PHYSICS 211

APPLICATION OF KINETIC ENERGY FORMULA

TO AUTOMOBILE ACCIDENT RECONSTRUCTION

November 17, 1994

Prepared for Professor Graney by:

Carl Sandler
 APPLICATION OF KINETIC ENERGY FORMULA
TO AUTOMOBILE ACCIDENT RECONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION:

In its short but bloody history, the automobile (with the cooperation of its driver) has
managed to kill more people than all our wars combined. The only instrument as
efficient in mass murder as the automobile is the atomic bomb. As strange as it may
seem, the bomb is used as a deterrent to war, but the automobile rolls merrily along.

It is unfortunate, but in this world we live in, an automobile is as lethal, if not more so,
than any assault weapon. The so-called automobile "accident" is frequently a result of
its driver violating rules and regulations designed to protect all motorists. Too often,
this "well-intentioned" licensed American driver controls a hurtling projectile that
disembowels, decapitates, and generally violates human beings to such a magnitude,
that Jack The Ripper seems a bumbling amateur by comparison.

When an injury or death has occurred as the result of a traffic accident, the
determination of actual contributing factors and vehicular dynamics of the collision are
the underlying basis for potential criminal prosecution. These "factors" also play a key
role in the upholding of an individual's civil rights and liberties. The scientific principles
used in traffic accident reconstruction are found in the study of Physics, and can be
traced to Newton's Laws of Motion.

I wonder if Sir Issac Newton ever considered his principles used in explaining celestial
movements would be applied to help convict criminals; or for that matter, protect the
rights and freedoms of a wrongfully accused individual.

OBJECTIVE:

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how the basic equations of distance,
velocity, work, and energy can be applied to reconstruct a traffic accident and
determine vehicle speed. Since most citizens of the United States are more
comfortable with measurements and units in the U.S.A. system, this paper has been
written in that form.

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THEORY:

Equations For Motion

The quantities used in the equations for an object in motion at a constant velocity are
time, distance, and velocity. Time is used to measure a duration in which motion
exists, and is represented by the symbol t. The unit of measurement is in seconds
(sec, s). Distance is the change in position of the object in motion with respect to some
fixed point. The symbol for distance is d, and it has units of feet (ft) or meters (m). The
velocity of an object in motion is its rate of motion. The rate of motion is the distance
traveled with respect to a certain period of time. It is represented by the symbol v, in
units of feet per second (ft/s) or meters per second (m/s). The equation for velocity is: v
= d/t. By manipulating this equation, distance or time can also be found so that: d = vt
or t = d/v.

It is frequently helpful to be able to convert miles per hour (mi/hr) to feet per seconds
(ft/sec), and vice versa. Because 1 mile = 5280 ft and 1 hr = 3600 sec, 1 mi/hr = 5280
ft / 3600 sec. Thus, the velocity in ft/sec = velocity in mi/hr times (5280/3600). This can
be expressed by the simple equation: ft/sec = 1.466 (mi/hr), or mi/hr = (ft/sec) / 1.466.

When an object slows down (decelerates) or speeds up (accelerates) it is no longer in

constant velocity. If the acceleration or deceleration is at a constant rate, its average
velocity (va) is ½ the sum of final velocity (vf) and initial velocity (vi). This is given by
the equation: va = ½ (vf + vi).

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity of an object with respect to time. A

change in velocity is the difference in velocities; final velocity - initial velocity (vf - vi).
The quantity of time in which the change takes place is t. Since acceleration is the
difference (change) in velocity over a period of time, a = (vf - vi) / t. The unit of
acceleration is ft/sec².

If the final velocity is lower than the initial velocity, the object has slowed down and
undergone a negative acceleration (deceleration). However, if an object's final velocity
is higher than its initial velocity, it has speeded up and accelerated. How quickly the
velocity changes during this time period is called the acceleration rate.

Combinations of the fundamental velocity equation and acceleration equation can be

manipulated into many useful forms. They can be used to solve for time (t), final
velocity (vf), initial velocity (vi), and distance. Some examples follow.

