EEE 6002 Photovoltaic System Design: Solar Radiation Measurement

5/20/2017
EEE 6002
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM DESIGN
Lecture 3
Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan
Professor
Dept. of EEE, BUET
Solar Radiation Measurement

Solar radiation can be accurately measured solely on the horizontal
plane, though obtaining such measurements on the solar generator
plane is no easy matter. The key sensors that are used for such
measurements are
• Pyranometers
• Reference Cells
Pyranometers
Pyranometers are composed of a thermopile comprising a large

number of series-connected thermocouples. The black receiver at
the tip of a thermocouple absorbs a broad band of total irradiated
energy in the 300nm< γ <3 μm wavelength spectrum
Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET
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Solar Radiation Measurement

Pyranometers
A double hemispheric glass dome prevents additional reflection on
the glass at small angles of incidence and helps avert condensation
on the glass under unfavourable temperature to moisture ratios.
A pyranometer’s output voltage is exactly proportional to
irradiance, but is relatively weak since the voltage generated by
thermocouples is extremely low. With G=1 kW/m2, the output
voltage of a typical commercial pyranometer is around 5mV.
Pyranometer sensitivity gradually decreases (of the order of tenths
of a per cent per year), these devices should be calibrated every two
years in settings where extreme accuracy is needed.
Reference Cells
Reference cells are precisely calibrated silicon

solar cells that are used to measure radiation
and are well packed to protect them from the
environment.
They are considerably less expensive than pyranometers. Short-

circuit current in a solar cell can safely be assumed to be
proportional to the irradiance G that occurs at the reference cell
Unlike pyranometers, solar cells only use a portion of the solar

spectrum, i.e. photons whose energy exceeds the band gap energy
EG
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Pyranometer Versus Reference Cell Measurements
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2011/02/when-to-use-a-pyranometer-vs-a-reference-cell.html
Solar Cells
Edmond Becquerel: In 1839, at age 19,
experimenting in his father's laboratory, Becquerel
created the world's first photovoltaic cell.
Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect—in
1905, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921
Russell Shoemaker
Ohl patented the
modern junction
semiconductor solar
cell in 1946.
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Solar Cells
A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight
into electricity. Light shining on the solar cell produces both a
current and a voltage to generate electric power.
The basic steps in the operation of a
solar cell are:
• the generation of light-generated
carriers;
• The collection of the light-generated
carries to generate a current;
• The generation of a large voltage
across the solar cell; and
• The dissipation of power in the load
and in parasitic resistances.
The generation of current in a solar cell is known as the "light-
generated current"
Collection Probability
The "collection probability" describes the probability that a carrier
generated by light absorption in a certain region of the device will
be collected by the p-n junction and therefore contribute to the
light-generated current.
Probability depends on the distance that a light-generated carrier must

travel compared to the diffusion length. Collection probability also
depends on the surface properties of the device.
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Quantum efficiency
The "quantum efficiency" (Q.E.) is the ratio of the number of
carriers collected by the solar cell to the number of photons of a
given energy incident on the solar cell.
The quantum efficiency may be given either as a function of
wavelength or as energy. If all photons of a certain wavelength are
absorbed and the resulting minority carriers are collected, then the
quantum efficiency at that particular wavelength is unity.
Spectral Response
The spectral response is the ratio of the current generated by the
solar cell to the power incident on the solar cell.
The spectral response is conceptually similar to the quantum
efficiency.
The spectral response decreases at small photon wavelengths. At

these wavelengths, each photon has a large energy, and hence the
ratio of photons to power is reduced.
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The photovoltaic effect

The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise
to power generation. In order to generate power, a voltage must be
generated as well as a current. Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a
process known as the "photovoltaic effect".
If the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar

cell, then the collection of light-generated carriers causes an
increase in the number of electrons on the n-type side of the p-n
junction and a similar increase in holes in the p-type material.
Under open circuit conditions, the forward bias of the junction

increases to a point where the light-generated current is exactly
balanced by the forward bias diffusion current, and the net current
is zero. The voltage required to cause these two currents to balance
is called the "open-circuit voltage".
The photovoltaic effect

The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise
to power generation. In order to generate power, a voltage must be
generated as well as a current. Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a
process known as the "photovoltaic effect".
If the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar

cell, then the collection of light-generated carriers causes an
increase in the number of electrons on the n-type side of the p-n
junction and a similar increase in holes in the p-type material.
Under open circuit conditions, the forward bias of the junction

increases to a point where the light-generated current is exactly
balanced by the forward bias diffusion current, and the net current
is zero. The voltage required to cause these two currents to balance
is called the "open-circuit voltage".
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Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

