CHAPTER 1: RANDOM VARIABLE AND Evaluation:

A. Directions: Find the value of the random variable of the following

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION experiments.

LESSON I: EXPLORING RANDOM VARIABLE 1. Suppose four coins are tossed. Let Z be the random variable
representing the number of heads that turn up. Find the value of the
OBJECTIVES: random variable Z.
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
a. define random variable ; Value of the random
Possible Outcomes
b. illustrate random variables as discrete or continuous; and Variable Z
c. find the possible values of a random variables.

Pre-Assessment:
Directions: Give the sample space of the following experiments.

1. Rolling a two dice

2. Tossing three coins
3. Drawing a spade from a deck of cards
4. A coin and a dice are thrown at random.
5. A spinner is labeled with three colors: Red, Green and
Blue. Marcus spun the spinner once and tossed a coin once. 2. Two dice rolled randomly. Let X be the random variable representing
the number of one dot that turn up. Find the value of the random
Lesson Proper: variable X.
A random variable is a function that associates a real
number to each element in the sample space. It is a variable 3. A coin and a dice are thrown at random. Let C be the random
whose values are determined by chance. variable representing the number of heads and an even number. Find
the value of the random variable C.
Example 1:
Suppose two coins are tossed randomly. Find the possible values B. Classify if the statement is random variable as discrete or
of the random variable representing the number of heads that turn continuous.
up.
1. the number of heads when tossing a coin three times
Illustration:
2. the weight of new born each year in the hospital
Let H represent the head of the coin and T be the tail of
the coin. If we let E be the random variable representing the 3. the number of siblings in a family of a region
number of head that turn up.
4. the amount of paint utilized in a building project
Value of the random
Possible Outcomes Variable E
(Number of Getting Head) 5. the number of dropout in a school district for a period of 10
HH 2
6. the speed of a car
HT 1
TH 1 7. the number of female athletes
TT 0
8. the time needed to finish the test
Hence, E = {0, 1, 2}
9. the amount of sugar in a cup of coffee
Example 2:
Suppose three cell phones are tested at random. Find the 10. the number of people who are playing LOTTO each day
possible values of the random variable representing the number of
defective cell phones. 11. the number of accidents per year at an intersection

Illustration: 12. the number of voters favoring a candidate

Let D represent the defective cell phone and N represent 13. the number of bushels of apples per hectare this year
the non-defective cell phone. If we let X be the random variable
representing the number of defective cell phones. 14. the number of patient arrivals per hour at a medical clinic

15. the average amount of electricity consumed per household per

Value of the random month
Sample Spaces / Possible Variable X
Outcomes (Number of the Defective
Cell Phones) LESSON 2: CONSTRUCTING PROBABILITY
NNN 0 DISTRIBUTIONS
NND 1
OBJECTIVES:
NDN 1 At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
DNN 1 a illustrate a probability distribution for discrete random variable
NDD 2 and its properties;
DND 2 b. determine if the given distribution represents a probability
distribution; and
DDN 2
c. computing probability corresponding to a given random
DDD 3
variable
Hence, X = {0, 1, 2, 3}
Pre-Assessment:
Directions: Find the probability of the following event.
There are two types of random variable (1) discrete random
Event (X) Probability (X)
variable and (2) continuous random variable.
1. Getting an even number in single
roll of a die
A random variable is a discrete random variable if its set of
the possible outcomes is countable. Mostly, discrete random 2. Getting a sum of 6 when two dice
variables represent count data, such as the number of defective are rolled
chairs produced in a factory. 3. Getting an ace when a card is
drawn from a deck of cards
A random variable is a continuous random variable if it 4. The probability of picking a yellow
takes on values on a continuous scale. Often, continuous random bead if There are 6 beads in a bag,
variables represent measured date, such as heights, weights and 3 are red, 2 are yellow and 1 is blue
temperatures. 5. Getting red ball from a box
containing 3 red and 6 black balls
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
Lesson Proper: Probability P(E) 1/4 ½ ¼
A discrete probability distribution or probability mass
function consists of the values a random variable can assume and the
corresponding probabilities of the values. Example 2:
Suppose three cell phones are tested at random. Find the possible
Formula (Probability): values of the random variable representing the number of defective cell
phones.

number of outcomes∈the event Solution:

P ( X )=
number of outcomes∈the sample spa ce
STEP 1: Determine the sample space/possible outcome
Properties of a Probability Distribution
Let D represent the defective cell phone and N represent the non-
1. The probability of each value of the random variable must be defective cell phone. If we let X be the random variable
between or equal to 0 and 1. In symbol, we write as 0 ≤ P ( X ) ≤ 1. representing the number of defective cell phones. Hence, X =
{NNN, NND, NDN, DNN, NDD, DND, DDN, DDD}.
2. The sum of the probabilities of all values of the random variable
must be equal to 1. In symbol, we write it as ∑ P ( X )=1. Step 2: Determine the values of the random variable
Value of the random
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING DISCRETE PROBABILITY Sample Space/Possible Variable X
DISTRIBUTION Outcomes (Number of Defective
Cell Phones)
Step 1: Determine the sample space/possible outcome NNN 0
Step 2: Determine the values of the random variable NND 1
Step 3: Determine the probability of the values of the random variable NDN 1
Step 4: Make the table of the probability distribution or probability mass
function of discrete random variable DNN 1
NDD 2
Example 1: DND 2
Suppose two coins are tossed randomly. Let H represent the head of
DDN 2
the coin and T be the tail of the coin. If we let E be the random variable
representing the number of head that turn up. Construct the probability DDD 3
distribution of the random variable E. Hence, the random variable (X) = {0, 1, 2, 3}.

Solution: Step 3: Determine the probability of the values of the random variable
Step 1: Determine the sample space/possible outcome Number of Defective
Probability P(X)
Cell Phone (X)
Let H represent the head of the coin and T be the tail of the coin. If
0 1/8
we let E be the random variable representing the number of head
that turn up. Hence, the sample space (S) = {HH, HT, TH, TT}. 1 3/8
2 3/8
Step 2: Determine the values of the random variable 3 1/8
Value of the random
Sample Space/Possible
Variable E Solution:
Outcomes
(Number of Heads) a. Probability of no defective cell phone (X1)
HH 2
the number of no defective cell phone ( X 1 ) 1
HT 1 P( X 1)= =
TH 1 thetotal number of outcome 4
TT 0 Hence, the probability of no head (E1) is ¼.
Hence, the random variable (E) = {0, 1, 2}.
b. Probability of one head (E2)
Step 3: Determine the probability of the values of the random variable the number of one head ( E2 ) 2 1
Number of Heads E Probability P(E) P ( E 2 )= = =
the total number of outcome 4 2
0 ¼ Hence, the probability of one head (E2) is 1/2.
1 ½
2 ¼ c. Probability of two heads (E3)
the number of two heads ( E3 ) 1
Solution: P( E3 )= =
a. Probability of no head (E1)
t he total number of outcome 4
the number of no head ( E1) 1 Hence, the probability of two heads (E3) is ¼.
P( E1 )= =
thetotal number of outcome 4 Step 4: Make the table of the probability distribution or probability
Hence, the probability of no head (E1) is ¼. mass function of discrete random variable

b. Probability of one head (E2) Table 2.1 Probability Distribution or Probability Mass Function of
Discrete Random Variable E
the number of one head ( E2 ) 2 1
P ( E 2 )= = = Number of Heads E 0 1 2
the total number of outcome 4 2 Probability P(E) 1/4 ½ 1/4
Hence, the probability of one head (E2) is 1/2.

c. Probability of two heads (E3) Example 3:

Directions: Determine if the distribution below is a discrete probability
the number of two heads ( E3 ) 1 distribution:
P( E3 )= =
thetotal number of outcome 4 X 1 5 7 8 9
P(X) 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3
Hence, the probability of two heads (E3) is ¼.

Step 4: Make the table of the probability distribution or probability
mass function of discrete random variable
Table 2.1 Probability Distribution or Probability Mass Function of
Discrete Random Variable E
The distribution must satisfy that each probability value P(X) must be
a.) from 0 to 1 and b) the sum of all the values of the probabilities must
be equal to 1.
By adding all the values of P(X)

Number of Heads E 0 1 2 Σ P(X)= 1/3+1/3+1/3+1/3+1/3 = 5/3

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
The probability of each value of the random variable has the same
value which is 1/3 and this value lies between 0 and 1 but the sum of
its probabilities is not equal to 1.
Hence, this is not a probability distribution because ΣP(X) ≠ 1

Example 4: Determine if the distribution below is a discrete probability

distribution
X 1 3 5 7
P(X) 0.35 0.25 0.28 0.12
You can also express the values of the probabilities in decimal form.