Time in terms of acceleration an velocity change: t = (vf - vi) / a

Final velocity in terms of time, acceleration, and initial velocity: vf = vi + (a)(t)

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Initial velocity in terms of time, acceleration, and final velocity: vi = vf - (a)(t)

Distance in terms of velocity change:

d = (va)(t) & va = ½ (vf + vi)
d = (vf + vi) (t)
2

Distance in terms of time, acceleration, and initial velocity: d = (vi)(t) + ½(a)(t²)

Acceleration in terms of time, initial velocity, and distance: a = {[2d - 2(vi)(t)]} / t²

Initial velocity in terms of time, acceleration, and distance: vi = {(d/t) - (at/2)}

Equations Without The Time Variable

Distance in terms of acceleration and velocity change: d = (vf² - vi²) / 2a

Acceleration in terms of velocity change and distance: a = (vf² - vi²) / 2d

Final velocity in terms of acceleration, initial velocity, and distance: vf = vi² + 2ad

Initial velocity in terms of acceleration, final velocity, and distance: vi = vf² - 2ad

Work (W)

The work, W, done on an object by a force, F, is defined as the product of the

magnitude of the force and the distance that the object moves in the direction of the
force. This is given by the equation: W = Fd, and has units of foot-pounds (ft-lbs) or
Newton-meters (N-m).

Work represents the amount of energy transformed from one form to another.

Kinetic Energy (KE)

The energy of motion of an object is called kinetic energy. In order to derive an

equation for kinetic energy, assume an object is at rest (vi = 0). It is acted upon by a
force, F, and it moves a distance, d. With these assumptions, the following equations
are used:

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vf = vi + (a)(t) & d = (vi)(t) + ½(a)(t²)

Because vi = 0, these equations become: vf = (a)(t) & d = ½(a)(t²)

Solve the first equation for t: t = vf / a

Substitute this into the second equation: d = ½(a)(vf / a)²

Simplify: d = ½(vf² / a)

Newton's second law of motion states that an unbalanced force, acting upon an object
will cause the object to accelerate in the direction of the force. The acceleration is
directly proportional to the resultant force acting on the object and inversely
proportional to the object's mass. This can be stated by the following equations: F =
ma & a = F/m.

Substituting F = ma into W = Fd gives: W = (m)(a)(d)

Substituting d = ½(vf² / a) into W = Fd gives: W = (m)(a)[½(vf² / a)]

Simplify: W = ½mv²

Since all the work done on the object has accelerated it to a velocity, this work is kinetic
energy (KE); the energy due to motion. Therefore, KE can be defined as:
KE = W = ½mv².

Mass

This is a good time to introduce mass. As stated in Newton's second law, F = ma. In
free-fall, the force of an object is its weight, w. The acceleration is that which is
produced by gravity, g. Therefore, the force of weight, Fw = mg. Thus, mass is simply
weight divided by the acceleration of gravity, m = w/g.

Coefficient Of Friction (μ)

Friction can be thought of as the resisting force to motion between two surfaces at their
point of contact. A definition for the force of friction, (Ff) can be expressed by the
following equation: Force of friction (Ff) = Coefficient of friction ( μ) x the Normal Force
(Fn); Ff = μFn. To solve for μ, the following equation is used: μ = Ff / Fn. A simplified
explanation for μ is that the coefficient of friction is the horizontal force divided by the
vertical force, which is the object's weight when the object is sliding across the surface.

In the reconstruction of automobile accidents, it is important to know the coefficient of

friction (μ) between the vehicle's tires and the road surface. This can be determined in
several ways; first, the actual accident vehicle can be used at the accident scene to
produce a series of test skids (braking situation in which the wheels are locked) at the
posted speed limit, or estimated speed of the vehicle. If the accident skids are longer
than the test (posted speed limit) skids, direct proof exists that the vehicle's speed was
greater than that of the posted speed limit. If the vehicle is driveable, the use of an
electronic device known as an accelerometer would be appropriate in this situation, if
available. The accelerometer is designed to provide data about the acceleration of a
vehicle. Included in this data is a value for μ.

If the vehicle is not driveable, or if an accelerometer is not available, the use of a "drag
sled" is a perfectly acceptable way to determine the coefficient of friction. The
construction and use of this device is listed below.

1) A section of a vehicle's tire is obtained. It should measure approximately 12" in

length.

2) The tire section is filled with concrete, and a threaded eye-bolt with a flat washer and
nut are placed in one end of the concrete filled tire. Allow concrete to set.

3) Obtain a weight scale. (The type used to measure the weight of a hanging fish)

4) Attach weight scale to concrete filled tire and record weight.