A non-irradiated solar cell is a standard semiconductor diode that
allows forward current to flow from the p-side to the n-side if the
voltage is directed from p to n via the diode.
When the diode is exposed to light, photocurrent IPh is also

generated that is proportional to irradiance G and flows from the n-
side to the p-side.
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An added series resistance RS and parallel resistance RP are added
for losses
In addition to the single-diode model discussed above, the two-

diode model is also used.
Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

The characteristic curve of an irradiated solar cell exhibits the same form
as that of a non-irradiated cell and is simply shifted by ISC in the negative
current direction by virtue of the fact that photocurrent and diode current
flow in opposite directions. The solar cell consumes power in quadrants
1 and 3, but it generates power when the cell is operated in quadrant 4.
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The short-circuit current is proportional to irradiance, whereas open-
circuit voltage increases only slightly as irradiance rises. This also
means that solar cell voltage can be quite high even in the presence of
very low irradiance

Power is also a key parameter since solar cells are used to produce
electrical energy. Power is determined by multiplying current by
voltage.. At a defined point known as the maximum power point
(MPP), a solar cell reaches its maximum power and thus the value
Pmax=PMPP
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The fill factor for commercially available solar cells ranges from
around 60 to 80%, while this factor for lab cells can go as high as
about 85%.

Under extremely low irradiance conditions, the voltage flowing through
the parallel resistance RP weighs more heavily on balance and results in
an additional voltage reduction at the solar cell. On account of this
reduced VMPP in the presence of low irradiance and the current flowing
through RP, solar cell efficiency is also lower in such situations.
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In Si solar cells, open-circuit voltage decreases as temperature
increases, by around 2 to 2.4 mV/K. The fill factor likewise
decreases as temperature rises, the FF temperature coefficient is
roughly 0.15% per K)
Short-circuit current increases only slightly as temperature rises (the ISC

temperature coefficient is only about +0.04 to +0.05% per K), power
Pmax at the MPP also decreases as temperature increases. For crystalline
silicon solar cells, the temperature coefficient cT for Pmax ranges from
about -0.4 to -0.5% per K
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Solar Cell Efficiency

Only those photons whose energy, E=hλ, exceeds the band gap
energy EG of the semiconductor material being used can generate
an electron–hole pair. Hence only a portion of this energy can be
used.
The AM1.5 solar spectrum (1 kW/m2, top curve), along with the usable energy
delivered by each semiconductor material
The air mass coefficient defines the direct optical path length
through the Earth's atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the
path length vertically upwards, i.e. at the zenith.
The air mass coefficient can be used to help characterize the solar
spectrum after solar radiation has travelled through the atmosphere.
The spectrum outside the atmosphere, approximated by the 5,800 K
black body, is referred to as "AM0", meaning "zero atmospheres". Solar
cells used for space power applications, like those on communications
satellites are generally characterized using AM0.
The spectrum after travelling through the atmosphere to sea level with
the sun directly overhead is referred to, by definition, as "AM1".
AM 1.5 representing the spectrum at mid-latitudes i.e. a solar zenith
angle of z=48.2°
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Solar Cell Efficiency

Assuming that an ideal solar cell material is available that can
separate each of these electron–hole pairs, the maximum possible
current density Jmax=JSCmax can be determined for such an ideal
solar cell, based on the number of photons per area unit:
If EG is low, then virtually all photons will generate electrons and

current density Jmax will be high.
However, the energy released per electron EG will be low, and thus VPh
will likewise be low. It therefore follows that spectral efficiency in the
ideal solar cell will be low. In the presence of elevated EG values, only a
minute proportion of the photons will be able to generate an electron, and
thus current density Jmax will decrease to a low value. As EG is high, also
VPh is high. Therefore spectral efficiency in the presence of high EG
values is likewise low owing to the low current density. The optimum
lies somewhere in between.
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Spectral energy absorption in a

crystalline silicon solar cell. Photons
with unduly low energy, hν<EG
(λ>1.11 mm), are not absorbed by the
semiconductor material, and thus
their energy is unusable. In photons
where hν>EG, the difference, hν-EG ,
is likewise unusable and is converted
into heat in the semiconductor
material. In this ideal solar cell, only
the energy represented by the
vertically hatched area can be
converted into electrical energy
For the AM1.5 spectrum, which is important for terrestrial applications,
efficiency ηS for mean EG values is several per cent higher, by virtue of the fact
that, irradiance G being equal, the infrared portion of this spectrum contains
somewhat less energy that is usable for a solar cell, relative to the AM0
spectrum. For the same reasons as for Jmax, the ηS curve for the AM1.5 spectrum
is more irregular than for the AM0 spectrum.
Theoretical Efficiency
where FFi is the idealized fill factor and SF=VOC/VPh is the voltage
factor.
Hence, to achieve maximum efficiency ηT, open-circuit voltage VOC and

