A. E. C.

8
SECTION 2

PHYSICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS

---z
........... ...,.am :us 7- s q _w
$'1
w'

LESSON TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS 63~-

2 INSTRUMENTATION TERMINOLOGY 81 c---

3 DIRECT READING PRESSURE GAUGES 89 G.-'""

4 TRANSMITTING PRESSURE GAUGE 99

5 BOOST AND MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGES 109/''---

6 DEADWEIGHT TESTERS 117~

- -- ------ -----~.-.-¥~-~-
 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 1
BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

BOURDON TUBE 65

DIAPHRAGM AND CAPSULE ELEMENTS

BELLOWS ELEMENTS 68

MECHANICS

LEVER-LENGTH ADJUSTMENT

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 77

y 63
 A. E. C. 8

SECTION 2: LESSON 1

BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions, be able to:-

1 Define the general terms used in the mechanics of aircraft

instruments

2 Define lever length & lever angle

3 State the relationship between Lever length & instrument

reading

4 State the relationship between lever angle & instrument

reading.

5 State the behaviour between lever length & lever angle on

instrument adjustments

6 Identify the differences between positive & negative gauge

pressure

7 Identify a Bourdon tube type pressure instrument

8 State the .effect of variations of ambient pressures on the

calibration of pressure gauges.

9 Define ABSOLUTE Pressure

10

11
Identify the difference between Differential Pres sure gauges
& Absolute Pressure gauges

List practical examples of Differential Pressure & Absolute

Pressure gauges.
•
12 State the relationship between pressure & deflection with a
simple diaphragm element.

13 Identify the various types of diaphragm capsules and bellows

types of ins~ruments.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT P .11 - P. 22;

64 P • 299 - P. 301
 BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS

1. BOURDON TUBE

By far the most common direct method of pressure measurement

is to use the Bourdon tube. The Bourdon-tube pressure gauge
is probably the most widely emp!oyed instrument in the world.

A brief look at the principle of its operation will show that it

is not the mas t exact piece of equipment.

The principle of its operation depends upon two sides of a

fla ttened tube being forced further and further apart by
increasing internal pressure. If such a tube is bent into a
coil it will tend to uncoil and straighten under internal
pressure.

To see why the tube straightens out, refer to the tube as

illustrated in fig 1 (a). This shows the tube marked out into
sections l, 2, 3, 4 5. Take any section and consider the
I

action of internal pressure.

Taking section 3 as an example, fig 1 (b), it consists of

the inner wall XY which is parallel to the outer wall MN.
I

When a pres sure 1s a ppl1ed to the tube the cros s section

changes and now consists of the inner wall in poSition XUl
and the outer wall in poSition Ml Nl. The effect of the
pressure on the inner wall tends to compress the length XY
into XLYl and that the reaction of Rl of the inner wall is
outward from the centre of the section towards Xl and YI.
Similarly, the effect of the press ure on the outer wall tends
to stretch the length MN to Ml Nl and in this case the
reaction R2 of the outer wall is from M land Nl towards the
centre of the section.

~
f one end of the tube is fixe~ the free end will move, and with
suitable amplification can actuate an indicating or recording
member.

2. DIAPHRAGM AND CAPSULE ELEMENTS

Fig 2 Principle of simple Diaphragm Element

 . _de,;Jd'4~7'e d/"""",,/ tP/? /re"..r..r; ,....,'--.r.«~-a;~.
/h~/pp'J. ~r&/,7ze < /0&0 /JJr
) ~e7#'v,q7 c:~/ < /~tPoo /J~
ft /2!et:-/ (o/?t ftP *.0/~ /,- .
//;'hJ~ flAb//
'%r &,,;-b·) M-f
\

2 I 1
"//~;/
, I ~/
3 "I
, I ;'
/
, 1/
\ -----¥
\ //1

·5

F'"tG 1 A
•
~~---------

66 FIG. 2
 TO POINTER TO POINTI:R

VACUUM

3'~/ /~
r t\a) ABSOLUTE PRESSURE.
(b) GAUGE PRESSURE.

PRESSURE
.. " :. ; . ::' ':. ' .. : ; ' . : ' , :: . : ' ...

HIGH PRESSURE
eel DIffERENTIAl. PRESSURE.

'W . 3 USE OF THE BELLOWS .

 /I. diaphragm gauge cons ists basica ll y of a fla t or corrugated plate
o r capsule The diaphragm Is firml y held around the pertrreer and
0

th e del.lection o f the centre under p ressu re becomes a measure o f

tha t pres sure 0

Sometimes the d eflection of the diaphragm is o pposed by the spri ng

qualities of the d iaphragm Itself On other occasions a spri ng is
0

added to li mi t the d iaphragm deflection 0

(Capsu le and diaphragm e l ements a re us uall y em plo yed [o r

~l iltivelY low pressures 0

{Note : 1\ c apsul e is formed [rom two diaphragms the peripheries ve illY

L soldered together 0

30 \lL: LLOWS CLeMeNTS (l °ig 3 )

• A bellows is il tube with walls showing co rrugation s i n longitudinal

~ct ion The corrugations make the tube much more eas lly d eflected
0

~sua ll Y pressure iS1!fplied to one s id e and op posed by a spring

me mber on the other~ Th e pressure range of the bellows depend s 011
its ef fective cross sectiona l are2.., and the spring tens ion 0
0

maY ",r rtr.-j/~

• //"r,p/ Ct'.H7/-a / ~ /.?? ==- ~ /?'