By adding all the values of P(X)

Σ P(X)= 0.35 + 0.25 + 0.28 + 0.12 =1
The probability of each value of the random variable lies between 0
and 1 and the sum of its probabilities is equal to 1 or ΣP(X) =1.
Therefore, this is a probability distribution.
Example 5
Let X the value of the random variable represented by the number of
boxes of “leche puto”. The probability distribution is shown below.
B. Directions: Construct a probability distribution of each item.
1. Suppose three coins are tossed. Let Y be the random variable
representing the number of tails that turn up. Construct the probability
distribution of the random variable Y.
2. Two dice rolled randomly. Let X be the random variable representing
the number of one dot that turn up. Construct the probability
distribution of the random variable X.
3. A coin and a dice are thrown at random. Let C be the random
variable representing the number of heads and an even number.
Construct the probability distribution of the random variable C.

c. Directions: Find the probability.

The monthly absences of a student based on his class adviser’s record
are presented in the probability distribution below.

a. What is the probability that the number of absences is less than 3?

b. What is the probability that the number of absences is at least 2?
c. What is the probability that the number of absences is greater than 1
but less than 4?
a. The probability that 40 or more boxes will be sold in a particular day
means P (X≥ 40). LESSON 3 – 4: COMPUTING THE MEAN AND
VARIANCE OF A DISCRETE
This means that you have to add P(X=40), P(X=42), P (X= 45), and PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
(X= 50). P (X≥ 40) = P(40) + P(42) + P(45) + P(50) then, substitute its
corresponding probability OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
P (X≥ 40) = P(40) + P(42) + P(45) + P(50) = 1/10 + 1/5 + 3/10 + 1/10 = a. illustrate and calculate the mean and variance of a discrete
7/10 = 0.7 probability distribution;
b. interpret the mean and variance of a discrete random
b. The probability that the number of boxes delivered will be at least 37 variable; and
but not more than 50 means P (37≤ X< 50). c. solve the problems involving mean and variance of
probability distribution
Hence, the values included are P(37), P(40), P42) and P(45), then
substitute its corresponding probability Pre-Assessment:
A. Directions: Given the values of the variables X and Y, evaluate the
P (37≤ X< 50) = P(37) + P(40) +P(42) + P(45) = 1/5 + 1/10 + 1/5 + 3/10 following summations:
= 8/10 = 4/5 = 0.8
X1=4 X2= 2 X3 = 5 X4 = 1
c. The probability that at most 40 boxes will be delivered in a particular Y1=2 Y2 = 1 Y3 = 0 Y4 = 2
day means P (X≤ 40) so the values of X are P(40), P(37) and P(35)

P (X≤ 40) = P(40) + P(37) + P(35) = 1/10 + 1/5 + 1/10 = 4/10 = 2/5 =
1. ∑X
0.40
2. ∑ Y
d. Find P (X≤ 45).

P (X≤ 45) = P(45) + P(42) + P(40) + P(37) +P(35) = 3/10 +1/5 + 1/10 +
3. ∑ XY
1/5 + 1/10 = 9/10 = 0.90
4. ( X +Y )
Other solution:

P (X≤ 45) = 1-P(50) = 1- 1/10 = 9/10

5. ∑ 4 XY
B. The following are the scores of 40 students in a test. Compute the
e. Find P (40) + P (50).
means score.
Score Number of Students
P (40) + P (50) = 1/10 + 1/10 = 2/10 = 1/5 = 0.10 42 8
50 12
Evaluation: 53 9
A. Directions: Determine if the distribution below is a discrete 38 7
probability distribution 46 4

Lesson Proper:

Mean of Discrete Probability Distribution is the sum of the product

of the value of the random variables and the corresponding probability.

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
Formula: μ= ∑ X ∙P(X) E P(E) E • P(E)
or 0 ¼ 0
μ=¿ X1∙P(X1) + X2∙P(X2) + X3∙P(X3) +. . .+ Xn∙P(Xn) 1 ½ ½
2 ¼ ½
where:
μ =Ʃ E • P(E) = 1
μ - mean of discrete probability distribution
Ʃ - summation symbol Step 2: Subtract the mean from each value of the random variable E
X1, X2, X3, . . . , Xn are the value of the random variables E P(E) E • P(E) E- μ
P(X1), P(X2), P(X3), . . . , P(Xn) are the corresponding probability
0 ¼ 0 0-1= -1
STEPS IN COMPUTING THE MEAN OF A DISCRETE PROBABILITY 1 ½ ½ 1-1 = 0
DISTRIBUTION
2 ¼ ½ 2 –1=1

Step 1: Construct the probability distribution for the discrete random μ =Ʃ E • P(E) = 1
variable
Step 2: Multiply the value of the discrete random variable to the Step 3: Square the result obtained in (2)
corresponding probability
Step 3: Add the results obtained in (ii). E P(E) E • P(E) E- μ (E- μ)2
0 ¼ 0 -1 1
FORMULA IN COMPUTING:
1 ½ ½ 0 0
2 2 ¼ ½ 1 1
VARIANCE: σ =∑ ( X−μ)2 • P ( X )
μ =Ʃ E • P(E) = 1
2
STANDARD DEVIATION: σ = √∑ ( X−μ) • P (X ) Step 4: Multiply the results obtained in (3) by the corresponding
probability
where: E•
E P(E) E- μ (E- μ)2 P(E)•(E- μ)2
P(E)
X stand for the value of the random variable 0 ¼ 0 -1 1 ¼
1 ½ ½ 0 0 0
P(X) stand for the probability of the random variable X 2 ¼ ½ 1 1 ¼

STEPS IN COMPUTING THE VARIANCE AND STANDARD μ =Ʃ E • P(E) = 1

DEVIATION OF DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Step 5: Get the sum of the results obtained in (4)
Step 1: Find the mean of probability distribution E•
E P(E) E- μ (E- μ)2 P(E)•(E- μ)2
Step 2: Subtract the mean from each value of the random variable P(E)
X 0 ¼ 0 -1 1 ¼
Step 3: Square the result obtained in (2) 1 ½ ½ 0 0 0
Step 4: Multiply the results obtained in (3) by the corresponding 1
2 ¼ ½ 1 ¼
probability
2 2
μ =Ʃ E • P(E) = 1 σ =∑ ( X−μ) • P ( X )
Step 5: Get the sum of the results obtained in (4)
Step 6: Get the square root of the variance to get the standard
= 1/2
deviation.

Example 1: Step 6: Get the square root of the variance to get the standard
Suppose two coins are tossed randomly. Let H represent the head of deviation
the coin and T be the tail of the coin. If we let E be the random variable
representing the number of head that turn up. Compute the mean, σ =√∑ ( X−μ)2 • P (X )
variance, and standard deviation of the probability distribution of the
1
random variable E.

Solution:
Solving Mean
σ=
√
2
σ =0.71
Step 1: Construct the probability distribution for the discrete random
variable Take note that, small variance or standard deviation means that the
Number of Heads E Probability P(E) assumed values or data points tend to be very close to the mean, while
higher variance or standard deviation means that the assumed values
0 ¼ or data points are spread out from the mean. Specifically, the variance
1 ½ and standard deviation measures or describes how far a set of data
2 ¼ (assumed values of random variables) is spread out. Since the value of
Step 2: Multiply the value of the discrete random variable to the the standard deviation is 0.71, we can say that the assumed values of
corresponding probability each outcome are somewhat close to the mean for about 0.71 units
Number of Heads Probability E• from the mean.
E P(E) P(E)
0 ¼ 0 Example 2:
The probabilities that a customer will buy 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 items in a
1 ½ ½
grocery store are 3/10, 1/10, 1/10, 2/10 and 3/10 respectively. What is
2 ¼ ½ the average number of items that a customer will buy?
Step 3: Add the results obtained in (ii)
Number of Heads Probability E• Solution:
E P(E) P(E) Solving Mean
0 ¼ 0 Step 1: Construct the probability distribution for the discrete random
variable
1 ½ ½
Number of Items
2 ¼ ½ Probability P(X)
X
μ =Ʃ E • P(E) = 1 1 3/10
2 1/10
Hence, the average of the number of heads is 1. 3 1/10
4 2/10
Solving Variance and Standard 5 3/10
Step 1: Find the mean of probability distribution