thus voltage factor SF need to be as high as possible. According to
Equation, saturation current IS needs to be as low as possible for a high
open-circuit voltage VOC.
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Theoretical Efficiency
Hence semiconductor materials whose EG ranges from around 0.8

to 2.1 eV are particularly well suited for use in solar cells. The roughly
1.1 to 1.6 eV range is particularly suitable by virtue of the fact that
theoretical efficiency ηT in the AM1.5 spectrum is likely to be upwards
of 28%. Indium phosphide (InP) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) have
almost exactly the right EG values for such applications, but crystalline
silicon also works very well by virtue of its 1.12 eV and ηT of 28.5%.
As with spectral efficiency

ηS, theoretical efficiency ηT
for the AM1.5 spectrum is
several percentage points
higher than for the AM0
spectrum, owing to
somewhat lower infrared
content
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Practical Efficiency ηPV

The practical efficiency differs from theoretical efficiency due to
Reflection loss at the solar cell surface: Light trapping in a c-Si solar
cell: solar cell reflection loss is reduced and solar cell light absorption is
improved through the use of suitably designed (i.e. textured) surfaces
and reflective back contacts. In this process, incident light is refracted at
the solar cell surface in such a way that it traverses the silicon at an
angle, is reflected on the back, and is captured by the silicon to the
maximum possible extent via total reflection. The multiple light
reflections thus achieved in the cell elongate the light path and allow for
full absorption of virtually all photons. This in turn means that solar cells
can be considerably thinner, i.e. recombination is reduced using the same
material quality and material use is also reduced.

Recombination loss: In some materials, silicon being one of them,
photon penetration depth is determined by wavelength. Hence not all
electron–hole pairs separated by the internal photoelectric effect are
generated in or near the space charge zone, where they can be separated
by the field instantaneously.
By application of a more heavily doped coating (p+) just in front of the
back contact, a back-area field (BSF) and thus a potential barrier are
created that deflect electrons away from the solar cell area, where they
are particularly prone to recombination.
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Self-shading attributable to opaque front electrodes: Front electrode
optimization through the use of buried contact cells (inserting front
contacts in grooves made using lasers) can reduce self-shading loss from
opaque front electrodes by a considerable amount (normally by up to
several percentage points).
Ohmic loss in semiconductor materials: RS and RP in the equivalent
circuit result in solar cell ohmic loss, which in c-Si solar cells can be
reduced in the n-zone via relatively high doping (n+).
Lower efficiency attributable to
temperature: As with Pmax efficiency ηPV
declines with rising temperature, whereby
the characteristic value for the temperature
coefficient of c-Si solar cell efficiency is -
0.004 to -0.005 per K.

Solar cell efficiency is an extremely important parameter for PV system
operation. Efficiency levels exceeding those of commercially available
products by several percentage points have been achieved in laboratory
settings.
A key factor for commercially available solar cells is not only high
efficiency, but also a reasonable price. It is no easy matter to integrate all
available efficiency optimization technologies into an industrial
production process at a reasonable cost
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Efficiency Optimization Methods

Optimized Concentration of Sunlight
Optical concentration of sunlight can somewhat optimize solar cell
efficiency still further. However, to do this it is necessary to increase
doping so that the series resistance of such a concentrator cell remains
sufficiently low. In addition, inasmuch as the absolute value of non-
converted radiant power increases as irradiance rises, it is essential that
such solar cells be cooled. Moreover, only direct beam radiation can be
used for the optical concentration of sunlight.
Efficiency Optimization Methods

Tandem and Triple Solar Cells
Thin-layer solar cells (i.e. cells that are only a few micrometres thick)
made of semiconductor materials with differing band gap energy EG can
be stacked. If EG for each junction is defined in such a way that the front
solar cell (i.e. the cell facing the Sun) has the highest EG and the back
cell the lowest, the energy from the photons not absorbed by the front
layers can be used by the layers that are further back, since photons with
hν<EG simply pass through semiconductor material. This of course
increases the spectral efficiency of the entire arrangement.
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Efficiency Limits – Onwards and Upwards?

