Themeninfo I/2017

A compact guide to energy research

Electromobility
What drives us now and in the future:
battery, fuel cell and hybrid drive

A service from FIZ Karlsruhe GmbH

2 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

„“
Straight to the point
The combustion engine has a 100-year development history and has become
consistently more efficient and cleaner. Despite this, the car engine is about to
undergo a breakthrough: the finite nature of fossil fuels, climate change and smog
demand that we find alternative solutions. The engine of the future needs to be clean,
affordable, easily available and convenient to use. Electric drives already meet many
of these requirements today. They are quiet and low-vibration, and emit no pollutants
where they are used. When they drive with power from renewable sources, more
resource-saving, more climate-friendly transport becomes possible. Compared to
combustion engines, electric motors are light and compact. The technology is well
developed: it has a high degree of effectiveness and is robust and low-maintenance.
Electric motors have a similarly long development history to combustion engines.
Therefore, it is not the drive technology that is inhibiting the dissemination of
electric cars. It is far more the case that there is a great need for further development
in storage facilities for electrical energy. With a diesel or petrol engine, a simple
hollow chamber – the pressureless tank – is sufficient in order to store chemically
bound energy for a range of hundreds of kilometres. The electrochemical energy
storage systems are far more complex. Both rechargeable batteries and hydrogen
storage systems combined with fuel cells have a higher volume in particular.
In order to guarantee the same range as one litre of diesel, a rechargeable battery
must for example be around 10 times as large and 20 times as heavy.
There is also still a lack of infrastructure. While petrol stations for petrol or
diesel are to be found in the most remote areas, charging stations for battery
storage systems or hydrogen filling stations are to date almost non-existent.
This is why the change to other drive technologies is taking so long. Here, an Authors
important role is initially being played by hybrid systems, which combine petrol Battery technology:
or diesel engines with electric motors. These also include electric vehicles with Prof. Dr Martin Winter (MEET, WWU Münster)
a so-called “range extender”. These vehicles drive on purely electric motors. Dr Tobias Placke (MEET, WWU Münster)
If necessary, a combustion engine drives a generator which charges the battery. Dr Sergej Rothermel (MEET, WWU Münster)
Paul Meister (MEET, WWU Münster)
The direction taken by electromobility is therefore decided to a large degree on Andre Bar (MEET, WWU Münster)
the storage and conversion technology available. However, what is the current latest Fuel cell technology:
development in technology with regard to a battery and hydrogen tank with a fuel cell? Dr Wedigo von Wedel (NEXT ENERGY)
What challenges are there? How can the wide range of requirements be met?
This BINE Themeninfo brochure looks at these questions in detail and discusses Editors
Anna Durst and Dr Franz Meyer
the system core of battery, cells and components, as well as the materials used,
integration into the grid and how an infrastructure can be created. Copyright
Text and illustrations from this
publication can only be used if permission
Your BINE editorial team wishes you an enjoyable read
has been granted by the BINE editorial team.
We would be delighted to hear from you.

Cover image:
Anna Durst, BINE Information Service
Lead photos:
P. 3 NOW GmbH/Philipp Plum

Content
P. 4 WWU/MEET
P. 8 NOW GmbH/Philipp Plum
P. 14 WWU/MEET
P. 20 Fotolia/kasto
3 Fuel cell, battery and hybrid
4 Central components of the system
7 En passant: Electric racing cars of the 19th century
8 Battery cell versus fuel cell
14 Materials for a mobile future
Kaiserstraße 185-197, 53113 Bonn, Germany
19 Points of view
Phone +49 228 92379-0
20 Electric cars influence the grid Fax +49 228 92379-29
kontakt@bine.info
24 The mobility of tomorrow www.bine.info
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 3

Fuel cell,
battery and hybrid
Highly efficient, low-noise and zero-emission:
the electric powertrain offers dynamic mobility,
can integrate renewable energies and makes the
transport sector less dependent on crude oil as an
energy source. However, which technology will dominate
electric vehicles of the future: batteries or fuel cells?
An either-or decision is not necessary.

The electric vehicle drive concepts include hybrid electric Combined advantages
vehicles (HEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV),
pure battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric In the future, neither of the two individual technologies
vehicles (FCEV). They can differ significantly in terms of will be able to fully cover the entire application spectrum
their driving ranges (Fig. 1). Opinions differ as to whether of individual and goods traffic, as well as commercial ve-
hybrid electric vehicles are regarded as electric vehicles, hicles. They complement each other with regard to energy
as they can only achieve short electric driving ranges and efficiency, protection of resources and the different re-
are not charged via a socket. In North America and Asia in quirements of primary energy sources used. The applica-
particular, the success of the hybrid electric vehicles tion areas – fuel cells for long journeys and a sufficiently
shows that the electrification of the powertrain has already large battery for short and medium-length journeys – can
been positively received by customers. be combined in a single vehicle in a complementary way.
Therefore, the question of pioneering technology cannot
In Germany, the market for vehicles with purely battery be answered in general terms. In the long term, a coexist-
electric drives is growing slowly, but steadily. Until now, ence of both concepts for the electric drive is likely.
electric cars have become even more expensive to buy than
combustion engine and hybrid electric vehicles, and fall
considerably behind in terms of range. Further obstacles
are the poorly developed infrastructure and the still long
charging times compared to fuel tanks. Many people are
worried that they might be left stranded while looking for
a charging opportunity, and are afraid of converting. These
Fig. 1 The diagram shows the maximum range
challenges can be met in two ways: either the storage ca-
of presently available electromobile drive concepts
pacity of the traction batteries is further increased, or they compared to conventional drives (ICE) with a range
are continuously re-charged while driving by the electro- of 1,000 km (according to the manufacturer).
chemical conversion of hydrogen and oxygen from the air in Battery operation is shown in green,
a fuel cell (hybrid concept). Both strategies have already while red represents operation with the combustion engine.
been implemented commercially, but have different ad- Source: WWU/MEET
vantages and disadvantages. For example, the charging
duration of a vehicle at the local charging station is increa­
sed significantly when a high-capacity battery is installed ICE 1,000 km
in the vehicle. While there are various fast charging options
available, even via inductive, i.e. non-contact, charging,
these are still rare. Furthermore, the actual charging dura- HEV 860 km
tion depends on the technical conditions.
PHEV 940 km
In hydrogen-driven vehicles with a fuel cell, tanking with
50 890
hydrogen does not take much longer than with standard
fuel pumps. However, short journeys increase hydrogen FCEV 500 km H2
consumption, as the fuel cell needs to be brought to op-
erating temperature each time the vehicle is re-started.
Therefore, the range fluctuates, depending on the driving BEV 560 km
profile. In addition, the hydrogen infrastructure is still in-
sufficiently developed.
4 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Central components
of the system
Batteries and fuel cells do not yet provide final
satisfactory solutions in their current state of
development, in order to already make the electric
car fully competitive with vehicles with a combustion
engine. Both types of electrochemical energy
converters are still too expensive, and are at
the beginning stages of market penetration.

Batteries and fuel cells may provide electrical energy, but
they have fundamentally different modes of functioning,
and their own strengths and weaknesses.
When designing the battery system, two factors are deci-
sive: the power and the energy content. The power is given
in watts (W). The energy content corresponds to the driving
range of the vehicle, however. The unit is a watt-hour (Wh)
or kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Another key factor is how heavy and voluminous the ener-
gy storage system – i.e. the battery – really is. The energy
density per weight (= gravimetric, Wh/kg) or volume
(= volumetric Wh/l) is therefore an indicator of the range
of the vehicle. The gravimetric energy density is also
called “specific energy”. The maximum power achievable
Light vehicle batteries
As part of the “Next Generation High Voltage Storages”,
or NEXHOS project, which is funded by the BMWi,
scientists from BMW together with an industrial alliance
researched a new-style concept for Li-ion high voltage
storage systems. The focus was on developing innovative,
lightweight structure materials – in particular a housing
concept with a plastic supporting structure –
and the corresponding production technologies.
Additionally, the new storage concept was intended,
as a fixed component of the body, to take on a structural
role and to serve as a technology carrier for a modular system,
which is used both in PHEV and EV vehicles for all models.
An important goal, as well as optimising the weight,
was to increase the automation depth when it came
to assembling the high-voltage storage system,
which reduces production costs without putting
production personnel at risk through proximity to the
high voltage.
with the given battery weight (W/kg) or volume (W/l) is
important when accelerating, for example. The available
power and energy of a battery storage system are at a cer-
tain ratio in relation to each other, and vary according to
the battery cell type. For a detailed representation, a so-
called “Ragone chart” is frequently used, in which the
gravimetric power density is shown in dependence on the
gravimetric energy density (Fig. 2). The chart shows battery
cells, in particular lithium ion batteries – also known as
Li-ion batteries, or LIBs – with which electric drives come
close to the combustion engine with regard to their power
density. By contrast, the fuel cells permit similar or higher
energy densities, albeit with limited power.
On the road to a functioning traction battery, so-called
“active materials”, i.e. host materials for Li-ion storage,
form just the start of an extensive material cycle. They are
responsible for the storage mechanism. In order to be
able to process the active material powder to create the
corresponding electrodes, binders and conductive carbons
must be added, which guarantee sufficient adhesion or
electronic conductivity between the active material parti-
cles. The composite material is affixed with the aid of the
binder to a current collector, which transports the current
towards and away from it. In the cell, the negative and
positive electrodes are spatially set apart by a separator,
in order to avoid an electronic short circuit. Below, the
terms “anode” (for negative electrode) and “cathode”
(for positive electrode) will be used. A stack consisting of
anode, separator and cathode, immersed in a liquid elec-
trolyte, forms the basis of Li-ion cells. A large portion of
the materials used can be re-used in an extensive materi-
al cycle (Fig. 3). For small rechargeable batteries, polymer
electrolytes – a type of gel – are also used. New battery
concepts are still being researched, in which ceramic solid
electrolytes replace the separator and the liquid electro-
lytes.
In order to move a car forwards, a large number of these
cells must be connected to each other in series to form
modules. This leads to a higher operating voltage. De-
pending on the format and size of the cells used, they are
additionally switched in parallel in order to increase the
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 5

