the frequency domain.
▪ PSD is represented as
𝐺𝑥 𝑓 = σ∞ 2
𝑛=−∞ 𝐶𝑛 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓𝑜 )
1 2
▪ NOTE: For non-periodic case, 𝐺𝑥 𝑓 = lim 𝑋𝑇 (𝑓)
𝑇→∞ 𝑇
▪ Whereas the average power of a periodic signal x(t) is represented as
𝑇𝑜ൗ ∞
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ෍ 𝐶𝑛 2
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑜ൗ
2 𝑛=−∞
▪ Using PSD, the average normalized power of a real-valued signal is represented as
∞ ∞
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝐺𝑥 𝑓 𝑑𝑓 = 2 න 𝐺𝑥 𝑓 𝑑𝑓
−∞ 0

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 Autocorrelation
1. Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
▪ Correlation is a matching process; autocorrelation refers to the matching of a
signal with a delayed version of itself.
▪ Autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal x(t) is defined as

R x ( ) =  x(t) x (t +  ) dt
−
for - <  < 

▪ The autocorrelation function Rx(τ) provides a measure of how closely the

signal matches a copy of itself as the copy is shifted τ units in time.
▪ Rx(τ) is not a function of time; it is only a function of the time difference τ
between the waveform and its shifted copy.

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 1. Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
▪ The autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal
has the following properties:
R x ( ) =R x (- ) symmetrical about zero
R x ( )  R x (0) for all  maximum value occurs at the origin
R x ( )   x (f) autocorrelation and ESD form a
Fourier transform pair, as designated
by the double-headed arrows

value at the origin is equal to the
R x (0) = 
−
x 2 (t) dt
energy of the signal

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 2. Autocorrelation of a Power Signal
▪ Autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal x(t) is
defined as
T /2
1
R x ( ) = lim  x(t) x (t +  ) dt for - <  < 
T → T −T / 2

▪ When the power signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, the
autocorrelation function can be expressed as
T0 / 2
1
R x ( ) =
T0 
−T0 / 2
x(t) x (t +  ) dt for - <  < 

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 2. Autocorrelation of a Power Signal
▪ The autocorrelation function of a real-valued periodic signal has the
following properties similar to those of an energy signal:
R x ( ) =R x (- ) symmetrical about zero
R x ( )  R x (0) for all  maximum value occurs at the origin
R x ( )  Gx (f) autocorrelation and PSD form a
Fourier transform pair
T0 / 2
1 value at the origin is equal to the
R x (0) = 
2
x (t)dt average power of the signal
T0 − T0 / 2

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 Problem - Autocorrelation
❑Chapter 1: DCs – Sklar (Exercise 1.6)

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Solution

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 Solution
▪ 1.6

▪ Has NOT fulfilled the properties of autocorrelation function.

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 Solution
• 1.6.

▪ Has NOT fulfilled the properties of autocorrelation function.

▪ Has NOT fulfilled the properties of autocorrelation function.

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 Solution
• 1.6.

▪ Has FULFILLED the properties of autocorrelation function.

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