• A CNd.l'e d'n;, 7# _ 'b> t?a"9"",~7 ";"'cr",,,/~.r

/ r
 MECHANICS

In aircraft instruments the most common form of presentation is a pointer

moving over a dial suitably calibrated in the units which are being measured.
o
The pointer movement normally covers an arc of approx. 300 . In mechan-
ically operated instruments the variable quantity measured by the detectL1g
element is relatively small and the response of the element is correspondingly
small. Therefore a form of magnification must be used to transform the
initially small element movement to the much larger movement oj. the pointer
over the dial. A' cOmmon ~agnifYing mechanis m~mployed is a <gnk, lever,
quadrant and Pinion)(see fig 1).

In a simp! e bourdon tube ins trument as shown in fig 1 the free end of the
bourdon tube res ponds to pressure changes 1n the tube by moving an amOuf_t
proportional to the pressure change, for example, a change in pressure from
zero to 100 p.s.i. could cause a movement of 0.150 in of the free end of tl-.e
bourdon tube t> This small movement IS required to move the pointerothrough
an arc of 3 00 . In this case then we have a pointer movement of 2 for every
o
0.001 in of movement of the bourdon tube or 3 for a change of 1 p. 5 .1.
I

Consider how this rnovernen"L of the pointer is brought about. As t1-.e pressure
in a bourdon tube increases the free end tends to move outwards pulling tiL€;
link outwards. This will cause the quadrant to rotate about its pivot and
drive the pinion to rotate the pointer. The gear ratio between the qtiacira:-"
and pinion will be one point where magnification can take place bu~ we are
still dependant upon the arc through which the quadrant geared portion
moves. This arc can be finely adjus ted by alteration of the lever-lenC·~1.

LEVER-LENGTH ADJUSTMENT~" ~~ ~ Pr -p<e ('rrt?-7

In the instrument illustrated in fig 1 the lever length is the distance between
the point of attachment of the link to the lever and the pivot of the
quadrant. To simplify the problem I remove the quadrant and pinion so that
the pointer is at the end of the lever, (fig 4). Movement of the

\.

fi
J

INPUT MOVEMENT

r
:. :."',
 bourdon tube will result In link movement and operation of the lever and
pointer. With the instrument shown in fig.4 the pointe~ is pivoted centrally . .•
and output movement (pointer movement) is equal to th~ input movement
(Lever movement). If the pivot was to be moved in suclf a direction as to
increase the lever length output movement will now be reduced for the
I

same input movement. fig. 5.

LINK

--- ---
· -----_1
- - - - I~-
INCRFASED LEVER LEN~~____ _ I /1
I~ -
INPUT
MOVEMENT
FIG: 5
Similarly if the pivot was moved to reduce the lever length output move- I

ment will now be increased for the same input movement fig. 6 .

......
-
...... ......
......

-
<
-
DECREASED LEVER
LENGTH
FIGs 6
It can be seen then, that by keeping the lever length short it is possible
to give a magnification of the detecting elements s mall movements. This
principle of alteration of the lever length to change the output movement
is made use of in the calibration of many instruments. A typical example
of this is shown in TABLE 1 where an. instrument under test has its
readings compared against a master instrument and shows a REGULARLY
increasing negative error i. e. for an increase of each unit (1) on the
master instrument the instrument increases by only 0.8

70
 TABLE 1
INSTRUMENT
MASTER ERROR
UNDER TEST
0 0 0
1 0.8 -0.2
2 1.6 -0.4
3 2.4 -0.6
4 3.2 -0.8

In the instrument under test the pointer 1s not moving as far as it should for
a given input movement. As we have already seen the output movement
can be increased by shortening the lever length and in the case quoted in
TABLE 1 an adjustment to the lever length to decrease the length will clear
the error. If the error had been in a positive direction then one would
have increased lever length .

• To summarize, A DECREASE IN LEVER LENGTH WOULD GIVE AN INCREASE

IN THE INSTRUMENT READING, while an INCREASE IN LEVER LENGTH
WOULD GIVE A DECREASE IN THE INSTRUMENT READING FOR A GIVEN
INPUT.
)

~.

Magnification, and calibration, can take place at another point in mechanical

instruments I and that point is the angle of the link to the lever, which is
known as the LEVER ANGLE fig 7 .
~

LEVER ANGLE _(I. LINK

L
!

r
<=------------------------------~.----------~.~
o f
I
1
i
~.
t
i
•
Fit; 7 i.
I.
The lever angle, unlike the lever length, is not a constant value . As the f
detecting element moves and in so doing moves the link and lever so the l
f,.
angle will change and not remain a light angle.. If the link moves vertically
downwards then the angle will become acute, and if it moves upwards the
angle will become obtus e.. As the angle changes so also will the amount
of pointer movement for a given input, fig 8 ..

71
... l'..:)

A4
A3
A2
LEVER ANGLE

-51
A1

A.
84
83
t
LINK MOVEiviENT C+)
82
10 B1
SCALE S B
POINT
I
10
I
+ 51
.. I
LEVER LENGTH

..fo'4-r¢.,,-.<--Z; ,t:e'P,?_ ~~ ~
ttrr? ';-r,1fi,-;-;.. cre7
er,..z9"A

C'rre[~i;i7.1' /f?~?€- ,./'ZO~~ ~4 .

FIG ~ (~:~. AV'~ j:)
f#;e:r ,/'kre~ }:;..
From fig 8 it can b;8 that as the link moves in eq
. ual steps the pointer
movement is not equa . As the obtuse angle becomes greater so the
amount of movement of the pointer becomes progressively greater, also
as the acute angle becomes smaller so the amount of pointer movement
becomes greater) Use is made
of this effect in the calibration of many instruments I an example is
shown in table 2, where the instrument under test has a positive
IRREGULARLY increasing error.