2,000

Power density [W/kg]

Gas turbine
battery capacity and power. Finally, several modules,
switched in series, form a battery pack. A typical scenario 1,000 Supercapacitor
are series connections of 96 cells. The operating voltage
then reaches up to 400 volts in the charged state, which 500
Combustion engine
is necessary for high-power drives.
Lithium-ion battery
200
For secure operation of the entire battery system, each
module has a module control unit, which continuously
monitors the cell voltages and currents of individual cell 100
groups connected in series, and actively adjusts them
when necessary. Installed temperature sensors and in 50 Fuel cell
most cases, the connected cooling and heating, ensure Lead-acid
that the module neither exceeds nor fails to reach the battery
specified values. Information from several such module 20
control units is processed in a battery control unit. This Nickel-cadmium
unit determines the state-of-charge of the entire system, 10 battery
anticipates errors and initiates measures for resource-­
saving, safe operation. Together, the module and battery 5 Nickel-metal
control unit form what is known as the battery manage- hydride battery
Zinc-air battery
ment system (BMS). 0
0 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 2,000
Inactive components, such as the housing, increase Energy density [Wh/kg]
weight and volume, but are essential for functioning and
safety. An optimised ratio of active and inactive compo- Fig. 2 Ragone chart comparing different energy storage technologies with
regard to their gravimetric power density and gravimetric energy density.
nents of a battery system, therefore, contributes to im-
For individual battery systems, the data applies at the cell level.
proving the gravimetric and volumetric energy density Source: WWU/MEET
(Fig. 4). Against this background, the housing in which
the individual components are located has a high potential
for saving on weight and improving full use of the space
Recycling
available.

Use Materials
Fuel cell technology

As well as batteries, the fuel cell offers another opportunity

for supplying power to the electric vehicle. The fuel cell
requires hydrogen (H2) as a fuel and atmospheric oxygen
(O2) drawn in from the environment. In the fuel cell aggre- Battery system
gate, electric power is obtained directly in the noiseless
conversion at temperatures below 100 °C from the two
gases, hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen. The conversion
of the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into elec-
trical energy and heat takes place in the electrodes of a
Components
cell, through each of which the two gases flow separately.
In order to obtain technically usable power, several Battery module Cell
­hundred cells are connected in series in a stack, with
shared connections for the gas inlet routes for hydrogen
Fig. 3 Material cycle of rechargeable batteries
and air, and for the gas outlet (Fig. 7). Source: WWU/MEET

Aside from peripheral pumps and fans, the conversion of

chemical into electrical energy is achieved without mova-
ble parts. The only discharge from the exhaust pipe of the
vehicle is a warm flow of air with a small amount of oxygen,
but more water steam (H2O) than in the ambient air previ-
ously drawn in. The fuel cell is therefore operated locally,
free of environmentally damaging emissions and noise.
Constantly drawing in atmospheric oxygen as an oxi­
dation agent from the cathode side of the fuel cell offers
a system-related advantage of this energy converter over Active Electrode Cell Battery Battery Use
the battery technology used for battery electric vehicles material module system
(BEV). A fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), like a vehicle
with a combustion engine, only needs to carry the reduc-
Fig. 4 Weight proportion of active material of the total weight
ing agent in its tank in the form of fuel (hydrogen). By con-
of individual battery or car components
trast, a BEV always has both the reducing agent and the Source: WWU/MEET
oxidation agent on board within the battery cells. This
6 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Fig. 5 The aim is to build 400 hydrogen filling stations in Germany by 2023. Fig. 6 It takes around 3 minutes to tank up with hydrogen.
Source: obs/AIR LIQUIDE Deutschland GmbH Source: NOW GmbH/Philipp Plum

additional load can only be detracted from the BEV when
it becomes possible to make available metal-air systems,
such as the Li-air system, as the drive battery. For the
FCEV, hydrogen as fuel can however only be handled at a
high cost due to its properties. While it is very light in
itself, it is very voluminous, and must be brought to a high
pressure of several hundred bar in order to house a suffi-
cient quantity in the vehicle. For 5 kg of hydrogen, around
100 kg of tank weight is required. For each volume unit,
the storage densities that can be achieved from com-
pressed or liquid hydrogen are even less favourable. De-
spite this basic problem, hydrogen is already in the high
stages of development due to its potential key role in a
future regenerative energy system as a fuel for FCEVs.

Fig. 7 The fuel cell stack In the interim, hydrogen can now be tanked at special
Source: WWU/MEET charging stations, of which there are only around two
dozen in Germany, however. The hydrogen fuel pumps
look very similar to standard petrol pumps, although in
terms of technology and logistics, they are entirely differ-
ent from them, as they are supplied and stocked with
hydrogen. As a result, they cannot simply be integrated
into existing petrol stations (Fig. 5). An FCEV is tanked up
in just the same way as a combustion engine vehicle
End plates (ICE vehicle). Currently, however, there are not yet enough
filling stations, and above all, no hydrogen infrastructure
Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) to support them. If this were to be the case, it would be
with catalyst possible to directly match the fuel cell technology to the
Electrolyte membrane current usage habits of car drivers.
Bipolar plate
The government-sponsored “National Innovation Pro-
gramme Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology” (NIP2), is a
H2 H2 H2
wide-ranging support programme for hydrogen and fuel
cell technology in Germany, in which the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) and
­other federal ministries are involved. One of the focal
­areas of the NIP2 is the use of fuel cell technology in the
transport sector.

The activities in Germany are flanked by international alli-

ances (in Europe, Japan and the US), in which important
technology branches and political bodies work together
O2 O2 O2
on developing fuel cell technology in the transport sector
and implementing it at national level in each country.

One key issue is the origin of hydrogen. The global environ-

H2O mental compatibility of this form of electromobility is only
provided when hydrogen as a fuel is produced sustaina-
bly, using renewable energies. The usage chain consists

of several loss-making process steps. From the production
of hydrogen, liquefaction or compression, transportation
and storage through to its final return flow in the vehicle,
only a share of under 25 % of the electrical energy initially
used remains. As a result, only around 1 kWh of drive
­energy can be generated for the fuel cell vehicle of 4 kWh
of surplus electricity. In a power grid with a high pro­
portion of regenerative power generation, this energy use
can still make sense, as it is able to store and use excess
electricity.
There is a need for further research for each component
involved in electricity generation with fuel cells, as well
as projects aiming to improve their function, reliability
and safety, and reduce production costs of the components,
in order to pave the way for serial production. Accordingly,
the research funding covers the entire production chain
across all sectors.
Among German car manufacturers, there are two who are
actively looking to bring fuel cell vehicles onto the market
in the very near future. The Volkswagen Group is involved,
among other things, in a major research project with
seve­ral partners in the BMWi-sponsored HyMotion 5 pro-
ject. This project focuses on the key steps in the product­
ion chain for the fuel cell, on the path to enabling it to
­compete with the combustion engine. The central factor
is the reduction of production costs of the stacks. This
involves testing the boundaries in the production of the
components, such as reducing the platinum charge of the
membrane electrode assemblies (MEA), the formability of
material for the bipolar plates and the development of
sealing concepts for stack construction. In addition, it is
hoped that the close collaboration with the partners will
in the future help to build up a supply chain with a high
level of overall productivity.
The car manufacturer Daimler wants to bring a first fuel
cell vehicle model onto the market in the near future.
However, with this fledgling car technology, there are still
many challenges to be overcome in research and develop­
ment.
BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 7
En passant
Fig. 8 Illustration of
“La Jamais Contente”
with driver and desig-
ner Camille Jenatzy
Source: Public domain
via Wikimedia
Commons
Electric racing cars of the 19th century
Cars were already being driven electrically over 100 years ago.
“La Jamais Contente” – French for the woman who is never
content – was an electrically driven racing car which was
presented in 1898. The car was the first road vehicle to reach a
speed of over 100 km/h. The rocket-shaped conveyance, which
weighed almost 1.5 tonnes, was built by the Belgian racing driver
Camille Jenatzy, who also ran a company that built electric cars.
The record was lost three years later – to a steam-driven vehicle.
The body was supported on a box frame, which was produced
from partinium, a light alloy of aluminium, tungsten and
magnesium. The structure in the form of a torpedo was one of
the first to be developed according to aerodynamic principles.
The concept had two weak points, however: on the one hand,
the upper half of the driver protruded from the body, while on the
other, the chassis with the small, thick tyres was mounted
free-standing below the main section. In this way, the vehicle
offered a large surface exposed to the air flow, despite the
streamlined chassis.
The vehicle had no further operating elements apart from a
steering stick, a foot pedal – which regulated the acceleration –
and a hand brake. It was driven with two 25-kW electric motors
with 200 volts and 125 amperes. At that time, a battery produced
by Fulmen offered the highest storage capacity, with 82 lead
elements. A rechargeable element with a capacity of 135 ampere
hours with a discharge current of 27 amperes weighed 10.4 kg.
Fig. 9 The “La Jamais Contente” at the Mondial de
l’Automobile in October 2014
Source: Thesupermat/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0)
8 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Battery cell
versus fuel cell
Both batteries and fuel cells convert chemical
energy into electrical energy. With rechargeable
batteries, such as the lithium-ion battery, the feed
of electric energy reverses the chemical discharge
reaction. In fuel cells, hydrogen and oxygen are
transported in from the outside, and the reaction
product is transported out in the form of water steam.