5) Slide tire along the section of road where accident occurred by pulling on weight
scale. It is important to keep weight scale parallel with road surface when sliding
tire. Record force required to slide tire in a straight line at a constant velocity.

6) The concrete filled tire's weight will be the Normal Force (Fn) and the force required
to pull the tire along the road will be the Force of Friction (Ff). By using the formula,
μ= Ff / Fn, the coefficient of friction can be determined.

Derivation Of Minimum Speed Equation

At this point, a formula for determining a minimum speed, based on the definitions of
Work and Kinetic Energy (KE) can be derived. Symbols and constants used in this
derivation are as follows:

KE = Kinetic Energy - energy of motion = ½MV²

g = Acceleration of gravity - 32.2 feet per second² (32.2 ft/s²)
 Fw = Weight in pounds
S = Speed in miles per hour (mi/hr)
V = Velocity in feet per second (ft/s)
μ = Coefficient of friction
D = Distance in feet
M = Mass or weight / gravity
30 = Constant that arises in the derivation process
1.466 = Conversion factor - 5280/3600

While a vehicle is moving, it has Kinetic Energy equal to ½MV². When the brakes lock
and the wheels start to slide, the Kinetic Energy of the vehicle must be equal to the
work it can do while it slides to a stop. The vehicle's work energy is found by
multiplying the vehicle's weight (Fw) by the coefficient of friction ( μ) by the distance it
will slide in stopping (D). This is expressed by the equation: Work = (Fw)( μ)(D). Since
Kinetic Energy must equal work done in stopping, the following equation can be
applied: FwμD = ½MV².

Derivation Steps:

1) Change M to Fw/g and divide out Fw: (FwμD) / Fw = [½(Fw/g)V²] / Fw

μD = (1/2g)(V²)

2) Multiply both sides by 2g: (2g)(μD) = (2g)(1/2g)(V²)

V² = (2g)(μD)

3) Change g to 32.2: V² = (2)(32.2)(μD), V² = (64.4)(μD)

4) Change V² to mi/hr: [(S)(1.466)]² = (64.4)(μD)

(S)²(2.15) = (64.4)(μD)

5) Divide each side by 2.15: [(S)²(2.15)] / 2.15 = [(64.4)(μD)] / 2.15

S² = (30)(μD)

6) Take the square root of both sides, leaving: S = 30μD

This equation can now be used to determine a minimum speed from skid marks left at
the scene of an accident.
Equipment Used:

25' Measuring Tape

100' Measuring Tape
200' Measuring Tape
Sidewalk Chalk
Drag Sled (as described in theory)

PROCEDURE:

1) Upon arrival, tend to injured, if fatality notify Coroner.

2) Secure scene, prohibit access to unauthorized personnel.

3) Record witness statements if applicable.

4) Identify and record scene, vehicle, occupant, and witness information.

5) Photograph scene.

6) Identify, mark, and document final rest of vehicles and bodies.

7) Identify, mark, and document any evidence indicating approach angles, point of
impact, and departure angles.

8) Record scene data on field notes. Determine coefficient of friction.

9) Impound vehicles if applicable. Clear scene.

10) Use appropriate formulas and scene data to determine pre-collision events.

11) If case merits prosecution, present findings to Commonwealth Attorney's Office.

DATA, DATA ANALYSIS, & ERROR ANALYSIS:

This report is based on an actual accident in which a small child was killed. Much of
the data recorded at the accident scene cannot be disclosed pending the outcome of
this case. However, information needed to determine the vehicle speed is accurate
and representative of the events as they occurred that day.

A child playing in the front yard with friends, has run out between cars parked on the
side of the street, to retrieve a ball. The driver of a southbound vehicle sees the child
and applies the vehicle's brakes. The vehicle strikes and kills the child.

Scene Data:

Posted Speed Limit 25 mi/hr

Driver's Stated Speed 25 mi/hr
Length of Longest Skidmark 60 ft
Weight of Drag Sled (Fn) 17 lbs
Force required To Pull Drag Sled (Ff) 13 lbs
Weather Conditions Sunny - 78F - Wind Calm
External Contributing Factors None Detected

Data Analysis:

In addition to calculating a minimum speed for this vehicle based on the evidence found
at the accident scene, I would like to analyze the distances traveled by this vehicle
while its driver perceives the hazard, reacts to the situation, and brings the vehicle to a
stop. These distances will be calculated for both the posted speed limit and the speed
at which I have determined the vehicle to be traveling.