TABLE 2

~~
MASTER INSTRUMENT ERROR
UNDER TEST

0 0 0
1. 1 .1 +0.1
2 2.2 +0.2
3 3.4 +0.4
4 4.7 +0.7

If the lever length was increased to attempt to reduce the error at the
top end of the scale this would tend to introduce a neg.atlve error at the
lower end. In this case then a lever angle adjustment 1s called for,
the starting angle having to be reduced so that the errors at the top end
of the scale are reduced whilst those at the bottom are hardly affected.
It will be found in practice that an adjustment of lever length will also
cause a change in lever angle as one is directly dependant upOn the
other, but a little practice will suffice to achieve a combination of angle
and length adjustments, so providing suitable correction for most
instrument errors. "'.

fig 9(a), (b) (c) show some typical examples of lever length and lever
I

angle adjustments. In the examples shown in fig 9 (a) and (b) the lever
angle adjustment is obtained by slackening off 2 screws and pivoting
the pointer and quadrant mechanism and then tightening the screws again
afterwards. The remainder of the adjustments are annotated on these
rigures overleaf.
TABLE 3 ( c~"..,//,,;;p/;r E~~#~)
MASTER . INSTRUMENT ERROR
UNDER TEST
o 0'.1 +0.1
1 1.1 +0.1
2 2.1 +0.1
3 3.1 +0.1
4 4.1 +0.1 to

----------
Table 3 shows an ins trument with a cons tant error. Here the instrument
movement is in calibra tlon but there lS a pOinter error. Changes of lever
I

length or lever angle would not correct, but would introduce errors in the
movement. (In this case the pointer would be removed and replaced in the
correct pos i tion ) .

73 (5)
 LINK

LEVER LENGTH ADJUSTED

r
~.
BY BENDING LEVER
~.
a LEVER ANGLE ADJUSTED I
BY MOVING MECHANISM t
I

BOURDON TUBE

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ADJUSTED
b BV MOVING LEVER SLOT

BOURDON TUBE

I·
f
t

Fig 9 EXAMPLES OF LEVER LENGTH/ANGLE ADJUSTMENT Issue 2

75ls)
 A. E. C. 8
SECTION 2: LESSON 1 "
;.
,.
SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

1 An instrument under test has a constant value error this

may be corrected by adjusting the

e a pOinter position
b lever length
c lever angle
~.,
I
"

2 An instrument under test has a regularly Increasln2. error this

may be corrected by adjusting the
i,

a pointer position
p b lever length
c lever angle

3 Lever angle is the angle between the

I
_ a
link and lever
b pinion and pOinter
c lever and quadrant I
i
l'
ri'

4 A pres sure gauge, such as a hydraulic brake pres sure

gauge indicates 1, 000 p. s . i. In terms of absolute pressure,
this represents

a 1000 psi
b 985.3 psi
, c 1,014.7 psi

;-
5 Increasing lever length for a given input to an instrument will

a increase the reading

b decrease the reading
c have no effect on reading

77(5)
f[
I"
 A.E.C.B
SECTION 2: LESSON 2
INSTRUMENTATION TERMINOLOGY

v
01 ';wAr"\.,

• -#'" -
.\
"tJI"".
.'" CONTENTS

. t. PAGE NO .

ACCURACY 83

PRECISION 83

SENSITNITY

CALIBRATION 84

ERROR

CORRECTION

TOLERANCE

-. HYSTERESIS

lAG
87

87

81
y
 A. E. C. 8
SECTION 2: LESSON 2
,
INSTRUMENTATION TERMINOLOGY "
'

!,

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions be able to:

1 Recall the true meaning of the terms:

accuracy
precision
sensitivity
calibration
error
correction
tolerance
hysteresis
lag

2 State the B. S. reference for the terms used in 1

3 State the relationship between grades of instrument

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

82 y
 f.1 ACCTTRACY

The modern airoraft instrument is the means of providing the infor-

mation required by the pilot at any given moment' whether for an in
flight oondition, preparatory to take off or after landing
situation.

The instruments are designed to be reliable for a stated "life".

Operational delay through instrument failure is expensive.

The safety and eoonomics of modern airline operation demands

extremely close limits on
Flight Control, Navigation t and Engine Performanoe.

Provision of aocurate, readily available information with the

minimum delay is essential.

The following terms are general to all instruments regardless

of their specific funotion.

Accuracy implies truth. An instrument is said to be accurate if

it agrees with a true measure.

The inaccurnoy of a measurement is a matter of degree.

(tccuracy implies comparison~ There is a need for regular checks

at periodic intervals by comparing the instrument with a Master
Instrument or a Test Set under Specifio Test Conditions.

It is the aim of the responsible person to recognise, and correct

or minimise instrument error to within the laid down limits.

1.2 PRECISION

Precision means exactness.

In a precision instrument the repeatability of reading should be

•
ezact •

For example let us take two instruments of a similar type (A and B)

and check them against a sub-standard.

A and B show an error of + 2 per cent, both have the same degree of
ACCl1RACY.

On a subsequent check against the sub-standard IN COMPARISON

INSTRTTMENT A now has a + 1 per cent error. A has HIGHER
ACCURACY.
INSTRUMENT B has still a + 2 per cent error. B has GREATER
PRECISION.

(A preclslon instrument can be defined as an instrument in whioh the

reading is re eated over and over again with test conditions
remaining constant.

83
 1.3 SENSITIVITY

The sensitivity of an instrument is a measure of theCrati~of

OUTPUT to INPUT.)

Putting this another way, the change in deflection of an instrument

per torque unit applied is sensitivity. An example of this is given
when comparing a Pilot's Altimeter with his Cabin Pressurisation
Altimeter. Both respond to pressure changes. However the ,ointer
on the Pilot's Altimeter will rotate 1 revolution for a pressure
change equal to 1000 ft of altitude.

The pressurisation Cabin Altimeter for the same pressure change will
move the pointer only one tenth of a revolution of the dial. The
Pilot's Altimeter has a greater output for a given input and hence
the higher sensitivity.

1.4 CALIBRATION

The calibration of an instrument~s the method of showing units

(physical or electrical) on the dlal. For example the dial of a
pressure gauge may be calibrated in lbs/in 2 , kilograms/cm2 , inches
of water or mercury and so on.