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
Step 2: Multiply the value of the discrete random variable to the
corresponding probability μ =Ʃ X • P(X) = 31/10 = σ 2=∑ ( X−μ)2 • P ( X )
Number of Probability 3.1 = 2.691
X • P(X)
Items X P(X)
1 3/10 3/10 Step 6: Get the square root of the variance to get the standard
2 1/10 2/10 deviation

3 1/10 3/10 σ =√∑ ( X−μ)2 • P (X )

4 2/10 8/10 σ =√ 2.691
5 3/10 15/10 σ =1.64
Step 3: Add the results obtained in (2) Since the value of the standard deviation is 1.64, we can say that the
Number assumed values of each outcome are somewhat close to the mean for
Probability
of Items X • P(X)
P(X) about 1.64 units from the mean.
X
1 3/10 3/10
Evaluation:
2 1/10 2/10
3 1/10 3/10 Directions: Solve for the mean, variance and the standard deviation of
4 2/10 8/10 the probability distribution, and interpret the variance or standard
deviation.
5 3/10 15/10
Ʃ X • P(X) = 31/10=3.1 1. The probabilities of a machine manufacturing 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5
Hence, the average of the number of items that the customer will buy is defective parts in one day are 0.75, 0.17, 0.04, 0.025, 0.01 and
0.005. Find the mean, variance and the standard deviation of the
3.1.
probability distribution.
2. Find the variance and the standard deviation of the probability
Solving Variance and Standard distribution of a random variable which can take only the values 3, 5,
Step 1: Find the mean of probability distribution and 7, given that P(3) = 7/30, P(5) = 1/3 and P(7) = 13/30.
3. The number of computer sold per day at a local computer store,
X P(X) X • P(X)
along with its corresponding probabilities, is shown in the table
1 3/10 3/10 below. Solve for the mean, variance and the standard deviation of
the probability distribution.
2 1/10 2/10
Number of Computers Sold X Probability P(X)
3 1/10 3/10
0 0.1
4 2/10 8/10
1 0.2
5 3/10 15/10
2 0.3
μ =Ʃ X • P(X) = 31/10 = 3.1 3 0.4
4 0.5
Step 2: Subtract the mean from each value of the random variable X
X P(X) X • P(X) X- μ
1 3/10 3/10 1-3.1=-2.1 CHAPTER 2: NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
2 1/10 2/10 2-3.1=-1.1
3 1/10 3/10 3-3.1=-0.1 LESSON 1: UNDERSTANDING THE NORMAL
CURVE DISTRIBUTION
4 2/10 8/10 4-3.1=0.9
OBJECTIVES:
5 3/10 15/10 5-3.1=1.9 At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
μ =Ʃ X • P(X) = 31/10 = 3.1 a. define a normal random variable;
b. illustrates a normal random variable and its characteristics;
and
Step 3: Square the result obtained in (2) c. identifies regions under the normal curve corresponding to
X P(X) X • P(X) X- μ (X- μ)2 different standard normal values.
Pre – Assessment:
1 3/10 3/10 -2.1 4.41 Directions: Determine whether the statement is True (T) or False (F)
2 1/10 2/10 -1.1 1.21 by checking the appropriate box. If false, modify the statement to make
it true.
3 1/10 3/10 -0.1 0.01 Statement T F
4 2/10 8/10 0.9 0.81 1. The areas under the probability distribution
5 3/10 15/10 1.9 3.61 correspond to the probabilities of a random
variable.
μ =Ʃ X • P(X) = 31/10 = 3.1 2. A probability distribution is generated by
frequencies.
Step 4: Multiply the results obtained in (3) by the corresponding 3. The areas under the curve corresponds to all
probability probabilities for X.
X• 4. Under the curve, there is no area over a
X P(X) X- μ (X- μ)2 P(X)•(X- μ)2 point.
P(X)
1 3/10 3/10 -2.1 4.41 1.323 5. The probability associated with a particular
value of x is 0.
2 1/10 2/10 -1.1 1.21 0.121 6. The area under the curve between two
3 1/10 3/10 -0.1 0.01 0.001 points a and b probability that X assumes a
value between a and b.
4 2/10 8/10 0.9 0.81 0.163
7. Under the normal curve, the total area is
5 3/10 15/10 1.9 3.61 1.083 100.
μ =Ʃ X • P(X) = 31/10 =
3.1 Lesson Proper:
Normal Probability Distribution is a probability distribution of
Step 5: Get the sum of the results obtained in (4) continuous random variables. It shows graphical representations of
random variables obtained through measurement like the height and
X P(X) X • P(X) X- μ (X- μ)2 P(X)•(X- μ)2 weight of the students, the percentile ranks of the A&E (Accreditation
1 3/10 3/10 -2.1 4.41 1.323 and Equivalency) Test result of the Alternative Learning System
2 1/10 2/10 -1.1 1.21 0.121 students, or any data with infinite values. It is used to describe the
characteristics of populations and help us visualize the inferences we
3 1/10 3/10 -0.1 0.01 0.001
make about the population. It also used to determine the probabilities
4 2/10 8/10 0.9 0.81 0.163 and percentile of the continuous random variables in the distribution.
5 3/10 15/10 1.9 3.61 1.083 For example, your grades in Mathematics is one of the scores in the
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
distribution, you can predict the location of that score in the distribution Figure 3. The Mean are Not Equal, but the Standard Deviations are
and interpret it with regards to the mean and standard deviation. Equal.

Properties of Normal Curve b. When the means are equal, but the standard deviations are equal.
(μ1 = μ2 ; ơ1 ≠ ơ2 ), the curves are centered at the same point but
they have different height and spreads. as shown in figure 4.
The graphical representation of the normal distribution is popularly
known as a normal curve. The normal curve is described clearly by the
following characteristics

1. The normal curve is bell-shaped.

2. The curve is symmetrical about its center. This means that, if we

draw a segment from the peak of the curve down to the horizontal axis,
the segment divides the normal curve into two equal parts or areas.

3. The mean, median, and mode coincide at the center. This also
means that in a normal distribution, or a distribution described by a
normal curve, the mean, median, and mode are equal.

4. The width of the curve is determined by the standard deviation of the Figure 4. The Mean are Equal, but the Standard Deviations are Not
distribution. Equal.

5. The tails of the curve are plotted in both directions and flatten out c. When the means are different and the standard deviations are also
different (μ1≠ μ2 ; ơ1 ≠ ơ2 ), the curves are centered at different points
indefinitely along the horizontal axis. The tails are thus asymptotic to
and vary in shapes, as shown in figure 5.
the baseline. A portion of the graph that is asymptotic to a reference
axis or another graph is called an asymptote, always approaching
another but never touching it.

6. The total area under a normal curve is 1. This means that the normal
curve represents the probability, or the proportion, or the percentage
associated with specific sets of measurement values.

To visualize and understand the properties/characteristics of a normal

curve, please refer to figure as shown below. Figure 5: The Means are Different and the Standard Deviations are
also Different

Figure 1. Graph of Normal Curve
A normally distributed random variable with a mean μ = 0 and standard
deviation ơ = 1 is called a standard normal variable. It is presented
using standard normal distribution where the center of the curve is
zero, which is mean and added one unit from the center to the right
and subtract one unit from the center to the left. This is shown below in
figure 2.
The table of areas under the normal curve is also known as the z-
table. The z- score is a measure of relative standing and calculated by
subtracting the x́ or μ from the measurement X and then dividing the
result by s or σ .
X −μ
z=
σ
The final result, the z-score, represents the distance between given
measurement X and the mean, expressed in standard deviation. Either
the z-score locates X within a sample or within population.
(For the table of areas under the normal curve (z-table), see the last
page of this module)
How to use the Table of Areas under the Normal Curve?

Example: Find the area to the left of -1.69

Solution: First, split the given z-value into hundredths. We can find the
whole number and the tenths digit (-1.6) at the left side of the table
while the hundredths (0.09) located at the uppermost of the table. Then
the intersection of these numbers will be the area of the normal curve
to the left of the z-value.