In general, a differentiation is made for commercial Li-ion
cells between three different structures: cylindrical, pris-
matic and so-called “pouch cells” – also known as pouch
bag or coffee bag cells.
For a cylindrical cell, the electrode stack is coiled into a
roll and placed in a metallic housing (Fig. 10). These cells
have been used in a wide range of applications since
the beginning, are cheap to produce and are protected
against mechanical influences by the stable housing, in
order to e.g. tolerate a certain level of gas pressure within
the cell. Cylindrical cells cannot be arranged in modules
and packs without losing space, however. Prismatic cells
take on a parallelepiped form, and can, therefore, be
stacked in a space-saving way. For prismatic cells, a me-
chanically resilient plastic or metal housing is used (Fig.
11), while for a pouch cell, a thin, flexible aluminium
compound foil forms the housing (Fig. 12).
Regardless of the final cell format, a central process of
cell production of Li-ion batteries is the production of
composite electrodes (Fig. 16 and 17). At this process
step, the active material of the anode or cathode is applied
onto a current collector foil as a homogeneous layer. In a
typical manufacturing process, the active material is first
dry-mixed with the binder and a conductive carbon. Next,
a certain quantity of a process solvent is added, and the
mass is stirred to form a homogeneous electrode paste,
also called slurry. As soon as the desired fluidity is
achieved, the material is applied on both sides to a col-
lector foil in a coating process. After drying, the finished
electrodes are compacted, cut out and transported to the
cell production. For the anodes, water typically acts as a
process solvent, and copper foil as a current collector,
while for the cathode, organic solvents and aluminium
foil are inserted.
During the production of cylindrical cells, the electrodes
are stacked, and set apart in each case by a separator.
The electrode stack is then coiled up along its length to
form a roll, and is inserted into a metallic housing. The
copper collector foil applied to the anode is welded with
the cell housing in the lower area of the cell. The alumini-
um collector foil is connected with the positive pole in the
lid of the cell. Then, the cell is filled with a certain quantity
of electrolyte and closed. A plastic ring here secures the
electric insulation of the positive pole of the housing; the
housing then also acts as a negative pole.
For prismatic and pouch cells, the electrode arrangement
can take two forms, either using an oval coil around a flat
core, or through alternating stacking of electrodes and
separators cut to approximately the width of the cell. The
oval coil is particularly advantageous with large cells, as
it is considerably faster and cheaper to produce. The
stacking of individual electrodes and separators takes
more time, but leads to better use of the space within the
cell, and has mechanical benefits with very thin cells in
particular. The entire process chain for producing Li-ion
cells suitable for use in cars was investigated as part of
the BMWi-funded project “Development of a production
method for new-style competitive high-energy battery cells
for testing the technology for later major series production
in Germany” (Li-FeM by the VW-VM research association,
and was optimised with regard to individual process steps,
including electrode coating and calendering, as well as
electrolyte filling.
Safety plays an overriding role in the investigation of differ-
ent cell types, which can be equipped with various safety
elements, such as a current interruption device (CID). In
safety tests, the cells were examined under specific, ex-
treme test conditions with regard to their mechanical,
thermal and electrical stability, including for overcharg-
ing, overheating or mechanical stress tests.
Structure of a lithium-ion cell
In principle, anodes and cathodes have a similar structure.
Each electrode consists of four main components, the
­respective active material, the conductive carbon, the
binder and the current collector (Fig. 18 and 19).
The Li-ion cell is a closed system which consists of an an-
ode and a cathode, which are set apart from each other
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 9

Negative pole
Cell housing
Positive pole
Negative electrode
Copper current collector
Insulation seal
Separator
Positive electrode
Aluminium current collector
Separator

Fig. 10 Schematic structure of a cylindrical cell Source: WWU/MEET

Negative pole
Cell housing

Positive pole
Negative electrode

Copper current collector

Separator

Positive electrode

Aluminium current collector

Separator

Abb. 11 Schematic structure of a prismatic cell Source: WWU/MEET

–
+

Cell housing

Negative electrode

Copper current collector

Separator

Positive electrode

Aluminium current collector

Fig. 12 Schematic structure of a pouch cell Source: WWU/MEET

10 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Fig. 13 Position of the rechargeable battery in the car Fig. 14 Electric car while “tanking” electricity
Source: WWU/MEET Source: Anna Durst, BINE Information Service

spatially by the separator which is soaked with the elec-
trolyte. While the cell is being charged, the Li-ions (Li+)
are extracted from the cathode active material and trans-
ported to the anode active material, where they are
stored. Following the charge reaction, the anode is in an
electrochemically reduced state, while the cathode is ox-
idised. During discharging, the transport direction of the
ions is reversed. In this way, a reversible transfer of the
Li+ ions takes place between the electrodes during the
charging or discharging process (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15 Structure of a lithium-ion battery with a graphite
anode and an oxide layer cathode
Source: WWU/MEET
The primary function of the current collector is to enable
the flow in and out of electrons to and from the cell. When
selecting the collector, the electronic conductivity, the
price and the electrochemical stability play a role, among
other things. As the current collector is an inactive mate-
rial, i.e. it does not participate in the actual storage pro-
cess, the thinnest foils possible are used, made of highly
conductive copper or aluminium for the anode and cath-
ode, respectively. The binder is responsible for the
­permanent mechanical connection of the active material
particles to each other and to the current collector. With
active materials in particular, which experience strong
expansion and contraction during charge/discharge
­
­cycling, the binder must provide permanent electronic
contact between the particles and the current collector.
Due to the relatively poor electronic conductivity of some
active materials, it is necessary to add conductive
­carbons. This is designed to help build up a supporting
structure in order to secure electronic conductivity within
the entire electrode. As the binder, conductive additive
and current collector are inactive materials, their reduct­
ion to a minimum in the electrode is desirable in order to
achieve the highest possible gravimetric and volumetric
capacity.