Check calibration is the process of determining by experiment or test

how the marked graduation on an instrument correspond to the absolute
values.
The perfect instrument, that is one that is 10~ accurate, is
obtainable only in theory. In practice instruments are made to
operate within a permissable percentage error.

To ensure instruments are maintaining their reliability in service,

they have to be range tested against a known standard at periodic
time intervals.

(TO calibrate an instrument is to adjust ~he machanism to obtain the

required accuracy of reading for that type of instrument~

1.5 ERROR
(Instrument error is the difference between the observed reading and
the true reading9. This is positive (+) when the observed reading is
greater than the true reading. Being negative (-) when the observed
•
reading is less than the true reading.

ERROR is always referred to the true reading.

(Errors are generally quoted as a percentage of the true quantity)at

any particular loading.
For indicating instruments the limits are usually expressed as a
percentage of scale range. (See Tolerance Para. 1.1).

84
 t.6 CORRECTION

The correction at any point of the scale€s the amount which must be
added algebraically to the observed reading to obtain the true readingj

Correction is always of opposite sign to the error and referred to

the observed reading.

F:XAMPLES

TRUE READING OBSr~VED RF..ADING ERROR CORRECTION

VOLTMETER 6 volts 8 volts + 2 volts 2 volts

f'.JRSPEP.D
HTl)ICATOR
100 knots 98 knots 2 kftots + 2 knots

1.7 TOLfmNCE

The tolerance of an instrument(iB the amount by which it is permitted

to depart from the true reading and still perform its function~

Tolerance is permissable or allowable error.

In the mechanical sense the tolerance is the permissable range of

dimension of a finished piece, provided to cover minute and un-
avoidable inaccuracies in pieces fitted together. A laid down
gauge limit.

An instrument should be designed, manufactured and maintained to be

as accurate as possible. For practical use and economy reasons an
'approved' or laid down tolerance from the standard is permissable
and necessary. This tolerance or permissable error is usually
quoted in one of .three W8ys:-
-
a) As a percentage of scale range.

e· b)
c)
As a percentage of observed reading.
As a given amount on either side of a scale reading,
which may vary as the Beale progresses.

85
 100
M
-
~..,. W
//. V
80 ~Z ,~
/z "-
/7- 7
I~~V
~ZV TOLERANCE AS A
eo
MASTER
/~ ~
INSTRUMENT ~rzl'
READING ~r/V
40 ..,.r/:V
//.11"
..,. r/.v
~ ~V

20 / :;1,7
/Z7
--L ~V
.L :;I,V
o 'L.V
o 20 40 60 80 100
INSTRUMENT UNDER TEST

100
r-r- t7~t;I~
r'\ 1/ l;' ./
I-.~ •.11/ /
80
~
/ ' /ro /r'>~
~
1/ 7
, ,

'"
V'" ~
eo V'/' TOLERANCE AS A
~
MASTER
INSTRUMENT ',/ I/' ~
READING // /
~L /
40
/ )illY
/ r/~
~v
~,
20

,~
--
-
~
o I I
o 20 40 eo 80 100
INSTRUMENT UNDER TEST

100
~lI"
, V7 /
Irl;' ~
1'1/ .AI
80
V[J' ~
//
// /
..,. "' '"
MASTER
INSTRUMENT
READING
eo

40
/~
/~/
..,.7,/
/Z/
...
IY / /
/ / ..t.
/
V/ /
/ / 1/

~ '" TOLERANCE AS A
GIVEN AMOUNT
~-

II),aI ~/
20
rJ'~
~
/ "'//
,
LIl ~/
o W

<J 86
o 20 40
INSTRUMENT UNDER TEST
60 80 100

\l Fig.1.1 lssue 2
 ....

.8ICIJ.U 1.8 IDfWWU

~ JlUUfaotu:N .. iuu...t is npeated17 .u..ael OYW

it. full· ....e. DariIac _18 ;pI'OOIIU .~.
'bee. . .

• .-be
PI'OCNUi.~
IIbou14 r
leN -.ti.11t reaaa.. an &00 ~. It
Sa at tId8 ~ W\leu tile -x. . . . . . . , . . .

_w_''!)ia
.... ..... .,......
_tm.al 18 daat1oa"r ....1Ga4e4.
(!he cl1tt.--c* oz1.cjMl RIO podtiaa ... 1.
pcNI1Uoa after iItz ••
'

~1.9 UA

.... _ _
• cale.
lot......
tile ...:le.
~.

~.'1 .•
" _ at ..,alu poiatw IDs.. ....
at Np1R poiata oceI'II . . .

!be 41ft...,. 1a .a'. .tM.

...... of . . 1-.
. . .' _ at tile . . . . . ot.ten u
pcdat.
•
. , plotUitc • oun of .rIO__.... _to • pYla, Wi• . ,
uar_ e1 ne ad deena.... ,......, tM cU.tt. . . . . . . . . . tIM
... ow •• ftpr-t!Il- tile ~ of . . SM. I t.

.po •

87 (5)
 f
I
, ,

A.E.C. 8

SECTION 2

LESSON 3

DIRECT READING PRESSURE GAUGES

"
(
t
~,
~
CONTENTS t,
i:'
.1,
I

t~
"

PAGE
~.
GENERAL 91
I
OPERATION 91 I',
r.
~~
TESTING 91 v ~

r,

~
SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 95
I,

t
P
L
f'
~
i;

[
i
Ii' ,
~
!'

,
I:.
'(
~',

'<.

~.. , •• =

}{"
t,

89 j',
1j

y t;,',\
F"· .
1·:
h' .
 LESSON OBJECTIVES

On completion of this lesson the student will, on answering multichoice

questions be able to

1 Describe the construction of a bourdon tube indicator

2 Explain how a negative pressure bourdon tube indicator differs

from a positive pressure gauge.