Illustration:

Figure 2. Standard Normal Distribution

The shape of a normal curve is based on the two given parameters,

the mean and the standard deviation of the distribution. When
comparing two distributions each described by the normal curve, the
following are the three situations based on the said parameters

a. When the means are not equal, but the standard deviations are
equal. (μ1 ≠ μ2 ; ơ1 =ơ2 ), the curves have a similar shape but
centered at different points, as shown in figure 3.

Answer: The area to the left of z= -1.69 is 0.0455.

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
 STEPS IN FINDING THE AREA UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE X−μ
GIVEN A Z-VALUE 5. z =
σ
Step 1: Express the given z-value as a three digit number. Lesson Proper:
Step 2: Using the z-table, find the first two digits on the leftmost The areas under the normal curve are given in terms of z-values or
column. scores. The z-score locates X either within a sample or within a
Step 3: Match the third digit with the appropriate column on the right. population.
Step 4: Read the area or probability at the intersection of the row and
the column. This is the required area. The formula for calculating z is

Example: X −μ
1. Find the area that corresponds to z=1. z= ( z −score for population data)
Steps Solution σ
1. Express the given z-value as z=1.00
a three digit number.
X −x́
2. Using the z-table, find the row z= (z−score for sample data)
z=1.0 and the column with s
heading .00.
3. Read the area or probability This area is 0.3413. This is the where:
at the intersection of row 1.0 required area.
and the column .00. X given measurement
σ standard deviation of the population
2. Find the area that corresponds to z=1.36. μ mean of the population
Steps Solution
1. Express the given z-value as z=1.36 (as is)
s standard deviation of sample
a three digit number. x́ mean of sample
2. Using the z-table, find the row
z=1.3 and the column with Raw scores maybe composed of a large value, but these values
heading .06. cannot accommodate at the baseline of the normal curve. So, they
3. Read the area or probability This area is 04131. This is the have to be transformed into z-scores for convince without sacrificing
at the intersection of row 1.3 required area. the meaning associated with the raw scores.
and the column .06.

3. Find the area that corresponds to z=-2.58

Steps Solution
Example:
1. Express the given z-value as Z=2.58 (as is)
1. Reading Scores
a three digit number.
2. Using the z-table, find the row Given the μ = 50 and σ =4 of a population of reading scores. Find
z=2.5 and the column with the z–values that corresponds to a score X=58.
heading .08. Solution:
3. Read the area or probability This area is 0.4951. This is the
at the intersection of row 2.5 required area. μ = 50, σ =4 , X=58
and the column .08.
X −μ
z=
Evaluation: σ
A. True or False. Write the word TRUE if the statement is correct and
58−50
FALSE z=
if the statement is incorrect 4
_______1. The total area of the normal curve is 1.
8
_______2. Normal probability distribution is used to determine the z=
probabilities of a discrete random variable. 4
_______3. The mean, median and mode in a normal distribution have
the same value. z=2
_______4. The distance of the number in the horizontal line or the x-
axis Thus, the z-value that corresponds to the raw score 58 is 2 in the
should always proportional. population distribution of Reading scores. With respect to the mean,
_______5 The normal probability distribution has a mean μ = 1 and the score 58 is above the population mean.
standard deviation ơ = 0.
2. Score in PE
B. Directions: Find the corresponding area between z=0 and each of Locate the normal variable X, given that z = −1 , μ = 45 and
the following z-values:
1. z = - 3.25 6. z = -1.33 σ =6.
2. z = 1.25 7. z = -2.5 Solution:

3. z = 0.56 8. z = 0.29 z = −1 , μ = 45,

σ =6
X −μ
4. z = 3 9. z = - 0.13 z=
σ
5. z = 1.96 10. z = - 1.96 X −45
−1=
LESSON 2: UNDERSTANDING THE Z-SCORES 6
X−45
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
(
(6) −1=
6 )
a. distinguish a raw score (x) and the standard score (z); 6 (−1 )= X−45
b. express normal random variable (x) as standard normal
variable (z). X −45=−6
c. express standard normal variable (z) as normal random X =−6+45
variable (x).
Pre-Assessment: X =39
Directions:
Solve for x in terms of another variable. Thus, the normal variable X is 39.
1. ax = b
2. x + y =1 Evaluation:
3. y = mx + b A. Directions: Supply the needed information by solving the missing
4. a+ bx = 1 value.
1. x = 25, μ= 40, σ = 6, z = ?
2. z = -2.25, μ= 218, σ = 36, x = ?
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
3. x = 39, μ= 30, σ = 3, z = ? LESSON 1: SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE
4. x = 125, μ= 105, σ = 8, z = ?
MEANS
5. z = 1.11, μ= 145, σ = 20, x =?
a. illustrates random sampling;
B. Directions: From Evaluation A, given 1,3, and 4 state whether each
b. distinguishes between parameter and statistic; and
raw score lies below or above the mean.
c. identifies sampling distributions of statistic (sample mean).
Pre-Assessment:
LESSON 3: DETERMINING PROBABILITIES AND A. Directions: Find the mean of the following sets of numbers.
LOCATING PERCENTILES 1. 2, 3, 8, 10, 4
2. 6, 10, 9, 12, 4, 5
OBJECTIVE: 3. 12, 2, 5, 7, 11, 8, 4
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: 4. 14, 10, 15, 14, 17, 19, 20
a. utilize the use of the Table of Standard Normal Distribution; 5. 20, 22, 24, 18, 14, 25, 26, 28
b. compute probabilities and percentiles related to a given 𝑧-
score or normal random variable 𝑥 B. Evaluate the following:
Pre-Assessment: 1. 5C3
Supply the needed information by writing on the response area. 2. 8C4
Questions Responses here 3. 9C6
1. Convert 0.4783 into percent. _____________________ 4. 10C3
2. What is the equivalent of 38.45% in decimal? 5. 12C8
_____________________
3. What is the product of 450 and 0.2356? _____________________ Lesson Proper:
(Round off your answer into nearest whole number) Parameter - is a numerical measure that describes a characteristics of
4. What is the 25% of 100? _____________________ a population.
5. What is the total area of a normal curve? _____________________
Example:
Lesson Proper: 1. The population mean of the electricity bills of the residents of a
A normal distribution curve can be used as a probability distribution certain city is 1,500. (1,500
curve for normally distributed variables. The area under the standard is the parameter)
normal distribution curve can also be thought of as a probability. That 2. The population mean IQ of the students in a certain University is
is, if it's possible to select any 𝑧 value at random, the probability of 105. (105 is the parameter)
choosing one, say, below 1.45 would be the same as the area under
the curve at the left of 1.45. In this case, the area is 0.9265. Statistic - is a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a
Therefore, the probability of randomly selecting a 𝑧 value below of 1.45 sample.
is 0.9265 or 92.65%. The problems involving probabilities and
percentiles are solved in the same manner as finding the areas under a Examples:
normal curve. 1. You randomly poll voters in an election. You find that 55% of the
population plans to vote for candidate A. That is a statistic. Why? You
In finding probabilities, the following notations will be used: only asked a sample—a small percentage— of the population who they
(a) (𝑍 < 𝑧) – probability at the left of 𝑧 are voting for. You calculated what the population was likely to do
(b) (𝑍 > 𝑧) = 1 – (𝑍 < 𝑧) – probability at the right of 𝑧 based on the sample.
(c) (𝑎 < 𝑧 < 𝑏) – the probability of 𝑧 that is in between two other 𝑧
values, say 𝑎 and 𝑏 2. The sample mean of the electricity bills of 20 residents of a certain
(d) (𝑧 < ) ∪ 𝑃(𝑧 > 𝑏 ) – the probability of 𝑧 is in the opposite direction of city is P1,450.00. (1,450 is the statistic)
two values, say 𝑎 and 𝑏
(e) (𝑋 < 𝑥) – probability at the left of a normal random variable 𝑥 The difference between a statistic and a parameter is that statistic
(f) (𝑋 > 𝑥) – probability at the right of a normal random variable 𝑥 describes a sample. A parameter describes an entire population.
(g) 𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑋 < 𝑏) – the probability of a normal random variable 𝑋 that is
in between two other normal random variables, say Example:
𝑎 and 𝑏. The population of the students enrolled in Grade 8 level in MSU - Buug
(h) (𝑋 < a ) ∪ 𝑃(𝑋 > 𝑏 ) – the probability of 𝑋 is in the opposite direction Campus is 105 and the grade 8 students in section Garcia of MSU -
of two values, say 𝑎 and 𝑏 Buug Campus is only 45.
Example
Find the probabilities for each of the following. **(105 is the parameter since it is the numerical measure of the
(a) (𝑍 < 1.32) population while 45 is the statistic since it is the numerical measure of
(b) (𝑍 < −1.05) the sample.)**
(c) (−0.75 < 𝑍 < 1.56)
(d) (𝑍 > −0.88) Steps in Constructing the Sampling Distribution of the Means
Solution: Step 1. Determine the number of possible samples that can be drawn
(a) The probability (𝑍 < 1.32) means to find the area under the normal from the population using the formula,
curve at the left of 𝑧 = 1.32. From the table, find the intersection on row N!
1.3 and column 0.02. Thus, the probability is 0.9066 or 90.66%. N Cn =
(n ! ( N−n) !)
(b) The probability (𝑍 < −1.05) is the same as the area under the where: N size of the population
n size of the sample
normal curve at the left of 𝑧 = −1.05. From the table, the area is
Step 2. List all the possible samples and compute the mean of each
0.1469. Thus, the probability is 0.1469 or 14.69%.
sample.
Step 3. Construct a frequency distribution of the sample means
(c) The probability (−0.75 < 𝑍 < 1.56) is the same as the area under the
obtained in Step 2.
normal curve between 𝑧 values -0.75 and 1.56. To get the area,
subtract the area of 𝑧 = −0.75 from the area of 𝑧 = 1.56. Thus, (−0.75 <
Example
z < 1.56) = (𝑍 < 1.56)– 𝑃(𝑍 < −0.75) = 0.9406 – 0.2266 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑜𝑟
A population consists of the numbers 2, 4, 9, 10, and 5. List all possible
𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟎%.
samples of size 3 from the population and compute the mean of each
sample
(d) The probability (𝑍 > −0.88) is the same as the area under the
normal curve at the right of 𝑧 = −0.88. To get the area, subtract the
Step1. Determine the number of possible samples that can be drawn.
area of 𝑧 = −0.88 from 1. Thus, (𝑍 > −0.88) = 1 – (𝑍 < −0.88) = 1 –
Since, N = 5 and n=3
0.1894 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑜𝑟 𝟖𝟏. 𝟎𝟔%.
N!
N Cn =
Evaluation (n ! ( N−n) !)
Find the probabilities for each of the following.
1. (𝑍 > 1.32)
2. (𝑍 < −1.05) 5! 5∗4∗3∗2∗1 120 120
3. (−0.76 < 𝑍 < 1.52) 5 C3= = = =
4. (𝑍 < −0.88) (3 !(5−3)! ) (3∗2∗1(2) !) (6 ( 2 ! ) ) (6 ( 2∗1 ))
5. (𝑍 > 0.87) 120 120
= = = 10
CHAPTER 3: SAMPLING AND SAMPLING 6(2) 12
DISTRIBUTION Step 2. List all the possible samples and compute the mean of each
sample.
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
 Sample Mean 2, 4, 9 5.00
Sample
x́ 2, 4, 10 5.33
2, 4, 5 3.67
2, 9, 10 7.00
2, 9, 5 5.33
2, 10, 5 5.67
4, 9, 10 7.67
4, 9, 5 6.00
4, 10, 5 6.33
9, 10, 5 8.00