In order to avoid a short circuit within the cell, the flow of

ions and electrons must be spatially separated from each
other. While the electrons flow to the consumer via an
­external circuit with the aid of the collector, only the
transportation of the Li-ions occurs through the electro-
lyte. The function of the separator is to set the electrodes
apart from each other electronically, while at the same
time absorbing the electrolyte. Usually, polymer separat­
ors or ceramic-coated polymer separators are used in
LIBs. In this context, the gel polymer electrolytes (GPE)
should also be mentioned, which are a hybrid of electro-
lyte and separator. The advantages of the quasi-solid GPE
are their mechanical stability, which means that a classic
Copper current collector Graphene layer SEI separator-fluid electrolyte unit can be omitted, and their
Electrolyte Lithium ion Cathode CEI
ability to immobilise the fluid component in the polymer
component, like a sponge, in order to prevent any leak-
Aluminium current collector Separator
age.
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 11

Fig. 16 Electrode production under real-life conditions

Source: WWU/MEET

Catalysts for the fuel cell i.e. pole reversals – can occur due to the altered electro-
chemical potential on the anode. These cause damage to
With the fuel cell technology, the suitability for use of the the anode catalyst, if they are too severe, too long or too
individual components and their interplay were proven in frequent. For this reason, attempts are being made to find
the fatigue test, and the first suppliers have already the most robust possible anode catalyst systems, as well
moved towards the market with smaller vehicle series. In as suitable control technology for the gas management at
the car sector, for example, vehicles are being offered by
manufacturers from Japan and Korea, such as Honda
(JPN), Toyota (JPN) and Hyundai (KOR). At the beginning
of 2011, Daimler started a world tour with the Mercedes Fig. 17 Schematic view of an electrode production process
B-Class F-CELL, the first series-produced fuel cell vehicle. Source: WWU/MEET
It travelled around the world in 125 days, covering a route
of 30,000 kilometres. The company has also equipped
30 European capital cities with fuel cell buses as part of
an EU-funded demonstration project, which are in regular
use as part of the public transport system. However, for a) Production
all manufacturers, fuel cell technology still faces major of the electrode
technological challenges. One important research topic, slurry
which is presented here as an example, is the perform­
ance capability and longevity of the catalysts. With the
cathode catalyst in particular, states frequently occur
during driving mode which are not entirely satisfactorily
controlled.
b) and c)
For realistic durability tests on fuel cells with new catalyst
Coating and
variants, repeated, compressed driving profiles are fre- drying of the
quently used in order for the actual conditions of the total front and rear
load to take effect in a way as true to reality as possible, side of the
while also saving time. The following basic requirements collector foil
for the fuel cell stack emerge from the study of long-term
operation in the vehicle (Fig. 7): The working life of a fuel
cell stack must be at least 5,000 usage hours within
10 years, without showing any significant impairment in
performance, whereby the stack is exposed to up to
300,000 load changes and 30,000 start-stop situations,
which it must withstand without damage. These technical d) Cutting process
requirements present a difficult challenge, particularly to
the catalyst system on the cathode side, i.e. on the air
side. A further difficulty arises on the anode side of the
cells in the stack, as there, a specific electrochemical
state of voltage reversal can occasionally occur, when the
hydrogen is switched off at the end of the journey and is
displaced by air or nitrogen. Here, voltage reversals –
12 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

the end of the journey. Due to the frequent corrosive
operat­ing states, combined with the constant attempts to
achieve the lowest possible use of platinum, there
­continues to be a high level of interest in developing
­particularly degradation-resistant catalyst concepts and
carrier materials for fuel cells in vehicles.
Fig. 18 Schematic structure of a composite electrode,
consisting of current collector (copper or aluminium), active material,
carbon black – as a conductive additive – and binder
Source: WWU/MEET
Within the scope of the BMWi-funded projects, NeKat and
BestKat, scientists investigated particular areas of interest
with regard to catalysts. The technical goal of the research
work was to qualify a fuel cell membrane electrode as-
sembly for car drives, which must have a sufficiently high
performance (specific performance of at least 2.9 kW/g
platinum) and long-term stability of around 5,000 operat-
ing hours. For the chemical processes on the entire fuel
cell, it is above all the so-called “oxygen reduction react­
ion” on the cathode (or ORR) that is the key factor. In the
NeKat research project, researchers achieved their goal
by conducting the dynamic long-term tests with corrosive
shutdown events with a membrane electrode assembly
consisting of new cathode and anode catalysts on a carbon
carrier with a charge of the MEA of just 0.25 mg platinum/
cm2. In doing so, the scientists also exceeded by far the
previously defined stability requirements.

One catalyst manufacturer aims to once again considerably

improve the performance of cathode catalysts with the
BestKat project. They are pursuing two options: using al-
Active material loy catalysts and chemically modified catalysts. Through
the alloy catalyst approach, highly active catalysts could
Conductive be obtained for the reduction reaction of the oxygen,
carbon which exceeded the target value of 2.9 kW/g platinum by
Current or additive up to a factor of 4 compared to the reference catalyst, al-
collector though they very quickly lost their activity during the
Polymer binder, ­p­otential cycle tests. The alloy catalysts also proved to be
electrolyte, too sensitive to the voltage reversal of more than one volt
porosity during start-stop operation.

Via the other option of chemically modified catalysts, the

mass activity could considerably be increased compared
to the standard platinum catalyst, and – albeit with other
catalyst preparations again – an improved long-term
stabi­lity in the highly demanding long-term driving cycle
test of the MEA could be demonstrated (Fig. 21).

It remains a challenge to combine the achieved specific

Fig. 19 Profile of an electrode performance and durability in a single catalyst. The two
Source: WWU/MEET 10 μm projects make it clear that with further research on the
catalyst system, the requirements set for fuel cells for
­mobile use could one day be met, and as a result, real
competition with the combustion engine can emerge for
noiseless, environmentally-friendly driving.
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 13

H2 O2

Bipolar plate

Membrane electrode assembly (MEA)

with catalyst

Electrolyte membrane

Hydrogen (H2 )

H+

Electron (e–)

Oxygen (O2 )

O2-

Water (H2O)

Residual combustion gas H2 O

2H2 + O2ප 2H2O

Fig. 20 Principle sketch of a single-cell fuel cell
Source: WWU/MEET

0.900
Cell voltage [V]

0.800 39 µV/h @ 0.1 A/cm2

0.700

0.600
158 µV/h @ 1.0 A/cm2
0.500

0.400 224 µV/h @ 1.5 A/cm2

0.300

0.200 339 µV/h @ 2.0 A/cm2

0.100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
sim. operating time [h]
CV @ 0.1 A/cm CV @ 1.0 A/cm
2 2
CV @ 1.5 A/cm 2
CV @ 2.0 A/cm 2
Fig. 21 Stress test of a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) during a driving cycle test with, for the anode catalyst,
particularly high-load air-air start-stop events: Their damaging impact with time on the catalyst system of the MEA is less evident
in the driving cycle progression when a low level of electricity is demanded (green curve), but becomes clear when the fuel cell
has to deliver a particularly large amount of electricity (yellow curve).
Source: Daimler AG
14 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Materials for
a mobile future
What materials actually make the mobility
of tomorrow possible? A battery could not be
produced without separators, electrodes together
with active anode and cathode materials and
electrolytes. Fuel cells consist of specially
developed catalysts – while electrolytes are
essential core components.

The materials used in a battery are at the beginning of the
value chain and in their interaction are the origin of the
performance data in the application. Furthermore, the
cell materials are the greatest cost generator in a battery.
The right choice of material is key in order to be able to
realise Li-ion batteries with the highest possible gravimetric
or volumetric energy densities. Overall, energy density is
defined as follows:
is irreversibly reduced. The focus of current anode
­research lies mainly on materials that are easily available
and cheap, and which have a higher specific capacity
than graphite, but also with the lowest possible operating
potential. Due to the comparatively low specific ­capacity
of commercial cathode materials, the capacity increase of
the anode until it achieves higher cell capacity only serves
the purpose to a certain degree (Fig. 23), i.e. currently,
anode capacities of > 1,200 mAh/g do not lead to a signific­
ant increase in cell capacity.

Against this background, silicon (Si) with a specific ca-

Wh Wh
Energy density or pacity of approx. 3,500 mAh/g and an operating potential
kg L of 0.4 V compared to Li/Li+ can make a decisive contribut­
Ah Ah
= Capacity or ∙ Cell voltage (V) ion in order to realise higher cell energy density, and is
kg L currently the most intensively investigated anode material
as a substitute for graphite. However, to date, there are
problems that have been insufficiently resolved that pre-
vent this material from being put to practical use. During
The capacity of the cell is determined both by the anode the Li uptake, also known as lithiation, there is a strong
capacity and the cathode capacity, and is limited by the volume expansion, which can reach 300 %. During this
material with the lower Li-ion storage capacity, usually process, the SEI layer which has been formed and torn by
the cathode. In order to determine the cell capacity, not expansions must be repaired locally by new SEI layers, as
only the capacity of the anode and cathode, but also the a result of which electrolyte and active Li is again consumed.
mass or volume of the inactive materials is taken into During the subsequent de-lithiation, the material shrinks
­account. This is relevant in that new materials with a again considerably. Overall, due to material degradation,
higher density tend to require more inactive components increased crack formation occurs and in the worst case,
in order to control safety. there is a loss of the electronic contact of active material
particles.