3 Explain the purpose of the hairspring

4 Explain the purpose of the capillary

5 Describe the method of testing

RECOMMENDED FURTHER RFADING

1. AEC 8 COURSE NOTES; Section 2 - Lesson 6

2. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E.H. J. Pallett P. 301 - P. 302

90
y
 AEC 8 SECTION 2

LESSON 3

DIRECT READING PRESSURE GAUGES

3.1 GENERAL

Direct reading pressure gauges are connected by pipelines to the

source of pressure and are usually of the bourdon tube type.
Negative pressure gauges are either connected to a source of vacuum
or, as in the cabintdifferential pressure gauge~Ghe bourdon tube is
connected to static and the case is open to cabin pressure..) .
To maintain a clockwise pointer rotation the bourdon tube is reversed
in the case (fig. 2). ~ '" ,
Some gauges have an outward relief valve Cincorporated in the cas,g. as
a safety d~vlce in the,ev~t of a bourdon tube fractur:)
A copper~aPillary tUDe, (acting. as a ~l.1q~e, is used to connect the
input union to the bourdon tUbe)
The end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link I the othjr end of
which is attached to the quadrant tail (fig. 2). -Stop plates are used
tOLPrevent eXj!essive movement of the bourdon tubV
A1iair spring is fitted ~o counteract backlash in the gearing)

3.2 OPERATION

Pressure changes cause the end of the bourdon tube to move and this
movement is translated into rotary movement of the pointer through
the linkage, sector and pinion and is magnified in the process.
I

3.3 TESTING

"
(The direct pressure gauges are tested using a ~Dead-weight tesjaV(see
Section 2 Lesson 6).
The tests consist of an overload test, leak test, calibration check and
a check on the lag or hysteresis of the movement. The latter is. the
difference between the errors at a scale setting with increasing pressure
and decreasing pressure applied.
•
!.
" .

91
 BOURDON TUBE

60

80
20

PINION LINK

CONNECTOR
LEVER

•
QUADRANT

FIg 1 PRESSURE GUAGE MEeHAN ISM

92
 DIAl.

STOP I'l.ATE-----yg-z!!>
(HiGATfVI ACTING
GAUGU)

.RACKET AND BOURDON - - - - -.....

TtJeE .SS~MlLY

I=u:.l EXPLot)E.b VIEW.

FILTER SCREW------

''to.

ACTING GAUGES

______ -- _- PINtC)N

G:;;IIitT1""~~!!I-.H---··~\.- - - SECTOR GtAR-

L
--~- - HAIRSPRING
AND SHIELD
-.---- -. OVERLOAD STOP

(~) POSITIVE ACTING GAUGES

NO' E SOMF pnSIT IVE AC TlNG

GAUC.€!'. ARE nrn:o
WIT..
THE INERTIA DISC ANO
BALANCE W£I(;I-I1 SHOWN -
ABOvE: IN (d)

Fig.2 Detail of mechanism

 A.E.C. 8 SECTION 2

LESSON 3 DIRECT PRESSURE GAUGES

S ELF APPRAISAL QU ESTIO NS

1. Direct reading pressure gauges measure

a. gauge pressure only

• b. gauge~ differentiappressure
c. absolute pressure only

2. A bourdon tube indicator used to measure negative pressure has

a.. an anti-clockwise pointer movement for increasing readings

b.. the bourdon tube revers ed and clockwis e pointer movement
from zero
c.. the negative pressure applied to the outside of the tube

3.. The hairs pring 1s fitted. to a.bourdon tube indicator

a. as a pointer retUt«n device

b.. as a controlling force
c.. to counteract backlash in gearing and linkage

4.. The capillary tube 1s fitted to a bourdon tube indicator

a. to act as a choke for pres sure fluctuations

b.. as an adapter for the two different diameters
c.. to act as a weak link in the event of overload

5 .. If the instrument overreads by a regularly increasing error

during a calibration check, the correction would be to
the lever

95(5)
 A.E.C.8

SECTION 2

LESSON 4
I
f

TRANSMITTING PRESSURE GAUGE

CONTENTS

GENERAL

INDICATOR

TRANSMITTER

CAPILlARY

INSTALLATION

TESTING

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

y
 LESSON OBJECTIVES

On completion of this lesson the student will, on answering

muitichoice questions, be able to

1. Indicate the method of construction of the transmitter unit.

2. State the type of indicator used.

3. State the purpose and type of fluid used in the capillary tube.

4. Detail the methods of installing such a system.

5. List the precautions to be taken on installation of the system.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

L C .A.!. P. LEAFLET AL/IO-3

2. AEC 8 COURSE NOTES SECT. 2 L e s son 5 3 & 6

3. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT P. 235 - P. 236;

P.30! - P.30s

I
~.

100 y .
I
t
t
 AEe 8 SEC TIO N 2

TRANSMITTING PRESSURE GAUGE

4.1 GENE RAL

A t ra nsmitti ng pressure ga uge is normally used whe re t he source of

pre s s u re is so me di stance from the indicator, and ma y involve a fi re
risk o r engine failure if the pressure line is taken to the fligh t d eck.
In this in s trument t hec£ressure read ings are relayed b y a llquid in a
c apillary t ube from a transmitter attached to the engine)

-"*

FIG. I PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMITTING PRESSURE GAUGE

4.2 I NDICATOR

The ind i.c a tor is a normal bourdon tube type instrument as used in direc t
. readi ng instruments

4 .3 TRA NS MITTER

The t ra nsmitter un it is attached to the particular engi ne s ystem by

means of a hollow bolt, so thet(when pressure is applie~ a forc e will
be e xerted on the capsul ~ so causing a displacement of the
tran s mitting fluid . ~e t ransmitting unit is someti mes k nown beca us e
of its shape a s a 'banjo unit :')
101
 AEC 8 SECTION 2