Step 3. Construct a frequency distribution of the sample means

obtained in Step 2.
Sample Probability
Frequency
Mean x́ P( x́ )
3.67 1 1/10=0.10
5.00 1 1/10=0.10
5.33 2 2/10=0.20
5.67 1 1/10=0.10
6.00 1 1/10=0.10
6.33 1 1/10=0.10
7.00 1 1/10=0.10
7.67 1 1/10=0.10
8.00 1 1/10=0.10
Total 10 1.0

EVALUATION
A. Direction: In each problem below, underline the statistic and encircle
the parameter.
1. There are 1,000 families living in one barangay but there are only
500 familes received the one sack of rice.
2. There are 28 male students enrolled out of 89 students in grade 7.
3. All residents are registered voters in the city but only 85% is listed in
the city phone directory.
4. A group of librarians is interested in the numbers of books and other
media that patrons check out from their library. They examine the
checkout records of 150 randomly selected adult patrons.
5. When the teacher ask the question the whole class raise their right
hands except for the five boys sitting at the back.

B. Direction: Identify the italicized statements whether a statistic or a

parameter. Write your answer on the space provided.
______________ 1. In all institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's in
St. Louis country nursing homes there are seven
patients who completely lost their memories.
______________ 2. In a list of all low birth weight infants admitted to
the neonatal ICUs in St. Louis city & county in
1998 were tracked and known that 10% are dead.
______________ 3. The 50% of all school-age children with asthma
treated in pediatric asthma clinics in university-
affiliated medical centers in the Midwest were fully
recovered.
______________ 4. All people with AIDS in the metropolitan St. Louis
area, 20% of them got treated.
______________ 5. In all pregnant teens in the Henderson school
district twenty five of them was diagnosed as
Covid19 patients.
______________ 6. Out of 104.92 million people in the Philippines
only twenty million received the Covid19 vaccine.
_____________ 7. Jose owned a farm that has a total of 100 different
kinds of animals but he is more fond in the horses
in his farm.
______________ 8. In all ML players in the world, I know that there is
always one team who stands out.
______________ 9. There are a total of 75 applications installed in my
cellphone, but three of them is my favorite.
______________ 10. All human beings has primary needs but sad to
say that 25% of the population cannot afford their
primary needs.
B. Solve the following.
1. How many different samples of size n= 3 can be selected from a
population with the following sizes?

a. N=4 c. N 20
b. N=8 d. N= 50

2. A population consists of the five numbers 2, 3, 6, 8, and 11.

Consider samples of size 2 that can be drawn from this population.

a. List all the possible samples and the corresponding mean.

b. Construct the sampling distribution of the sample means.

3. A group of students got the following scores in a test: 6, 9, 12, 15,

18, and 21. Consider samples of size 3 that can be drawn trom this
population.
a. List all the possible samples and the corresponding mean.
b. Construct the sampling distribution of the sample means.

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
LESSON 2: FINDING THE MEAN AND VARIANCE OF 1,2 1.50
THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF 1,3 2.00
1,4 2.50
MEANS 1,5 3.00
OBJECTIVE: 2,3 2.50
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to: 2,4 3.00
a. finds the mean and variance of the sampling distribution of 2,5 3.50
the sample mean; and 3,4 3.50
b. defines the sampling distribution of the sample mean for
3,5 4.00
normal population when the variance is: (a) known; (b)
4,5 4.50
unknown;
c. illustrates the Central Limit Theorem;
d. defines the sampling distribution of the sample mean STEP 5: Construct the sampling distribution of the sample mean
using the Central Limit Theorem; and Sampling Distribution of Sample Means
e. solves problems involving sampling distributions of Sample Mean x́ Frequency Probability P( x́ )
the sample mean. 1.50 1 1/10
2.00 1 1/10
Pre-Assessment: 2.50 2 2/10
Directions: Compute the mean and the variance 3.00 2 2/10
1. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
3.50 2 2/10
2. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
4.00 1 1/10
3.12, 2, 5, 7, 1, 11, 8, 4
4.50 1 1/10
4. 14, 10, 1, 15, 14, 17, 19, 20
5. 20, 22, 24, 10, 14, 25, 26, 28 Total 10 1.0

Lesson Proper: STEP 6: Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample
means. Follow the steps: (1) Multiply the sample mean by the
Mean (population): μ=
∑X Variance (population):
corresponding probability and (2) Add the results
Sampling Distribution of Sample Means
N Sample Probability
2 ∑ (X −μ)2 Mean x́
Frequency
P( x́ ) x́ • P( x́ )
σ = 1.50 1 1/10 0.15
N 2.00 1 1/10 0.20
2.50 2 2/10 0.50
STEPS IN FINDING THE MEAN AND VARIANCE OF SAMPLING
3.00 2 2/10 0.60
DISTRIBUTION OF MEANS
STEP 1: Compute the mean of the population 3.50 2 2/10 0.70
STEP 2: Compute the variance of the population 4.00 1 1/10 0.40
STEP 3: Determine the number of possible samples of size 4.50 1 1/10 0.45
STEP 4: List all possible samples and their corresponding means Total 10 1.0 3.00
STEP 5: Construct the sampling distribution of the sample mean So, the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample means is 3.00
STEP 6: Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample
means. Follow the steps: (1) Multiply the sample mean by the STEP 7: Compute the variance of the sampling distribution of the
corresponding probability and (2) Add the results sample means. Follow these steps: (1) Subtract the population mean
STEP 7: Compute the variance of the sampling distribution of the from each sample mean. Label this as x́−μ . (2) Square the
sample means. Follow these steps: (1) Subtract the population mean
difference. Label this as ( x́−μ ¿2. (3) Multiply the results by the
from each sample mean. Label this as x́−μ . (2) Square the
corresponding probability. Label this as P( x́ )• ( x́−μ ¿2. (4) Add the
difference. Label this as ( x́−μ ¿2. (3) Multiply the results by the
results.
corresponding probability. Label this as P( x́ )• ( x́−μ ¿2. (4) Add the Sampling Distribution of Sample Means
results. x́ • ( x́−μ) P( x́ )• (
x́ f P( x́ ) x́−μ
Example 1: P( x́ ) 2
x́−μ ¿ 2