Anode materials
The state of the art when it comes to anode materials in
LIBs is graphite. The material stands out for a specific
capacity of around 360 mAh/g. In addition, lithiated
­ mance degradation. As well as Si nanoparticles, which
graphite has an operating potential of just 0.1 V vs. Li/Li+,
which enables a high cell voltage. Lithiated graphite
­reacts with the electrolyte, whereby a protective layer
which is essential for safety and performance, the so-
called “solid electrolyte interphase” (SEI) is created on
the anode, which prevents the further decomposition of
the electrolyte components. The formation of the SEI con-
sumes active Li, as a result of which the usable capacity
As a result of the contact loss, the cell capacity decreases,
as the particles are no longer available for the energy
storage, and are, therefore, “dead” material. Different ap-
proaches are being pursued in order to reduce this perfor-
are better able to cope with the strong volume fluctua-
tions, new binders and electrolytes are being used. The
aim is that they improve the cohesion of the particles in the
electrode and the stability of the SEI layer during charging
and discharging. Furthermore, the low electronic conduc-
tivity of the semiconductor material Si is also a challenge.
A high proportion of conductive carbons in the composite
electrode can be an antidote to this.
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 15

3. Abundance of elements in Lowest price Highest price

1. Gravimetric capacity [mAh/g] 2. Volumetric capacity [mAh/cm3] the earth’s crust [wt. %] 4. Raw material costs [USD/lb]
4,000 5,500 26.5 2,000
26.0 1,500
5,000
3,500 25.5 1,000
4,500 25.0
3,000 16
4,000 4.75
4.50 14
2,500 3,500
4.25 12
3,000 4.00
2,000 10
2,500 0.020
1,500 2,000 8
0.015
1,500 6
1,000 0.010
1,000 4
500 0.005 2
500
0 0 0 0
C Sn Ge Si ZnFe2O4 C Sn Ge Si ZnFe2O4 C Sn Ge Si Zn Fe C Sn Ge Si Zn Fe

Fig. 22 1. Gravimetric capacity, 2. Volumetric capacity, 3. Abundance, and 4. Costs of anode materials
Source: WWU/MEET

The complex topic of new anode materials has been in-
vestigated in the BMWi-funded projects alpha-Laion and
LiNaS. The focus of these projects was on the development
of silicon/carbon composite materials. A low proportion of
Si (< 20 weight %, corresponding to around 1,200 mAh/g)
was added to the graphite in order to achieve a consider-
ably higher capacity, and at the same time to limit
the problems of Si electrodes. A further focus was on
investigat­ing suitable binder materials and electrolytes
for Si-based anodes.
Cathode materials
advantages and disadvantages of the material are highly
dependent on the Ni portion. On the one hand, a higher Ni
portion increases the current rate ability and the capacity
of 160 mAh/g (33 % Ni) to over 200 mAh/g (80 % Ni). On
the other hand, the high Ni content leads to a reduction
in thermal stability and to numerous detrimental side re-
actions, particularly on the boundary area to the electro-
lytes, which decreases its lifetime. Nickel-rich cathode
materials are also extremely susceptible to reactions with
air humidity during cell production. For the commercial
implementation of Ni-rich NMC, there must be a lowering
of the reactivity of the particle surface, e.g. through sur-
face coatings or targeted doping of the material.

Compared to the anode, in which mainly graphite is used,

the situation with the cathode materials is considerably
more complex. The use of various lithium metal oxides in
particular, with differently compiled mixtures of the metals
cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminium, is currently in
line with the state of the art for car applications. The most Fig. 23 Dependency of the cell capacity on the capacity of the anode,
prominent representative of this material class is the assuming a cathode capacity of 135 mAh/g (lithium-cobalt oxide,
so-called “lithium-nickel-cobalt-manganese oxide” (NMC), LCO) or 200 mAh/g (lithium-nickel-cobalt-aluminium oxide, NCA)
which consists of the same proportions of the three Source: WWU/MEET
­metals (approx. 33 % Ni, 33 % Co and 33 % Mn), and has
a specific capacity of approx. 160 mAh/g. In order to im-
prove the energy density, two basic strategies are being 100
Capacity of the cell [mAh/g]

pursued for the cathode materials: on the one hand,

­increasing the operating potential and, thus, the cell 80
­voltage, and on the other hand, increasing the specific
capacity.
60

With regard to capacity increase, the so-called “Li-rich

NMC”, also known as “high energy NMC” (HE-NMC), has 40
attracted a great deal of attention in the car industry due
to its relatively high capacity of over 250 mAh/g. In order 20
to use HE-NMC for car applications, numerous perform­
ance properties, such as the low cycling stability, voltage
0
decrease and low electronic conductivity, still need to be 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
improved. This was also the aim, among other goals, of Capacity of the anode [mAh/g]
the alpha-Laion project mentioned above. Q cathode = Q cathode =
135 mAh/g (LCO) 200 mAh/g (NCA)
Nickel-rich NMC is currently regarded as being the most
promising candidate for use in PHEVs and EVs. Both the
16 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017
a) b)
Fig. 24 Post-lithium ion concepts: Lithium-sulphur (left) and all solid state battery (right)
Quelle: WWU/MEET
Electrolytes
Although the electrolyte is an important system component
of every battery cell, particularly as it reacts chemically
and electrochemically with many battery components, it
was treated with some disdain by researchers for a long
time. It is regarded by experts as being the “forgotten
­battery phase”. In general, the electrolyte takes on the
task of ion transportation, during which it also creates a
barrier, together with the separator, for the electron flow.
The central components of the electrolytes are the solvent,
the conductive salt and additives.
When compiling the ideal mixture, several parameters
are important, such as ionic conductivity, viscosity, flam-
mability (safety) and a broad electrochemical stability
window.
In commercial LIBs, lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6 )
is normally used as a conductive salt. It contributes to a
high ionic conductivity of the electrolytes, supports the
build-up of a highly effective SEI layer on the anode, and –
Fig. 25 Bipolar plate
Source: WWU/MEET
Copper current collector
Lithium-metal anode
SEI
Liquid electrolyte
Separator
Sulphur cathode
Solid electrolyte
Cathode material
Lithium ion
Aluminium current collector
very importantly – stabilises the aluminium current
­collector on the cathode against anodic dissolution. The
solvent generally consists of a mixture of different
­carbonates, which guarantee a high salt solubility and,
therefore, conductivity, while at the same time reducing
the viscosity of the electrolyte to a suitable level. Addi-
tives added in small quantities (< 5 weight %) are intend-
ed to contribute e.g. to improving the SEI layer formation
or the safety of the cell in the form of fire prevention or
overcharging protection means.
The use of high-voltage cathodes (with final charging po-
tentials > 4.3 V vs. Li/Li+) shows the oxidative limit of the
carbonate-based electrolytes, which makes it necessary
to develop new additives and solvents with increased
stability at high potentials. On the one hand, through the
use of high-voltage electrolyte additives, similar to the
function of the SEI on the anode, a protective layer needs
to be formed on the cathode, known as the cathode elec-
trolyte interphase (CEI), which suppresses the further ox-
idative decomposition of the electrolyte. On the other hand,
the search for alternative solvents, which per se have
­sufficient stability with high potentials, is the subject of
current research. The introduction of these alternatives is
hindered by various obstacles, including incompatibility
with the graphite anode or significantly higher costs than
for the standard electrolyte.
Alternative battery concepts
Alongside the established LIBs, new or alternative cell
concepts are being pursued in scientific research, includ-
ing in particular the Li-sulphur battery (Fig. 24, left), the
Li-air battery or the all solid state battery (Fig. 24, right).
In general, these concepts are also brought together un-
der the term “post-lithium ion technologies”. Before they
are applied in real life applications, they have to over-
come numerous hurdles, including the high reactivity of
metallic lithium, the low lifetime of the air or sulphur
cathode, as well as the increased costs and mechanical
and chemical compatibility of the solid electrolytes,
which still needs to be improved. Estimates as to which
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 17

In practice
Safely storing hydrogen
for vehicle applications

Fig. 26 Cryopressure storage of hydrogen for vehicle

applications (left) Source: BMW AG

Fig. 27 Pressure storage of hydrogen for vehicle

applications (top) Source: Roland Mösl, PEG
,

Stored hydrogen has emerged as the most suitable
variant for transporting fuels for fuel cells in road vehicles.
Various other concepts (such as methanol) were also tested.
The storage of hydrogen under pressure has now been devel-
oped and tested, and is ready for application for mobile use.
Compared to standard fuels based on mineral oil, car gas
(LPG – liquefied petroleum gas) or compressed natural gas
(CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG), hydrogen as a fuel
tends to present a lower hazard risk in the vehicle.
For many components, fuel cell technology in the vehicle
means constant contact with hydrogen. It is known that steel
and many other materials become brittle when exposed to
hydrogen over long periods of time. For this reason,
it must be guaranteed that all components which are
constantly in contact with hydrogen are durable and safe
during the working life of the vehicle.
The MatFuel research project focuses on the suitability
for use of system components in terms of their material.
The aim is to further develop the materials to create
lower-cost solutions, and to increase the reliability of
components (Fig. 28). As well as use in cars, hydrogen is
also being discussed as an energy source for broader
applications in the energy industry. The findings from
Voltage amplitude
The storage of liquid hydrogen under pressure is a combination
of liquid hydrogen and compressed hydrogen storage.
In the CryoComp research project, the car manufacturer BMW
has collaborated with technology partners, and a technically
mature and market-ready solution can be expected in the medium
term. The cryogenic pressurized hydrogen tank technology
stores up to 50 % more hydrogen in the vehicle tank compared
to the 700-bar technology. Within the scope of the project,
as well as finding a solution to the storage function from a
technical perspective, together with their partners MT Aerospace,
RUAG, Alvatec, Rotarex and BMW, researchers were also able to
achieve the qualification of suppliers for particularly important
components for this storage technology. The results show that
components for a cryogenic pressurized storage device (Fig. 26)
suitable for use in vehicles can be presented which meet the
requirements for longevity in vehicle operation, and can guarantee
the safe and stable operation.
Fig. 28 Procedure for the development and qualification of
hydrogen-exposed components
Source: Robert Bosch GmbH