Calculation of Minimum Speed: S =  30 D μ

μ = Ff / Fn S =  (30)(60)(0.76)
μ = 13 lbs. / 17 lbs. S = 36.99 mi/hr
μ = 0.76 S = 36 mi/hr
Distances At Posted Speed Limit Of 25 Mi/Hr:

The presence of skidmarks left at the scene of an accident can play a vital role in
determining the pre-accident events. If the exact location of the beginning of a
Skidmark can be determined, a point has been established in which the
perception/reaction phase has ended and the vehicle slowing phase has begun. It is
accepted practice in medical, law enforcement, and legal circles to allow 1.5 seconds
for a person operating a motor vehicle to perceive a danger and react to it. Therefore,
the following calculations incorporate this assumption.

Convert miles per hour to feet per second:

(25 miles / 1hour) (5280 feet / 1mile) (1 hour / 3600 seconds) = [(25)(5280 ft)] / 3600
sec
132,000 ft / 3600 sec = 36.66 ft/sec

Perception / Reaction Distance: 36.66 ft/sec x 1.5 sec = 54.99 ft

Stopping Distance At 25 mi/hr:

Since S =  30 D μ
D = S² / 30 μ
D = 25² / [(30)(0.76)]
D = 625 / 22.8
D = 27.4 ft

Total Distance = Perception / Reaction Distance + Stopping Distance

Total Distance = 54.99 ft + 27.4 ft
Total Distance = 82.4 ft

Distances At Calculated Speed Of 36 Mi/Hr:

S =  30 D μ
S =  (30)(60)(0.76)
S = 36.99 mi/hr
S = 36 mi/hr

Convert miles per hour to feet per second:

(36 miles / 1hour) (5280 feet / 1mile) (1 hour / 3600 seconds) = [(36)(5280 ft)] / 3600
sec
190,080 ft / 3600 sec = 52.8 ft/sec
Perception / Reaction Distance: 52.8 ft/sec x 1.5 sec = 79.2 ft

Stopping Distance At 36 mi/hr:

Since S =  30 D μ
D = S² / 30 μ
D = 36² / [(30)(0.76)]
D = 1296 / 22.8
D = 56.8 ft

Total Distance = Perception / Reaction Distance + Stopping Distance

Total Distance = 79.2 ft + 56.8 ft
Total Distance = 136 ft

Error Analysis:

Since traffic accident reconstruction is largely dependent upon measurements of

physical evidence, it is important to be as accurate as possible when measuring this
evidence. However, a problem can arise when these measurements are taken. For
example, consider an accident scene where the length of a skidmark must be
measured. The beginning of a skid is evidenced only by a "shadow" mark, gradually
becoming darker and more pronounced. If three different people were to measure this
mark, three different readings would be obtained. The same principle applies when
measuring vehicle "crush" damage to calculate a speed based on energy loss.

For these reasons, you will find most law enforcement agencies engaged in accident
reconstruction, will calculate formulas to the nearest 1/100th, and then round a vehicle's
calculated speed down to the nearest mile per hour figure. In essence, this helps to
offset the potential for variance in measurements, in addition to giving the benefit of
doubt to the vehicle's driver.

To the mathematician, physicist, or engineer, this practice may "raise some eyebrows,"
but one must consider that traffic accident reconstruction is as much an art as it is a
science. Scientific methods and physical principles must be combined with real world
experiences and practices to arrive at realistic conclusions.
Conclusion:

In the reconstruction of traffic accidents, many concepts associated with physics are
used. The principles of work and energy can be used to answer questions concerning
speed estimates from skidmarks, the effect of grade on coefficient of friction, and many
other issues.

In this paper, I have tried to provide an abbreviated view of how work and energy are
related in bringing a moving vehicle to a stop. From this relationship, I have shown how
physical evidence at the scene of an accident can provide information and proof as to a
vehicle's pre-crash speed. In addition, I have demonstrated the distances traveled
during the perception/reaction phase and stopping phase of an accident.

In regard to this paper, I have proven that the stated driver's speed is not the speed at
which the vehicle was actually traveling. In addition, the next (and final) page of this
paper will demonstrate that this vehicle could have been brought to a stop prior to any
contact with the child, if the posted speed limit had been obeyed.