Consider a population consisting of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Suppose sample 1.50 1 1/10 0.15 -1.50 2.25 0.225
size 2 is drawn from this population. Make a sampling distribution of 2.00 1 1/10 0.20 -1.00 1.00 0.100
sample means. 2.50 2 2/10 0.50 -0.50 0.25 0.050
Solution: 3.00 2 2/10 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.000
STEP 1: Compute the mean of the population 3.50 2 2/10 0.70 0.50 0.25 0.050

μ=
∑ X = 1+ 2+ 3+4 +5 = 15 =3 4.00
4.50
1
1
1/10
1/10
0.40
0.45
1.00
1.50
1.00
2.25
0.100
0.225
N 5 5 Total 10 1.0 3.00 0.750
So, the mean of the population is 3.00. So, the variance of the sampling distribution is 0.75.

STEP 2: Compute the variance of the population Try to answer these questions:
X X- μ (X- μ)2  How do you compare mean of the sample means and the
mean of the population?
1 -2 4
 How do you compare variance of the sample means and the
2 -1 1
variance of the population?
3 0 0
4 1 1 Example 2:
5 2 4 Consider a population consisting of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Suppose sample
∑ (X −μ)2=10 size 3 is drawn from this population. Make a sampling distribution of
sample means.

σ 2=
∑ (X −μ)2 = 10 =2 Solution:
STEP 1: Compute the mean of the population
N 5
So, the variance of the population is 2.00. μ=
∑ X = 1+ 2+ 3+4 +5 = 15 =3
N 5 5
STEP 3: Determine the number of possible samples of size So, the mean of the population is 3.00.
Since, N=5 and n=2
N! STEP 2: Compute the variance of the population
Cn= =
N X X- μ (X- μ)2
(n ! ( N−n) !)
1 -2 4
5! 120 120 120 2 -1 1
= = = =10
(2 !(5−2)!) (2(3 !)) (2(6)) 12 3 0 0
So, there are 10 possible sample size n =2 that can be drawn. 4 1 1
5 2 4
STEP 4: List all possible samples and their corresponding means
Sample Mean
∑ (X −μ)2=10
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
 2 ∑ (X −μ)2 10
σ = = =2
N 5
So, the variance of the population is 2.00.

STEP 3: Determine the number of possible samples of size

Since, N=5 and n=3
N!
N Cn= =
(n ! ( N−n) !)
5! 120 120 120
= = = =10
(3 !(5−3)! ) (6(2 !)) (6 (2)) 12 Solution:
So, there are 10 possible sample size n =2 that can be drawn. 1. Known – This is a population data. Although the value of the
variance is not given, you can still determine the population mean and
STEP 4: List all possible samples and their corresponding means population variance of the data using the formulas 𝜇 = Σ𝑋/ , 𝜎2 = 𝛴(𝑥 −
Sample Mean μ)2/ 𝑁 respectively. So, this situation is an example of the sampling
1,2,3 2.00 distribution when the variance is known.
1,2,4 2.33 Since the population variance can be calculated, used 𝜎𝑥̅ = 𝜎/√𝑛 in the
1,2,5 2.67 computation of the standard error of the mean.
1,3,4 2.67 2. Unknown- The population variance is unknown. The given values
1,3,5 3.00 are the population mean 𝜇 = 15, the sample standard deviation 𝑠 = 6,
1,4,5 3.33 and the sample size 𝑛 = 16. Use the formula 𝑠𝑥̅ = 𝑠/√𝑛 for the standard
2,3,4 3.00 error of the mean.
2,3,5, 3.33 3. Known- the population variance is given with the value of the square
2,4,5 3.67 of the standard deviation 𝜎2 = 152. Apply the formula 𝜎𝑥̅ = 𝜎/√𝑛 in
3,4,5 4.00 computing for the standard error of the mean.

Try to answer these questions:

STEP 5: Construct the sampling distribution of the sample mean
 How do you compare mean of the sample means and the
Sampling Distribution of Sample Means
mean of the population?
Sample Mean x́ Frequency Probability P( x́ )  How do you compare variance of the sample means and the
2.00 1 1/10 variance of the population?
2.33 1 1/10
2.67 2 2/10 Let us summarize what we have done for the preceding examples by
3.00 2 2/10 comparing the means and variances of the population and the
3.33 2 2/10 sampling distribution of the means.
3.67 1 1/10
4.00 1 1/10 Example 1 Example 2
Total 10 1.0 Sampling Sampling
Distribution Distribution
Population Population
STEP 6: Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample of the of the
N=5 N=5
means. Follow the steps: (1) Multiply the sample mean by the Sample Sample
corresponding probability and (2) Add the results Means n=2 Means n=3
Sampling Distribution of Sample Means Mean 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Probability Variance 2.00 0.75 2.00 0.29
Sample
Mean x́
Frequency
P( x́ ) x́ • P( x́ ) Standard
1.41 0.87 1.41 0.54
Deviation
2.00 1 1/10 0.200
2.33 1 1/10 0.233 Observe that the mean of the sampling distribution of the
2.67 2 2/10 0.534 sample means is always equal to the mean of the population. The
3.00 2 2/10 0.600 variance of the sampling distribution is obtained by using the formula
3.33 2 2/10 0.666
2 σ 2 N −n
3.67 1 1/10 0.367 σ x́ = • .This formula holds when the population is finite.
4.00 1 1/10 0.400 n N −n
Total 10 1.0 3.000 The examples shown in the preceding activities are all finite population.
So, the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample means is 3.000
A finite population is one that consists of a finite or fixed
STEP 7: Compute the variance of the sampling distribution of the number of elements, measurements, or observations; while an infinite
sample means. Follow these steps: (1) Subtract the population mean population contains, hypothetically at least, infinitely many elements.
from each sample mean. Label this as x́−μ . (2) Square the
difference. Label this as ( x́−μ ¿2. (3) Multiply the results by the N −n
corresponding probability. Label this as P( x́ )• ( x́−μ ¿2. (4) Add the
results.
The expression,
√ N −n
is called the finite population

correction factor. In general, when the population is large and the

Sampling Distribution of Sample Means sample size is small, the correction factor is not used since it will be
very close to 1.
x́ • ( x́−μ) P( x́ )• (
x́ f P( x́ ) x́−μ
P( x́ ) 2
x́−μ ¿ 2
We summarize the properties of the sampling distribution below.
2.00 1 1/10 0.200 -1.000 1.000 0.100
2.33 1 1/10 0.233 -0.200 0.040 0.004 Properties of the Sampling Distribution of Sample Mean
2.67 2 2/10 0.534 -0.333 0.111 0.022
3.00 2 2/10 0.600 0.00 0.00 0.000 If all possible samples of size n are drawn from a population of size N
3.33 2 2/10 0.666 0.333 0.111 0.022 with mean j and variance o*, then the sampling distribution of the
3.67 1 1/10 0.367 0.200 0.040 0.004 sample means has the following properties:
4.00 1 1/10 0.400 1.000 1.000 0.100
Total 10 1.0 3.00 0.288 1. The mean of the sampling distribution of the sample means is equal
So, the variance of the sampling distribution is 0.29 to the population mean μ .That is, μ x́ =μ.
2. The variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means a is
Example 3: Read and analyze the following situations. Determine given by
whether the following statements have a known or unknown population
variance. Write your answer on the space provided. Identify also the 2 σ 2 N −n
σ x́ = • for finite population, and
formula to be used to estimate the standard error of the mean by n N −n
writing the symbol 𝜎𝑥̅, when the population variance is known and the
symbol 𝑠𝑥̅ when the population variance is unknown 2 σ2
σ x́ = for infinite population.
n
3. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample
means is given by