FI G. 2 TRANS MITTER ASSEMBLY

4.4 CAPILLARY

The capillary tube is a small bore (0.5 mm) annealed copper tube.
which is filled with Heptane (a paraffln hydrocarbon) a liqUid which
(has a low freezing point and has a very little viscosity change)

4.5 INSTALlATION (.r~e ~ / ye. - j

The installation should start at the instrument panel by passing the
transmitter unit through the appropria te instrument panel cut-out.
The ca pillary should then be laid along its route before fixing the
transmitter unit or indicator. The indicator should then be fixed into
position and the capillary should then be cleated to the aircraft
structu re at intervals not exceeding 9 inches . Sharp bends should be
avoided and when it is not possible to avoid them they should not be
less than 5/8 inch.

Any spare lengths of capillary tube should be formed into a coil of

not less than j inches in diameter secured by not le ss than three cleats.
On no account should the capillary be broken or disconnected from the
trans mitter unit or indicator.
 AEe 8 SECTION 2

The capillary should be inspected before and after installation for

any abrasions or denting and for security of capillary end connexions.

TESTIN~~"~ 4~~~c.:;~v,
'~. . .:£: /rt"e".~er/A" £'
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The ~ment
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, " r "'<':e'",,
•
manner as a direct reading ressure
'

ga uge, us ing the sa me equipment. The(dead weight tester should be

fitted with an adaptovsupplied with the tester which will enable the
transmitter unit to b~/fitted to the te~t~r. " .
t!.'k.c:/~V'C:'("~ ,,:"'~,~:? F ~~, ~"'"~4'" ~ ,?r/,..r·.e)
The dead weight tester must be level to the point. where the
transmitter is normally fitted to minimise./head ~fects I .

~;;;j:::::~S -:::U-;;'b~ ~(t~~~~:~: '~; ;;~~/~ound

ul1sery,i~e,.?!e<-i~ should be returned to the manufacturer for repair.
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 AEC 8 SECTION 2

LESSON 4 TRANSMITTING PRESSURE GAUGE

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTION

1. Pres sure readings are relayed by

a. actual medium whose pressure is being measured.

.. b. a seperate medium in a capillary tube

c. electrical signals

. 2. The transmitter is known because of its shape as a

a. differential unit
b. control un1 t
• c. banjo unit

3. The transmitting fluid used is

o a. heptane
b. castor oil
c. ester based oil

4. When calibrating the instrument on the aircraft adjustments are

a. made by reducing the coiled pipe diameter

(I> h. not allowed
c. by adjusting the zero setting screw on the back of the
instrument

5. If a fault develops in the. transmitting system you would

'L~ a. change the complete system

b. change the fa ulty item only
c . repair the faulty item in situ
....

105
 AEC 8 SECTION 2

6. When installing a new transmitting pressure gauge system

the ins talla tion

a. must be from the instrument panel to engine

b. must be from the engine to the instrument panel
c. can be ins taIled from either engine or the ins trument
panel

7. Surplus capillary tube must be _____ and secured by

not than cleats

8. The capillary should be cleated to the aircraft structure ~t

intervals of not more than intervals.

9. When bleeding 8 Pressure Transmitting system the maximum

appUed pressure is

a 51b/1n 2
b lS1b/1n 2
c 251b/ln
.zz:c
2
'4t J.
,
i

~.

I :

106
 AEC8

SECTION 2

LESSON 5

BOOST AND MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGES

CONTENTS PAGE

•
""
GENERAL

PRINCIPLE OR BOOST GAUGES

CALIBRATION
111

1!1d

112

rv1ANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGES 112'

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 11'3

109
y
 I·

LESSON OBJECTIVES

On completion of this ·lesson the student will, on answering multi-choice

questions, be able to

1 describe the purpose of a boost guage

2 recall the differences between boost and manifold pressure gauges

3 describe the principle of ope ra tion

4 explain the use and need for fuel traps in some systems
~ ..
5 recall the basic test procedures

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

EHJ Pallett Page 336

110
y
 A.E.C.8

SECTION 2

LESSON 5 BOOST AND MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGES

5.1 GENERAL

The power output of a piston engine depends on the density of the combustible
mixture in the cylinder. In a normally aspirated engine the pressure forcing
the mixture into the piston is atmospheric pressure which is only about 2/3
sea level pres sure at 10. 000 ft; therefore the power developed by the engine
steadily falls off with altit ude.
( / '

A supercharged' engine has an~nglne-drlven centrifugal air pump fitted

between the carbur.tor and cylinders to boost the pressure in the induction
system)
i ~ ,
The boostgaugeQneasures the pressure of the fuel/air mixture in the induction
system of a supercharged engine relative to standard atmospheric pressure
(!Ll p. s .1.))
5 •2 PRINCIPLE OF BOOST GAUGES

Boost gauges are direct reading pressure gauges working on the aneroid
principle. The 'early types have an evacuated capsule and the induction
pressure fed via a gauge filter and choke,into the case which must be air-
I

tight. The bezel is coloured red and an adjustable lubber line is sJt to
the maximum permissable boost for the type of engine. AC"fuel trap is
(fitted to prevent fuel getting into the instrument case.!:)and this requires
periodical draining.

Later types us e QWo bellows in tandem, one evacuated and the other connected
to the induction pressure) As the case pressure effects both bellows it has
negligible effect, and,as the induction pressure 1s held in the pressure bellows,
there is no need for a fuel trap.