the project can, therefore, be transferred to a wide range Fatigue strength Durability
of applications. Examples are supplying energy to small
devices and the cogeneration of power and heat of any
application size through to material research for seasonal
energy storage.
PA= 90 %
The tank technology used (Fig. 27) offers a high level of 50 %
safety, despite the enormous pressures of 350 bar and 700 bar.
10 %
It fulfils the requirements for use in road vehicles with regard
to its behaviour in the event of a crash, fire resistance and
passenger protection. As well as the already well-developed
compressed hydrogen storage, there is also the option of
pressureless storage of cryogenic liquid hydrogen. The 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8
unavoidable continuous heat influxes from the environment in Stress cycles
the cryo-tank container leads to what are known as “boil-off
Air Hydrogen in air in H2, pre-charged
losses”, however, i.e. the blowing off of evaporated hydrogen.
One solution to this problem in practice appears to have been in H2, uncharged, 10 Hz in H2, uncharged, 1 Hz
found through the cryogenic pressurized hydrogen storage. Flow Kt = 2, R = 0.1
18 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017
technology will prevail are constantly changing. However,
the rechargeable Li-air battery is now only considered to
have low prospects.
Material and components of fuel cells
In fuel cells, too, technology is focussed on the materials
and the components constructed from them. They are key
factors for the functionality and cost of the stacks or hy-
drogen tanks, as well as for the peripheral units. As well
as the MEA with the catalysts, the stack also contains the
bipolar plates as current collectors for absorbing and ar-
resting the electricity as an important technical compo-
nent, as well as an important cost factor.
Fig. 29 Layer formation over (a) coating with graphite-like
carbon (GLC) or (b) sequential plasma nitro-carburising (PNC)
Source: Daimler AG
Layer Base material
a) Coating process PVD, PACVD etc.
b) Diffusion process
Fig. 30 Change in volume resistance among different development materials for coated metallic and non-metallic bipolar plates
in the permanent stack application Source: Daimler AG
Volume resistance
Plasma nitro-carburising (PNC)
21 bipolar plates Test start Test end Threshold value
The bipolar plates are so named because the same plate
takes on two roles with the cells connected in series. On
the one hand, it carries the higher potential in relation to
the upstream bipolar plate, forms the positive pole for
the cell in question, and feeds the electrons for the relat-
ed cathode reaction. On the other, these electrons origi-
nate from the anode reaction of the downstream cells,
which there means the lower potential. On one side of
the plate, the cathode reaction, therefore, runs in relation
to the upstream cell, while on the other, the anode reac-
tion runs in relation to the downstream cell. The design of
the bipolar plates is a decisive factor for the function of
the fuel cell for arresting the electrons, as well as for sup-
plying and disposing of the gas flows to be transported to
and away from it (Fig. 25). The basic requirement for a
bipolar plate is that it has very good electronic conductiv-
ity, whereby here, both the transverse conductivity (via
the plate) and longitudinal conductivity (along the plate)
have to be taken into account. The permanent mainte-
nance of the cathode and anode reactions in the cells of
the stack demands the continuous supply of the elec-
trodes with hydrogen (for the anode reaction) or with air
(for the cathode reaction). This function of the good
surface-distributed feed and removal of the gaseous
­
­substances is secured by the bipolar plate with the aid
of the flow channels impressed in it. In the fuel cell, the
bipolar plates are exposed to constantly changing
electro­chemical conditions, and must be able to with-
stand them. Further, it is particularly true in the car sector
that components must be suitable for low-cost mass pro-
duction, and be recyclable as far as possible. This also
applies to all parts of the fuel cell.
Graphite-like carbon (GLC)

In practice
Bipolar plates
Within the mini-BIP, MatFuel and
CryoComp projects, which are funded
by the German Federal Ministry for
Economic Affairs and Energy, scientists
are looking to find answers to specific
questions regarding bipolar plates.
For example, as part of one project,
“mini-BIP – metallic bipolar plates
made of coated high-performance
materials”, corrosion-resistant carbon
fibre materials will be researched in
combined use with particularly highly
deformable metal in order to produce
bipolar plates.
As a basic material, the researchers
selected stainless steel, as it is easy
to process, for example for punching,
stamping and deep drawing to form
the flow channels. The other key
requirement is to provide sufficient
continuous electronic conductivity
under the corrosive conditions in the
interior of the fuel cell. Stainless steel
alone cannot fulfil this task without
further preparation. Due to the surface
corrosion processes, the transition
resistance of the bipolar plate increases,
and unacceptable voltage losses arise
as a result. In the mini-BIP project,
tests are being conducted as to how,
with a surface modification in the form
of an extremely thin, amorphous carbon
layer on the steel as base material,
the good properties of the corrosion-
resistant graphite can be combined
with those of the stainless steel.
Scientists hope to achieve this with
two different techniques: First, coating
graphite-like carbon with a layer
thickness of < 100 mm with a pulsed
vacuum arc, and second, with diffusive
layer formation on the plate surface
via plasma nitro-carburising over a
direct current glow discharging plasma
(Fig. 29). These two methods were
used in the fine vacuum, and brought
good results for a permanent low
volume resistance in the 1,000-hour
stack test (Fig. 30).
Attempts at forming with different
variants of the new material showed
that the coatings previously applied
have no significant influence over the
formability. During the course of the
project, a complete stack of 50 cells will
be constructed with the new material,
and will go into test operation. If this
test is successful, the path would be
clear for metallic bipolar plates which
are sufficiently corrosion-resistant and
easy to produce.
BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 19
Points of view
Which technology will drive us in the future:
batteries or fuel cells?
Professor Dr. rer. nat. habil.
Rüdiger-A. Eichel
Director of the Institute of Energy and Climate research (IEK-9:
Basic principles of electrochemistry) at the Research Centre Jülich,
and lecturer in materials and processes for electrochemical
energy storage systems and converters at the RWTH Aachen.
IN FAVOUR OF THE BATTERY: The suitability for practical use of
battery-driven electric cars has in the interim been demonstrated in daily
operation with great success. Compared to their competitor, the fuel cell
technology, batteries showed a charging/discharging efficiency of over 95 %.
In contrast, with H2 technologies, 50 % losses already occur during the
conversion of power to H2 . There are also losses in efficiency which arise
during reconversion, so that only around 25 % of the original primary
energy remains for mobility, not taking into account further losses such
as H2 cooling and compression, H2 transport to the filling stations, etc.
If one now takes the EU energy mix as a basis, this means considerably
greater CO2 emissions that arise through fuel cell cars.
On the other hand, with the all solid-state battery, particularly promising
new-style rechargeable batteries are being researched which promise
considerably improved safety, high energy density and a longer lifetime.
In addition to the high potential for avoiding harmful emissions,
this provides another argument for increasing market penetration.
The often quoted limited range of battery-driven cars is no longer
a key argument. With the new Honda Clarity, a range of around 480 km
is given according to the EPA standard. Compared with this,
a Tesla Model S reaches 430 km according to the same standard;
therefore, the 85 kWh rechargeable battery in the Tesla only needs
to be enlarged by 10 kWh in order to achieve this range.
Professor Dr. rer. nat. habil.
Jürgen Garche
The electrochemist is a senior professor at the University of Ulm
and runs the FCBAT consulting bureau. His published works
include the “Encyclopaedia of Electrochemical Power Sources”.
IN FAVOUR OF THE FUEL CELL: The first fuel cell (FC) was already presented
in 1839, around 30 years before the first rechargeable lead-acid battery.
However, the FC has only now beginning to be established on the market,
which is an indication of how difficult commercialisation has been. This is
due above all to the high costs, essentially of the platinum catalysts and
H2 tanks. Following intensive research and development work, it has been
possible in the last 20 years, however, to reach the upper cost range of
conventional competitor technologies.
If one takes approximate equal costs in the medium term, FC are preferred
over batteries whenever longer operating durations (which is possible with
the FC without drastic weight gains due to the larger H2 tank) and very short
charging and fuelling times are needed, as has been the case to date
with petrol or diesel. However, the FC technology must penetrate the
market over the coming 10 years (window of opportunity); otherwise,
the battery will become the dominant technology.
20 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Electric cars
influence the grid
When electric cars are connected to
the power grid, they can be combined to
form virtual storage power plants. These take
in excess energy and feed it back into the grid
when necessary, when the demand for electricity
exceeds supply. This is known as the
“vehicle-to-grid concept”.