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
 a. illustrate the t-distribution and enumerate its properties;
σ2 N−n
σ x́ = •
√ n N−n√ finite population where N-T is the finite

population correction factor, and

σ2
σ x́ = for infinite population.
√n
The standard deviation (σ x́ ) of the sampling distribution of the sample
means is also known as the standard error of the mean. It measures
the degree of accuracy of the sample mean ( x́ ) as an estimate of the
population mean ( μ).
A good estimate of the mean is obtained it the standard error of the
mean (σ x́ ) is small or close to zero, while a poor estimate is obtained it
the standard error of the mean (σ x́ ) is large. Observe that the value or
(σ x́ ) depends on the size of the sample (n). What happens to (σ x́ )
when n increases?
Thus, if we want to get a good estimate of the population mean, we
have to make n sufficiently large. This fact is stated as a theorem,
which is known as The Central Limit Theorem.
The Central Limit Theorem
If random samples size n are drawn from the population, then as n
becomes larger, the sampling distribution of the mean approaches the
normal distribution, regardless of the shape of the population
distribution.
Describing the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Means from
an Infinite Population
Example 3:
A population has a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 5. A
random sample of 16 measurements is drawn from this population.
Describe the sampling distribution of the sample means by computing
its mean and standard deviation.
We shall assume that the population is infinite.
Solution
i. Identify the given information
μ = 60, σ =5, and n = 16.
ii. Find the mean of the sampling distribution. Use the property μ x́ =μ
. 𝑧 =
μ x́ =μ = 68
iii. Find the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. Use the
b. differentiate t-distribution from the z- distribution;
c. identify regions under the t-distribution corresponding to different t
values; and
d. identify percentiles using the t-table.
PRE-ASSESSMENT
Write “YES” if the statement is true about the z-distribution and “NO” if
it’s not.
__________1. The z-distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of
0 and standard deviation of 1.
__________2. The normal curve is bell-shaped.
__________3. The tails of the normal curve approach the vertical axis
but never touch it.
__________4. The mean is always greater than either the median or
the mode.
__________5. The curve is symmetrical about its center.
__________6. The total area under the normal curve is always less
than 1.
__________7. The mean, median and mode coincide at the center.
__________8. The width of the normal curve depends on the standard
deviation of the distribution.
__________9. Almost 99.7% of the distribution falls within three
standard deviations from the mean.
__________10. The left tail of the normal curve is flatter than its right
tail.
DISCUSSION
According to the Central Limit Theorem, the
sampling distribution of a statistic (like a sample mean, 𝑥̅) will follow a
normal distribution, as long as the sample size (𝑛) is sufficiently large.
Therefore, when we know the standard deviation of the population, we
can compute a z-score and use the normal distribution to evaluate
probabilities with the sample mean.
But sample sizes are sometimes small, and often
we do not know the standard deviation of the population. When either
of these problems occurs, the solution is to use a different distribution.
Student’s t-distribution
The Student’s t-distribution is a probability distribution that is used to
estimate population parameters when the sample size is small (𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 < 30) and/or when the population variance is unknown. It
was developed by William Sealy Gosset in 1908. He used the
pseudonym or pen name “Student” when he published his paper which
describes the distribution. That is why it is called “Student’s t
distribution”. He worked at a brewery and was interested in the
problems of small samples, for example, the chemical properties of
barley. In the problem he analyzed, the sample size might be as low as
three.
Suppose you are about to draw a random sample of n observations
from a normally distributed population, you previously learned that,
X−μ
σ where 𝑧 is the z-score, 𝑥 is the sample mean, 𝜇 is the
√n
population mean, 𝜎 is the population standard deviation and 𝑛 is the

property σ x́ =
σ2 sample size, have the standard normal distribution. (Note that if we are
standardizing a single observation, the value of n is 1. Hence, the
√n X−μ
σ2 52 25 formula becomes 𝑧 =
σ
σ x́ = = = =6.25
√ n √ 16 4 You can use this concept to construct a confidence interval for the
population mean, 𝜇. But in practice, you encounter a problem, and that
Evaluation: problem is that you don’t know the value of the population standard
A. Directions: Find the finite population correction factor given the deviation, 𝜎. The standard deviation for the entire population 𝜎 is a
following: parameter and you don’t typically know its value, so you can’t use that
a. N=200, n = 10 in your formula. If that happens, you could do the next best thing,
b. N 2000, n = 10 instead of using the “population” standard deviation, 𝜎; you are going
C. N 400, n=40 to use your “sample” standard deviation s, to estimate it. And instead of
d. N 500, n = 10 X−μ X−μ
e. N 200, n = 20
B. Consider all samples of size 5 from this population: 2, 5, 6, 8, 10, σ , you are going to have s where s is your sample
12, 13.
1. Compute the mean ( μ) and standard deviation (σ ) of the
√n √n
standard deviation.
population. You must take note of the change in the formula. The quantity 𝜎 is a
2. List all samples of size 5 and compute the mean (R) for each constant but you don’t know its value, so you used s which is a statistic
sample. and this statistic s has a sampling distribution and its value would vary
3. Construct the sampling distribution of the sample means.
X−μ
4. Calculate the mean ( μ x́) of the sampling distribution of the sample
means. Compare this to the mean of the population. from sample to sample. And so, the quantity s would no longer
5. Calculate the standard deviation (σ ) of the sampling distribution of √n
the sample means. Compare this to the standard deviation of the have the standard normal distribution. This quantity is labeled as t
population. because it has a t-distribution. When you are sampling from a normally
C. Solve the problem. Assume that the population is infinite in each distributed population, the quantity
case
1. The scores of individual students on a national test have a normal
X−μ
distribution with mean 18.6 and standard deviation 5.9. At Federico 𝑡= s has the t-distribution with n-1 degrees of freedom. Note that
Ramos Rural High School, 76 students took the test. If the scores at
this school have the same distribution as national scores, what are the √n
mean and standard deviation of the sample mean for 76 students? the number of degrees of freedom is one less than the sample size.
So, if the sample size n is 25, the number of degrees of freedom is 24.
LESSON 3: t-DISTRIBUTION Similarly, at t distribution having 16 degrees of freedom, the sample
OBJECTIVES size is 17.
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
.
Properties of t-distribution
The t-distribution has the following properties:
1. The t-distribution is symmetrical about 0. That means if you draw a
segment from the peak of the curve down to the 0 mark on the
horizontal axis, the curve is divided into two equal parts or areas. The
t- scores on the horizontal axis will be divided also with half of the t-
scores being positive and half negative.

2. The t-distribution is bell-shaped like the normal distribution but has

heavier tails. That means it is more prone to producing values that fall
far from the mean. The tails are asymptotic to the horizontal axis.
(Each tail approaches the horizontal axis but never touches it.)

By looking at the table, you can see that the t-value for an area of 0.10
in the right tail of the t-distribution with 10 degrees of freedom is 1.372.
This is the intersection of the row containing the 10 degrees of freedom
and the column containing the area of 0.10.

3. The mean, median, and mode of the t-distribution are all equal to
zero.
4. The variance is always greater than 1. It is equal to 𝑣/ 𝑣−2 where 𝑣
is the number of degrees of freedom. As the number of degrees of
freedom increases and approaches infinity, the variance approaches 1.
Using the formula, if the number of degrees of freedom is 10, the
variance is 10/ 10−2 = 10/ 8 = 1.25
5. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution curve looks
more and more like the normal distribution. With infinite degrees of
freedom, t distribution is the same as the normal distribution.

Similarly, the area to the right tail of a t-distribution with 15 degrees of

freedom corresponding to the t-value of 2.249 is 0.02. Focus on the
6. The standard deviation of the t-distribution varies with the sample row containing 15 degrees of freedom, then look for the t-value of
size. It is always greater than 1. Unlike the normal distribution, which 2.249. The column that you need is the column containing the area of
has a standard deviation of 1. 0.02.
7. The total area under a t-distribution curve is 1 or 100%. One can say
that the area under the t-distribution curve represents the probability or
the percentage associated with specific sets of t-values.

In finding the areas and percentiles for a t-distribution you need to

familiarize yourself with the t-table. You are going to use a table that is
different from the z table you used in finding the area under the normal
curve.