&he pointer moves over a scale on which the zero position represents the
standard barometric pres sure (14. 7 p. s • i .) and is graduated in pos i ti ve and
negative increments of P.s.~

a~#4~V~ ~~~~ ~~//~ tJP/;P

_~ ~~J:/.(~ve /~,J1/..r.~) ~/~/

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9 - 111
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(~7e) '-£q'L'('~<~~
 5.3 CALIBRATION

The barometric pres sure is converted to p. s .i. above or below standard

(14.7 p.s .1.) using graphs 1n the maintenance manuals. (Positive and negative
pressures are applied to the gauge and the readings checked against a
boost gauge calibrator or sUitably calibrated manometer)

The boost gauge calibrator consists of a deadweight tester for pcsitive

pressures and a connectlon for a vacuum indicator for negative pressures.
A separator 1s fitted to prevent oil from the dead weight tester getting into
the air pipes and must be drained periodically.
I

5.4 MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGES

These areQ,oost gauges calibrated in inches of mercury and will indicate

approximately 30 ins. I of mercury when the engine is not rUnning)
(zl? t:!/~) .

•
i

112
 n PUM'
bp~..Id/ " REUASE VA-LVI
22 11 !lOOST GAUGE
11 CONNECTION fOR PUMP
It p.fSE~VOI'

:aD WIiGHf
11 OIL CUP
11 HAND WHEEL
 A.E.C.8 SECTION 2

LESSON 5 BOOST AND MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGES

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

I ~---t gauge Is an

• a. absolute pressure gauge

b. guage pressure gauge
c. differential press ure gauge

'''/IT.;#? ,.,;,<;J/~

- 2 With the engine not running a 1;. I . t gauge will indicate

a. zero
b. standard atmospheric pressure
• c. prevailing atmos pheric press ure

3 When the engine is running a boost gauge will indicate the pressure
in the induction system above

a. standard atmos phere

• b. or below a standard atmos phere
c. or below prevailing atmospheric pressure

F ,
4 When is a fuel drain trap fitted in a boost gauge system?

a. Always
b. When a tandem belows type of instrument 1.5 fitted
• c. When the press ure is fed to the instrument case

5 In a boost gauge calibrator the

a. oU is fed dIrectly to the instrument

• b. oil 1s separated from the air pipes to the instrument
c. dead weight tester can be used to check the negative
pressures.

113(s)
 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 6
DEADWEIGHT TESTERS

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

PRINCIPLE 119

PORTABLE CALIBRATOR 120

CALIBRATOR MARK 2

FILLING 122

METHOD OF USE 122

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 123

117
y
 A. E. C. 8

SECTION 2: LESSON 6

PRESSURE GAUGE CAUBRATOR

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions I be able to:-

1 State the general procedures for setting up & filling

2 Identify the relationship between weights applied and

indicated gauge reading.

3 State the effect of the platform on the indicated gauge

readings.

4 State methods used for testing Direct reading & capillary

type pressure gauges when aircraft servicing.

5 State any spacial precautions when carrying out instrument

testing on aircraft.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT P.297 - P. 299

118
y
 LESSON

PRESSURE GAUGE CALIBRATORS

Principle Paras 1 - 3

Portable Calibrator Paras 4 5

Calibre tor r,~tlrk 2 Parall 6 10

1- (The accuracy of pressure gauges is checked by applying kDOWll prIlIIIUnS

and--"noting their indIcator readings. The pressure is created by sc;nnriDg a
plunger into an oil reservoir:1 The value of the pressure is accuratelyestablilllecl
by applying known weight t'O a piston'in contact with the oil. .

2. A simple pressure gauge calibrator is illustrated below. Consider that the

piston assembly weighs) lb. and its cross·sectional area is 1 sq. in. Thea. if the
aU ~ure is gradually increased by screwing in the plunger, the piston wiD
begin to lift when the pressure reaches 1 lb. per sq. in. By adding a weight to
the piston platfonn. making its total weight 2 lb., the piston will DOW lift .......
the ~ reaches 2 lb.. per sq. in. and 10 oil. (The pressure of oil is th.
determined by the weight it will support and a gauge connected to the preIS• •
is checked accordingly)

,..INOPLE OF PRESSURE GAUGE CAUllATOl

119
 ,. hi practice,~brators have piston areas less than 1 sq. in., so that the actual
value 'Of the weight used can be reduced"J For example. the piston of the
po~ calibrator has an area of i S«. in., a pressure of 1 lb. per sq. in. win
therefore only support lib. This is the actual weight of the piston assembly.
but siDee it is equivalent to 1 lb. acting on 1 sq. in. it is marked 1 lb. The
weights are similarly stamped with their equivalent values for calibration
PUrpoleS; if weighed. however, they would be found to be one-eighth of the
value marked.
- .-------------- --...- ----......
..,--...-------------------~.~--~.-- -~-.--- ---------~ _.-_.
_... ..._.__.......... ,.. - '.~-,~.

4;. The portable calibrator is supplied, complete with we!J.hts and accessories.
in a fitted transit case. To prepare for use, mount the, caltbrator'on top of the
transit case (as illustrated). A special securing screw'is built into the case lid
for this purpose which screws into a boss on the base of the calibrator. Fill the
calibrator as follows : -
(III) Close the outlet valve and open the inlet valve.
(6) Screw in the handwheel.
(c) Fill the filling cup with oil and gradually unscrew the handwheel to draw
oU into the calibrator, Jeplenis~ipg the cup as necessary to prevent air
entering the system. l,t7//,#''1)
(If) When the handwheel is completely unscrewed, close the inlet valve under
the filling cup.

, ~rect reading pressure gauges.?are {t!ID9y~frQrD. the &l1E~~t and COD-

nec"\;d (as i9ustrated) directly to the calibrator for testing' piUary type
instruments are test~itl_positi.()~. on the aircraft by disconit ing the trans-
mitter unit and unCIeating sufficient capillary tubing to allow the transmitter
to be connected to a conveniently placed calibrator:) A special adaptor is
supplied with the calibrator for this purpose. The fdfiowing points must be
observed when testing instruments.
~.
~e;
~P : (.) After connecting the gauge (or transmitter unit) to the calibrator, apply
. the necessary weights for the first reading and opeD the outlet valve. Ia
assessing the weights required, the weight of the piston assembly must
be included (weights and piston are clearly marked with their equivalent
weight value).