Series-produced electric cars can already take up to 90 kWh
of electrical energy from the grid for each charging proce-
dure. With a large electric vehicle fleet, the impact on the
power grid is considerable. Then, these have to be taken
particularly into account when several vehicles are charged
simultaneously in a parking block. If there is a lack of co-
ordination, this can lead to problems with grid stability.
A sample calculation: if 12 vehicles à 90 kWh are charged
at the same time in one hour, this leads to a charge ca-
pacity in the megawatt range. If they are coordinated in
terms of time, intelligent vehicles can negotiate the
charging process with the grid and even stabilise it.
For the use of electricity in road traffic, demands are
­frequently made for the electricity to come purely from
­renewable sources, i.e. from excess electricity from solar
and wind energy farms. However, there are limits to this
due to the grids available in reality, since currently, the
grids only offer limited opportunities for integrating the
excess of renewable energies.
Grid bottlenecks and charging times
What is the overall effect of electromobility on the energy
system and on the potential for preventing CO2? In various
research projects, such as the NET-ELAN, NET-INES, On-Board-
Metering and komDrive projects funded by the BMWi,
­scientists have obtained interesting results with regard to
this set of problems.
In the NET-ELAN project, scientists discovered that electric
vehicles driven with wind power, such as battery electric
vehicles (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) or
range-extender electric vehicles (REEV) can prevent up to
70 % of the emissions of a comparable combustion engine
vehicle. But why is the anticipated share of 100 % not
achieved? The reason lies in the annual mileage of small
BEVs, which is only very low. These cars have a particular
driving profile and system conditions, and on average,
only reach a mileage of around 9,000 km per year. By con-
trast, the average fleet value for comparable cars with
combustion engines is 12,500 km per year. The difference
of 3,500 km per year and vehicle is not simply deducted
as a transport requirement, however, but must be covered
by a combustion engine vehicle. For this reason, an
­electric car introduced into the overall system cannot
reach the 100 % substitution value for a combustion
­engine car. It is also still surprising that the savings value
of a BEV of 70 % can even be slightly exceeded when e.g.
a PHEV with 54 % electrical driving proportion and an an-
nual mileage of 12,500 km is contrasted with it, or even a
REEV with a 68 % share of electrical driving proportions.
The different drive concepts described above have different
characteristic values with regard to their energy require-
ment, and in connection with this, have a different impact
on the CO2 or greenhouse gas levels (Fig. 33).
For estimates regarding the CO2 emission reduction through
electric vehicles, the existing possibilities of the distribu-
tion grid also need to be taken into account – particularly
with regard to favourable charging times, and preferably
with excess wind power. If charging is organised in such a
way that it takes place during the typical low load periods
in the grid, between 12 midnight and 6 am, this has a
positive effect on the power generation system and wind
power usage.
The results of the NET-ELAN research project show that for
the scenario year 2030, a share of between 44 and 57 %
of the charging requirement for electromobility can be
covered by wind power. However, this is not the case when
charging occurs at other times of the day than those named
above, since then, the load on the grid is greater – even
without coupled in electric vehicles – and the excess
wind power level is lower as a result. With the existing
transport capacities of the transmission grids, which at
times create a bottleneck, a current share of maximum 8 %
of the excess wind energy can additionally be integrated
through controlled charging. Even if electric vehicles were
already available in sufficient numbers, they could currently
only contribute a small share of renewable energies for
grid integration. With targeted grid expansion and the
corresponding charge controlling, however, the integra-
tion of excess wind energy through electric vehicles could
be increased to up to 24 %.
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 21

200
Greenhouse gas emissions in millions of tonnes CO2 equivalent [t CO2e]

Forecasts by the German Federal Environment Agency until 2015

180
Base value 1990

160

140

120
–40 % over 1990
100

80

60
–80 %
40 over 1990

Reduction target for greenhouse gas

20 emissions over all
sectors, National Energy Concept 2010

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

Cars on road Air2

Other modes of transport
Commercial vehicles on road1 Water3 Rail
1
Light and heavy commercial vehicles, buses and travel buses 2
National air traffic 3
Coastal and inland shipping

Fig. 31 Greenhouse gas emissions in millions of tonnes CO2 equivalent according to means of transport from 1990 to 2015,
including forecast by 2050 Source: dena

As well as the influences on the transmission grids, which
bring high-voltage power from the place of generation to
the regions, there are also interactions between electric
vehicles and the regional low-voltage grid, on which
charging procedure is largely conducted. There, it must
always be ensured that the electric voltage is kept con-
stant, and the power load in the lines is not exceeded.
This is difficult when a large number of electric vehicles
are charged at the same time. Thus, for example, with
today’s grid design, only around 2 % of all cars can be
electric vehicles, if these all want to charge up at the
same time, and at peak load, and from the plug socket at
home. If, however, charging is postponed until during the
night, on the grid side, around 12 % of all cars can be
electric vehicles without supply problems arising in the
distribution grid. This makes it clear that with the
assumed shares of 3 % electric vehicles in the year 2020
and 18 % in 2030, the controlled charging of electric ve-
hicles is necessary, also taking into account vehicle use.
In other words, not everyone can simply charge up their
car at home whenever they want.
As part of the NET-INES project, researchers investigated
the willingness to cooperate among car drivers with re-
gard to the grid integration of electromobility. Here, the
focus was on the willingness among stakeholders such
as vehicle owners to also provide a flexibility of the drive
battery for the absorption of energy and the discharge
of energy in the standing vehicle for grid services
(vehicle-to-grid, V2G). In the survey of 611 selected indi-
viduals who already have experience of using electric cars,
it became clear that those with a particularly open-mind-
ed personal attitude to renewable energies are more will-
ing to make their electric vehicle available to V2G as a
concept. This essentially involves grid-favourable, time-
displaced charging according to specific criteria. This is in
contrast to uncontrolled charging, in which the electric
vehicle is simply plugged in after the journey and charged
until the battery is full. It emerges that 75 % of those
questioned use uncontrolled charging, although 57 %
also use controlled charging. Reservations with regard to
controlled charging arise from not having a fully charged
car at any time, or the risk of greater wear on the expen-
sive drive battery due to the more frequent power intake
and power discharge of the electric vehicle into the grid.
As an incentive for cooperation, power used for driving
could be made cheaper. There are assumptions that car
drivers would act in a similarly price-oriented way, as is
currently the case with the search for lower-cost petrol
stations. This would mean a cooperative attitude in the
22 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

Size class GK1 GK2 GK3 GK4 Articulated lorries

Perm. total weight [t] [0 ; 3.5 t] [3.5 t ; 7.5 t] [7.5 t ; 12 t] [12 t ; 26 t] [40 t]
ø annual mileage
[km/a] approx. 13 tsd. approx. 27 tsd. approx. 66 tsd. approx. 74 tsd. approx. 106 tsd.
Stocks
[veh.] approx. 2 mio. approx. 262 tsd. approx. 77 tsd. approx. 161 tsd. approx. 183 tsd
Mileage
[veh.-km/a] 26 bill. 7.1 bill. 5.1 bill. 11.9 bill. 19.4 bill.
CO2 emission
TTW [g/veh.-km] 185 371 526 732 1,028
CO2 emission
TTW [mio. tCO2 /a] 4.81 2.63 2.68 8.71 19.94

potenzielle BEV / PHEV

strombasierte Fuel cell
Potential
Antriebs- Power-to-methane
electricity-based
drive technologies
technologien Power-to-liquid
Hybrid trolley truck

Fig. 32 Forecast use of electricity-based drive technologies in heavy goods traffic

Source: Fraunhofer ISI, Prof. Wietschel

sense of V2G usage. More recent investigations indicate
that the future drive batteries will in all cases be suffi-
ciently robust for V2G usage. The user survey also shows
that drivers of electric cars are at first glad not to have to
drive their vehicle to petrol stations any more. However,
they do not want to find themselves in a new type of
­complex situation through ancillary management of their
­vehicle battery, e.g. by their electricity supplier.
cle. Wherever there is access to a power line, a new
charging point can be set up with relatively simple refitt­
ing for accepting the car charging plug. In this way,
the many power supply options already available – for
example for street lamps – can also be used for electro-
mobility at a low added cost. This makes charging electric
cars flexible and easy.