See an example of a t-table at the last page of this module. It is a right-

tailed t-table because the given areas in this table are areas on the
right tail of the t-distribution. Some t-tables are slightly different in
format. Look at the t-table below. In the first column in the leftmost part,
you have the degrees of freedom. It ranges from 1 down to ∞. While
the first row in the upper part of the t-table represents the area under
the right tail of the t-distribution. Some of the given areas are from 0.25
down to 0.0005. The rest of the entries in the body of the table are the
values of the variable t (t-values).
Identifying Percentiles Using the t-Table
A percentile is a value on a t-distribution that is less than the probability
in the given percentage. For example, the 90th percentile of the t-
distribution is that t value whose left tail probability is 90% and whose
right-tail probability is 10%. Since the area under the t-distribution
curve also represents the probability, the 90 th percentile of the t-
distribution is the t-value whose area on its left tail is 0.90 and whose
area on its right tail is 0.10.

Illustrative Example 1

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
Find the 95th percentile of a t-distribution with 6 degrees of freedom.
LESSON 4: Length of a Confidence Interval
You can plot in a t-distribution and draw what you are looking for. The OBJECTIVES:
95th percentile is the value of the variable t that has an area of 95% or a. identifies the length of a confidence interval.
0.95 to the left. b. computes for the length of the confidence interval.
c. computes for an appropriate sample size using the
d. length of the interval.
That value is somewhere roughly near the t-value of 2. You don’t need e. solves problems involving sample size determination.
to get exactly where it is on t-distribution when you are drawing it at
this point, you are just looking for the rough idea where it is. PRE-ASSESSMENT
DIRECTIONS: Rearranged the jumbled letters to get the correct
And since the area of the entire curve is 1, this implies that the area to answer.
the right of the 95th percentile is 0.05. Hence, the 95 th percentile is the
value of the variable t that has an area of 0.05 to the right. That means 1. (NAME ) This formula : x́=
∑ x ,stands for______?
finding the 95th percentile is looking for the t-value with an area to the
right of 0.05 under a t-distribution with 6 degrees of freedom.
N
2. (SIGNACIFINEC VEELL) This symbol α is for ______?
So, you are going to focus on the 6 degrees of freedom row, and in the 3. (THUNDDHERS) 98.7896 = 98.79 is rounded to the nearest
column containing the area to the right of 0.05. ______?
4. ( LACITRIC SEULAV) This symbol Zc represents ______?
5. ( CONIFDENCE EVELL) It is represented by a percentage that
refers to all possible samples that can be estimated to contain the true
population parameter is called ______?

PROPER LESSON
What is the difference between the Confidence Level and Confidence
interval?

The Confidence level of an interval estimate of a parameter is the

probability that the interval estimate contains a parameter, it describes
what percentage of intervals from many different samples contains the
unknown population parameter.
The confidence level has its corresponding coefficient which is called
confidence coefficients. These coefficients are used to find the margin
of error, for instance, the table below shows the corresponding
coefficient confidence level.
From the figure above, you can see that the value that you need is Confidence 99% 98% 96% 95% 92% 90 85 80 70
1.943. Level % % % %

0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.9 0.8 0.80 0.7

Hence the 95th percentile is 1.943. That means the t-value of 1.943 0 5 0
has 95% of the area to the left of it, or 0.95. Also, you can say that the 2.58 2.33 2.05 1.96 1.75 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.
t-value of 1.943 has an area of 0.05 to its right. And so, using the t- 45 4 8 04
table, you will find that the 95th percentile is 1.943.

Confidence interval or interval estimate is a range of values that is

EVALUATION
used to estimate a parameter. This estimate may or may not contain
A. DIRECTIONS: Most of us hate fake news, fake information, and
the true parameter value.
even fake friends. We need to develop our ability to distinguish what is
real from what is not. Write “REAL” if the statement is true about the t-
distribution and “FAKE” if it’s not. For instance, we write it in this form
_________1. The t-distribution is used to estimate population Lower limit < 𝜇< Upper limit
parameters when the sample size is small and/or the population Or
variance is unknown. (Lower limit, Upper Limit)
_________2. The mean, median and mode are all equal to zero. The Lower limit is obtained by using the formula LL= 𝑿 ̅ − 𝑬, while the
_________3. The variance is equal to 1. Upper limit is obtained by using the formula UL= 𝑿 ̅ + 𝑬, where E is the
_________4. The t-distribution curve is bell-shaped. Margin of Error and 𝑿 ̅ is the sample mean.
_________5. The standard deviation is always greater than 1.
_________6. Half of the total area under the t-distribution curve is As mentioned earlier, the confidence coefficient is used on finding the
equal to 1. margin of error, which is the range of values above and below the
_________7. The curve is symmetrical about its zero. sample statistic. For instance, Margin of error is obtained using the
_________8. The shape of the t-distribution curve depends on the formula:
sample mean.
_________9. The tails of the t-distribution curve approach the
horizontal axis but never touch it. where, n = sample size
_________10. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution 𝑧𝛼/2 = confidence coefficient
curve looks more and more like the normal distribution. 𝜎 = population standard deviation
B. DIRECTIONS: Tell whether each of the following statements E = margin of error
describes a t-distribution, a normal distribution, or both.
_________________1. The variance is equal to 1. But with this lesson, the margin of error will be given as well as the
_________________2. The probability distribution curve is bell- sample mean.
shaped.
_________________3. The probability distribution curve symmetrical Example:
about zero. A random sample of 46 scores from the examination of ABM learners
_________________4. The standard deviation is equal to 1. is taken and it gives a sample mean of 78 with the interval scores
_________________5. The shape of the distribution curve depends on between 77.18 and 78.82 having a 90% level of confidence.
the degrees of freedom Let’s answer the questions!
_________________6. It has the total area under its curve equal to 1 1. Which of the following is the 𝑥̅ in the given statement?
or 100%. Since it is given in the statement above, the sample mean is 78.
_________________7. It has lower peak and heavier tails. 2. What is the upper limit? What is the lower limit?
_________________8. Sample size is small and population variance is The upper limit is 78.82 while the lower limit is 77.18
unknown. 3. What is the margin of error in the given statement?
_________________9. It has tails that are asymptotic to the horizontal As we can see, the Margin of error is not directly mentioned, but the
axis. lower limit and upper limit is there. As mentioned earlier the formula of
_________________10. Its mean, median, and mode are equal to 0. the upper limit and the lower limit includes the Margin of error.
C. DIRECTIONS: Answer the following problems. LL= 𝑿 ̅ – E
1. Find the values of t for which the area on the right tail of the t- The Lower limit and mean are given so…
distribution is 0.05 77.18 = 78 – E
and the number of degrees of freedom is equal to: E = 78-77.18
a. 15 b. 28 c. 100 E = 0.82
2. Find the 99th percentile of the t-distribution with 18 degrees of Let’s see if we can get the same value of E if we use the formula for
freedom. the upper limit.
3. Find the 90th percentile of the t-distribution if the sample size is 25. 78.82 = 𝑿 ̅ + E
St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability
The Lower limit and mean are given. So, we have
78.82 = 78 + E
E = 78.82-78
E = 0.82
Therefore, the margin of error is 0.82
4. What is the confidence interval in the given statement? To find the
confidence interval, we have to use Lower limit < 𝝁< Upper limit and
substitute the given data. We have,
77.18 < 𝝁< 78.82 or (77.18, 78.82)
So, the Confidence interval is between 77.18 and 78.82.
5. What is the confidence level? How will you conclude?
The confidence level is 90%. So, we are 90% confident that the mean
score lies between 77.18 and 78.82.
Note: Sometimes, you just need to convert the formula to find what is
missing.

EVALUATION
A. You are planning to buy a cellphone with a good quality in order to
attend the online class. The average price of 50 cellphones is
Php13,500 with a margin of error of Php 273.65 and a confidence level
of 99%.
What is the lower limit? _______________________
What is the upper limit? _______________________
What is the confidence interval? ________________
If you have ₱13,100.00, is the amount lies within the confidence
interval? _________

B. A survey on 200 Senior High School learners on how much time

they read per week has a confidence interval of (13.5, 17.9) in hours at
95% confidence level.
What is the margin of error? _________________________
What is the average time they read per week? __________________

St. John College of Buug Foundation, Inc. 2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021 Statistics and Probability