The efficiency limits are based on a concept that has been widely
accepted for decades, to the effect that each photon generates only a
single electron–hole pair.
Shockley–Queisser limit: the Shockley–Queisser limit or detailed
balance limit refers to the maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar
cell using a p-n junction to collect power from the cell.
The limit places maximum solar conversion efficiency around 33.7%
assuming a single p-n junction with a band gap of 1.34 eV (using an
AM 1.5 solar spectrum)
The most popular solar cell material, silicon, has a less favourable
band gap of 1.1 eV, resulting in a maximum efficiency of 29%.
Modern commercial mono-crystalline solar cells produce about 22%
conversion efficiency, the losses due largely to practical concerns like
reflection off the front surface and light blockage from the thin wires
on its surface.
Efficiency Limits – Onwards and Upwards?

It is important to note that the analysis of Shockley and Queisser was
based on the following assumptions:
• One electron–hole pair excited per incoming photon
• Thermal relaxation of the electron–hole pair energy in excess
of the band gap
• Illumination with unconcentrated sunlight
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockley%E2%80%93Queisser_limit
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Most Important Types of Solar Cells

Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
Crystalline silicon photovoltaics is the most widely used photovoltaic
technology. Crystalline silicon photovoltaics are modules built using
crystalline silicon solar cells (c-Si), developed from the
microelectronics technology industry.
Crystalline silicon solar cells have high efficiency, making crystalline
silicon photovoltaics an interesting technology where space is at a
premium.
Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Solar cells
made of monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si), also
called single-crystalline silicon (single-crystal-
Si), are quite easily recognizable by an external
even coloring and uniform look, indicating high-
purity silicon
Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Advantages
• Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since
they are made out of the highest-grade silicon. The efficiency rates
of monocrystalline solar panels are typically 15-20%.
• Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since
these solar panels yield the highest power outputs, they also
require the least amount of space compared to any other types.
Monocrystalline solar panels produce up to four times the amount
of electricity as thin-film solar panels.
• Monocrystalline solar panels live the longest. Most solar panel
manufacturers put a 25-year warranty on their monocrystalline
solar panels.
• Tend to perform better than similarly rated polycrystalline solar
panels at low-light conditions.
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Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
Disadvantages
• Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive.
• If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the
entire circuit can break down. Consider getting micro-inverters
instead of central string inverters if you think coverage will be a
problem. Micro-inverters will make sure that not the entire solar
array is affected by shading issues with only one of the solar panels.
• The Czochralski process is used to produce monocrystalline silicon.
It results in large cylindrical ingots. Four sides are cut out of the
ingots to make silicon wafers. A significant amount of the original
silicon ends up as waste.
Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

The first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is
known as polysilicon (p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si),
were introduced to the market in 1981. Unlike monocrystalline-based
solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not require the
Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square
mold, which is cooled and cut into perfectly square wafers.
Advantages
• The process used to make polycrystalline silicon is simpler and
cost less. The amount of waste silicon is less compared to
monocrystalline.
• Polycrystalline solar panels tend to have better heat tolerance than
monocrystalline solar panels.
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Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
Disadvantages
• The efficiency of polycrystalline-based solar panels is typically 13-
16%.
• Lower space-efficiency. Generally need to cover a larger surface
to output the same electrical power as would with a solar panel
made of monocrystalline silicon. However, this does not mean
every monocrystalline solar panel perform better than those based
on polycrystalline silicon.
• Monocrystalline and thin-film solar panels tend to be more
aesthetically pleasing since they have a more uniform look
compared to the speckled blue color of polycrystalline silicon.
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EEE 6002 Photovoltaic System Design: Solar Radiation Measurement

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5/20/2017

Solar Radiation Measurement

Pyranometers are composed of a thermopile comprising a large

Solar Radiation Measurement

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Reference cells are precisely calibrated silicon

They are considerably less expensive than pyranometers. Short-

Unlike pyranometers, solar cells only use a portion of the solar

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Pyranometer Versus Reference Cell Measurements

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Probability depends on the distance that a light-generated carrier must

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

The spectral response decreases at small photon wavelengths. At

The photovoltaic effect

If the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar

Under open circuit conditions, the forward bias of the junction

The photovoltaic effect

If the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the solar

Under open circuit conditions, the forward bias of the junction

Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

When the diode is exposed to light, photocurrent IPh is also

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

In addition to the single-diode model discussed above, the two-

Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells

Short-circuit current increases only slightly as temperature rises (the ISC

Solar Cell Efficiency

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Solar Cell Efficiency

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

If EG is low, then virtually all photons will generate electrons and

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Spectral energy absorption in a

Hence, to achieve maximum efficiency ηT, open-circuit voltage VOC and

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Hence semiconductor materials whose EG ranges from around 0.8

As with spectral efficiency

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Practical Efficiency ηPV

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Practical Efficiency ηPV

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Practical Efficiency ηPV

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Practical Efficiency ηPV

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET

Efficiency Optimization Methods

Dr. Md. Ziaur Rahman Khan, Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET