CHAPTER 29

The Metallurgy of Welding; Welding

Design and Process Selection

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 Fusion Weld Zone

Figure 29.1 Characteristics

of a typical fusion weld
zone in oxyfuel gas and arc
welding. See also Figs.
27.16 and 28.14.

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 Grain Structure in Shallow and Deep Welds

(a) (b)

Figure 29.2 Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note
that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to the surface
of the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the
deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops uniform
strength in the weld bead.

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 Weld Beads

(b)
(a)

Figure 29.3 (a) Weld bead (on a cold-rolled nickel strip) produced by a laser beam. (b)
Microhardness profile across the weld bead. Note the lower hardness of the weld bead
compared to the base metal. Source: IIT Research Institute.

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 Regions in a Fusion Weld Zone
Figure 29.4 Schematic
illustration of various regions
in a fusion weld zone (and
the corresponding phase
diagram) for 0.30% carbon
steel. Source: American
Welding Society.

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 Corrosion

Figure 29.5 Intergranular

corrosion of a 310-stainless-steel
welded tube after exposure to a
caustic solution. The weld line is
at the center of the photograph.
Scanning electron micrograph at
20 X. Source: Courtesy of B. R.
Jack, Allegheny Ludlum Steel
Corp.

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 Incomplete Fusion

Figure 29.6 Low-quality weld beads, the result of incomplete fusion. Source: American Welding
Society.

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 Discontinuities in Fusion Welds

Figure 29.7 Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds. Source: American Welding
Society.

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 Cracks in Welded Joints
Figure 29.8
Types of cracks
(in welded
joints) caused
by thermal
stresses that
develop during
solidification
and contraction
of the weld bead
and the
surrounding
structure. (a)
Crater cracks.
(b) Various
types of cracks
in butt and T
joints.

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 Crack in a Weld Bead
Figure 29.9 Crack in a weld bead, due
to the fact that the two components were
not allowed to contract after the weld
was completed. Source: S. L. Meiley,
Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.

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 Distortion After Welding

Figure 29.10 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused
by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.

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 Residual Stresses Developed During Welding

Figure 29.11 Residual stresses developed during welding of a butt joint. Source: American
Welding Society.

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 Overview of Commercial Joining Processes
TABLE 29.1 Overview of Commercial Joining Processes*
Joining Process
S G F G Brazing
M S M C T P E E O D F E L I D
Thick- A A A A A A S G R F F F R B B T F I R D R F
Material ness W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W B B B B B B B
Carbon steel S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x x x x x
Low-alloy S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
steel I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x x x x
Stainless S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
steel I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x x x x
Cast iron I x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x
Nickel and S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
alloys I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x

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 Overview of Commercial Joining Processes
(cont.)
TABLE 29.1 (continued)
Joining Process
S G F G Brazing
M S M C T P E E O D F E L I D
Thick- A A A A A A S G R F F F R B B T F I R D R F
Material ness W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W B B B B B B B S
Aliminum S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
and alloys I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x
Titanium S x x x x x x x x x x x x
and alloys I x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x
Copper and S x x x x x x x x x x x
alloys I x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x
T x x x x x
Magnesium S x x x x x x x x x
and alloys I x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x
T x x x
Refractory S x x x x x x x x x x x x
alloys I x x x x x x x
M x x
T
*This table is presented as a general survey only. In selecting processes to be used with specific alloys, the reader
should refer to other
appropriate sources of information.
Source: Courtesy of the American Welding Society.

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 Overview of Commercial Joining Processes
(cont.)

TABLE 29.1 (continued)

Process code
SMAW—Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
SAW—Submerged Arc Welding
GMAW—Gas Metal-Arc Welding
FCAW—Flux-Cored Arc Welding
GTAW—Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
PAW—Plasma Arc Welding
ESW—Electroslag Welding
EGW—Electrogas Welding
RW—Resistance Welding
FW—Flash Welding
OFW—Oxyfuel Gas Welding
DFW—Diffusion Welding
Legend
Thickness
FRW—Friction Welding S—Sheet: up to 3 mm in.B
EBW—Electron Beam Welding I—Intermediate: 3 to 6 mm A in.B
LBW—Laser Beam Welding M—Medium: 6 to 19 mm A in.B
TB—Torch Brazing T—Thick: 19 mm A in. B and up
FB—Furnace Brazing
IB—Induction Brazing
RB—Resistance Brazing
DB—Dip Brazing
IRB—Infrared Brazing
DFB—Diffusion Brazing
S—Soldering

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 Destructive Techniques
Figure 29.12 Two types of specimens for tension-shear
testing of welded joints.

Figure 29.13 (a) Wrap-around bend test method.

(b) Three-point bending of welded specimens--see
also Fig. 2.11.

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 Testing of Spot Welds
Figure 29.14 (a) Tension-
shear test for spot welds.
(b) Cross-tension test. (c)
Twist test. (d) Peel test;
see also Fig. 30.8.

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 Welding Design Guidelines
Figure 29.15 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook of Product Design for
Manufacturing. Copyright ©1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission.

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 Standard Identification and Symbols for Welds
Figure 29.16

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 Weld Design Selection

Figure 29.17

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