~/4d7/;.¢~~~~'j ?r/~~~~~'
, , (7'# ~ «/#,~", ..~J../
(~J~~
(9 ?~/U'~.
120
 (6) Slowly screw in the handwheel until the weights lift. The weicht plat-
form should be rotated during this operation to eliminate the decb of
oil drag. Lightly tap the indicator and note the reading.
(c) Similarly check the readings at three or four equidistant points goiDg up
the scale and again at the same points coming down. Any ~ in
the two readings at anyone point is usually due to friction in the indicator
mechanism.
(4) When taking readings down the scale, do not remove weights from the
weight platform until the pressure has been suitably reduced.
(,) The complete test should occupy about 20 minutes as a quicker rate of
........ testing may introduce errors due to lag in the response of the indicator
~xpanding member (bourdon tube or capsule). .
--------------------------- ----~.~--- ...... .......--...--------.-----....... ----------... ---.....-...,-~
~Mlrkl
·
!
I ~ previously described will test gauges up to 300 lb. per sq. in.
! The Kark 2 calibrator is designed to test gauges up to ',000 lb. per sq. in.
I

I,

PlU.C;U 'MOItATO"
~
Ll'UlIlIG
SCIlW ROD SC.l'"

•
PRESSURE GAUGE CALIBRATOR. HARK 2

It is in effect two calibrators mounted on a common base plate and sharing a

common pressure plunger system. Either calibrator can be brought into use or
I !
isolated as required by operating the •• on-off ,. cocks situated in the branch
pipes connecting the calibrators with the pressure chamber. Referring to the
!
illustration. the left-hand calibrator is for pressures from UR4Wlb. ~ sq. in.
and is basically the same as the calibrator previously descnoea.-rhe right..hand
unit is the high pressure calibrator which handles pressures from 200
lb. per sq. in., it employs the unusual piston assembly described iii sU'-lIIceeed~UlIiDiIllK
!o!dm
paragraphs.
j
I
i

i
I
·1
·t
f
j

121
1
 7. From paras.. 2. to ., it will be apparent that to increase raup it is necessary
to either increase the weight loading of the piston or decrease the pistOll area.
Heavier weights are cumbersome so the decreased area method is UI8d. To
avoid the mechanical weakness of directly reducing the piston area, the IUJle
elect is obtained by two interconnected and vertically opposed pistoas arraaged
as Dlustrated in the following diagram.

HIGH PRESSURE PISTON ASSEHBLY

C"ra-etc)
8. Tb~ of the upper piston is." sq. in. larger than the lower)i.e. pressure
between them will result tn an upward thrust equivalent to th4( experienced
by a siD&Ie piston of rI'll sq. in. cross-sectional area. Since this effective area is
euctly ooe-tenth of the area of the low pressure calibrator piston, it JfoUows
that 10 times the pressure is required to lift a ~ven weight on the high pressure
calibrator as is required by the-low pressure unit. For this I'eUOIl the high
~ calibrator is labelled •• Jb. x 10 ,. to iodicate that tho weicht values
must be multiplied by 10 when this component is in use.
9. puu.,. Before use, the calibrator must be 6Ued with .Anti - freeze
011 .. tollowst
(..) CIoIe the hiCh and low pressure cocks &lid open the teIeI'YOir valve.
(6) Pit the blaDkiDg plug to the gauge union. and screw m the pIuapr by
rotatiDc the baDdwheel clockwise.
(e) FD1 the reservoir with oil, and unscrew the pluncer to ita limit.
(.I) CIoee the raervoir valve and remove the h1ankiDg ....
10 JI. . oj flU. lIount the calibrator in the position required for UIe. Place
• aPrit leftI on the appropriate weight platform and adjust the IeveIIiac ICreWI
antn the platfonn proves level in aD directions. Connect the . . . (or trans-
mitter) to the gauge union. Necessary adaptors are supplied with the calibrator.
(a) Pmstwllllo.oo lb. Jwt Sf. iff. Close the high pressure cock aDd oem the
low pressure cock. 'The low pressure unit is now used as deac:ribed ill
para..... su)).paras. (4) to (e).
(6) Prastl," 200 10 ,~OOO lb. PIf SIl. in. Close the low pressure cock aod open
the high pressure cock. ~Iace the weights necessary for the first reading
on the high pressure platfonn. remembering : -
(I) To include the weight of the piston assembly.
(it) The weishts mast DOW be considered as 10 times the value marked
on them.
The plunger handle is screwed in until the weights lift to a position where the
-
weiCht platform is midway between the datums marked on the iDdicltor rod.
Tap the instrumeat under test and DOte its reading. Make similar teata at tluee
or four equidistant points going up and down the ~e as described in para. .5 .
lub-pans. (e) to (e).

122
 A.E.C.B
SECTION 2: LESSON 6
SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

1 When ~sing a Dead Weight tester to check calibrate a pressure

gauge, the effective weight of the weighing platform

a can be ignored
b must be subtracted from the total of weights applies
.('# c must be added to the total of weights applied

-2 When priming a Dead Weight tester prior to use, the hand

wheel is

a not moved
,. b screwed fully in, then out
c screwed fully out, then in

3 A dead weight tester is primed with

a glycol
b skydrol
c a ntifreeze oil

4 The weights in a dead weight tester are

a less than the marked value

b more than the marked value
c same a 5 the marked va lue

5. In a dead weight tester the P.S.l. on the weights

a is proportlonally less than will be indicated

b is proportionally more than will be indicated
c is what will be indicated.

123(5)