How electromobility can be realised with its individual
requirements, while using power connections provided
everywhere, regardless of location, is demonstrated by
scientists in the On-Board-Metering II project. In the
study, two to four charging points were provided for each
vehicle in order to charge whenever the vehicles are
parked somewhere. Through the addition of these extra
charging points, the opportunity of interim charging
­arises in the region in question. This not only increases
the radius within which the vehicles can be used, but
also improves their local grid integration. As they can be
recharged using several charging options at several
points, and therefore in smaller doses, a better spatial
and time distribution of the charging process emerges
overall, and in the distribution network, several vehicles
can charge up at the same time.
The researchers of the On-Board-Metering II project use
an innovative concept for the technical implementation
of the many charging points, for an efficient charging
infrastructure and for the calculation methods of the
­ share of emissions in commercial traffic overall is caused
charged power quantity. The measuring and cost charg-
ing technology that makes the charging stations and
charging points so expensive and large-volume is simply
moved to a smart charging cable transported in the vehi-
Reducing urban emissions and noise
A particular advantage of electromobility is the almost
zero-emission operation on site, particularly in cities
where a high traffic load conjoins with a large number of
people. Around 30 % of the total passenger road traffic,
and around 25 % of road goods traffic, is to be found on
roads within conurbations, and the corresponding share
of emissions also fall on urban areas (Fig. 31). Although
commercial traffic creates fewer emissions in cities than
individual traffic, it is also worth taking a look at the
­possible relieving impact on commercial traffic through
the expansion of electromobility.
In general, a significant increase in urban commercial
traffic is anticipated for the coming decades. Currently,
diesel drives are primarily used in inner-city commercial
traffic. As well as CO2 and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions,
the particle emissions and noise in particular is felt to be
particularly objectionable in inner-city areas. The main
by vehicles with a permitted total weight of over 3.5 t. In
contrast to individual traffic, however, commercial traffic
is not so easy to develop for use with electric drives. Very
heavy vehicles such as articulated lorries are likely to
 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017 23

continue to be driven by combustion engines for a long
time to come. Additionally, commercial vehicles are always
competing commercially with each other, have a higher
individual energy requirement and energy reserve, and in
contrast to private cars, lower standstill times are desired.
In fact, time taken out for recharging is almost wholly
­unacceptable. The potential for electric drives in heavy
goods traffic is shown in Figure 32.
there would be added exploitation of already existing
­capacities. The supply of renewable energies to the trans-
port sector overall (target: 40 % by 2050) is an important
driver for the use of electric vehicles in road traffic. In order
to achieve this goal, urban commercial traffic must also
be incorporated into electrification.

For an analysis of the emissions and electrification in

­cities, it is sufficient to consider only the lighter weight
classes of commercial vehicles. Articulated lorries
play only an insignificant role in terms of their number.
The komDrive project is investigating what the impact of
electrification might specifically be on inner-city commer-
cial traffic. There, the key question is what framework
conditions are particularly favourable for using electric
vehicles in local goods traffic, in ecological and economic
terms. Studies are also being conducted as to which
­synergies might emerge with other areas, particularly
electricity management. The basis for the considerations
was, among other things, data from 256 driving cycles of
­various commercial vehicles, from cars to 12 t lorries. The
results show that the contribution made by a successive
transition to electric drives in inner-city commercial traffic
through to the end of the observation period would only
Fig. 33 Above: Wheel-to-wheel energy requirement of petrol,
diesel and battery electric vehicles in comparison, and calculations
in the NET-ELAN project (according to the Joint Research Center,
EURCAR & Concawe, 2011)
Below: Greenhouse gas balance of petrol, diesel and battery electric
vehicles in comparison (according to the Joint Research Center,
EURCAR & Concawe, 2011) and calculations from the NET-ELAN project
Source: Ford Forschungszentrum Aachen, Heiko Maas
Petrol engines: 5.9 l/100 km
Diesel engines: 4.2 l/100 km
BEV: 143 Wh/km (all NEV)
Energy requirement of the vehicles, incl. pre-chain
Fossil primary energy requirement [MJ/km]

have a moderate impact on reducing CO2 and NOx emis- 2.5

sions. The analysis of the data from driving profiles in
commercial traffic clearly shows that today, around 70 % 2.0
of all journeys could already be covered by the electric
cars currently available. In the medium term, however, 1.5
only less than 10 % of electrically driven journeys can
be anticipated in reality. This is due not only to the lack 1.0
of suitable commercial vehicles on offer, but also to
the limiting conditions of the existing power distribution 0.5
grid. With regard to the grid, the maximum possible share
of electric vehicles, even with controlled charging, lies 0
only in the lower percentage range of around 10 %. It is Petrol Diesel BEV BEV
likely to take until beyond 2030 until both an adequate EU mix coal
number of vehicles are made available for commercial
Petrol Diesel BEV BEV
traffic, and the grid has been expanded to the extent that E10 B7 wind gas
a considerably larger share of electric vehicles can be
­integrated.
Greenhouse gas level of the vehicles, incl. pre-chain
Further results from the komDrive project make it clear
that the energy procurement costs for electric vehicles
Greenhouse gas emissions [CO2/km]

180
can be reduced by up to 13 % against purely needs- 160
oriented charging through cost-optimised charging strat- 140
egies. The use of specific charging strategies also has a
120
positive effect on the potential share of electric vehicles
100
that the grid could still support. However, the fundamen-
tal problem of insufficient grid capacities for many elec- 80
tric vehicles on the grid remain, and cannot be resolved 60
through charging strategies. An energy system model for 40
Germany shows that the anticipated share of electric 20
­vehicles in commercial traffic will not lead to a significant
0
impact on the energy supply system in Germany overall
Petrol Diesel BEV BEV BEV
by 2030. Through the use of electric cars, the entire EU mix wind gas
­primary energy consumption will only be reduced by a
small degree compared to today. The use of mineral oil Petrol Diesel BEV BEV
E10 B7 DE mix coal
products specifically would be reduced by approx. 10 %
in relation to overall traffic. According to the research re- Pre-chain Use
sults, the successive electrification of urban commercial
traffic requires no added power plant capacity; instead,
24 BINE-Themeninfo I/2017

The mobility of tomorrow Imprint

Project organisation
The German National Platform for Electric Mobility (NPE) anticipates that German Federal Ministry
battery costs will continue to decrease significantly by 2025. At the same time, for Economic Affairs and Energy
conventional vehicles will become more expensive due to emissions standards. 11019 Berlin

Then, at the latest, electric vehicles will become competitive. Such a forecast is Germany
also based on the anticipated continued improvement of the Li-ion cells. Currently, Project Management Jülich
this technology has fundamental advantages over alternative cell technologies: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH

high reliability, longevity and high energy density. For this reason, this system is 52425 Jülich

highly likely to dominate both the high-end battery market for portable devices Germany
and car applications for many more years to come.
Project number
Over the next few years, battery research will significantly further improve 03ET2042A
energy density. The battery experts agree that in terms of materials, further energy 03ET2044A,B
density increases are possible with Li-ions, even doubling of the current levels. In 03ET2045A-C
addition to improved cell chemistries, they anticipate optimised cell, module and 03ET2051A-E
system components. One thing appears to be clear from today’s perspective: 03ET2058
there will not only be just one technology for all applications, but different battery 03ET4005A-C
systems that are particularly suited to one specific application, or which can be 03ET4007A-D
combined for the purpose. 03ET4012A
03ET6004A-E
The market prospects for fuel cell (FC) vehicles depends strongly on their 03ET6007 A-H
technical development at the vehicle level. In addition, there is the problem of 03ET6038
building up hydrogen supply systems in the car market regions, in order to create 0327862A-C
market prospects for the vehicles. An important step forward for FC technology is 0327889A,B
the transfer of stack production to mass manufacture. New catalyst developments 0328004A-E
are aimed at reducing the dependency on platinum. The storage technology for 03BV240
hydrogen in the vehicle must be improved in order to further increase the energy
density. Regardless of all the progress that has been made, both battery and FC ISSN
technologies can only bring the full benefit of their ecological advantages if hydrogen 1610-8302
and charging power are produced sustainably and efficiently. These preconditions Publisher
have been provided through the energy transition. The hybridisation of battery FIZ Karlsruhe · Leibniz Institute
and hydrogen storage systems and FC drive concepts appears to be highly promising for Information Infrastructure GmbH
when synergies can be created in their combination. One thing is clear: The obvious Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1
synergy potential can only be enhanced by intensifying the systematic and systemic 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen
research and development work. Germany

Concept: iserundschmidt GmbH, Bonn – Berlin, Germany · Design KERSTIN CONRADI · Mediengestaltung, Berlin, Germany
Contact · Info
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Themeninfo brochure?
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Links +49 228 92379-44
>> Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology (MEET) at
kontakt@bine.info
Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster | www.uni-muenster.de/MEET
>> NEXT ENERGY – EWE-Forschungszentrum für Energietechnologie e. V. BINE Information Service
www.next-energy.de Energy research for application
>> National Organisation Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology (NOW GmbH) A service from FIZ Karlsruhe
www.now-gmbh.de Kaiserstraße 185-197
>> Bundesverband eMobilität | www.bem-ev.de 53113 Bonn, Germany
>> German National Platform for Electric Mobility www.bine.info
nationale-plattform-elektromobilitaet.de

More from BINE Information Service

>> Thermoelectrics: electricity from waste heat. BINE-Themeninfo brochure I/2016
>> Low-emission energy supplies at truck stops. BINE-Projektinfo brochure 02/2013
>> On-board power supply with fuel cells. BINE-Projektinfo brochure 10/2011


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