-~~,----~--~-.-.

~-----,--------

7 SENSITNE ALTIMETER

8 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

9 AIRSPEED INDICATORS

10 SOUND AND MACHMETERS

 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 7
SENSITIVE ALTIMETER

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

METHODS OF PRESENTATION 129

DESCRIPTION 130

• OPERATION

I.C.A.O. IQI CODE

132

132

ALTIMETER TESTING 135

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 143

127
y
 A.E. C. 8

SECTION 2: LESSON 7

SENSITIVE ALTIMETER

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions I be able to:-

1 Define the general terms used

2 State the basic relationship between height & static pressure

3 State the relationship between height and instrument reading

4 Explain the principle of construction and operation of a

sensitive aneriod type altimeter.

5 State the 3 Q code used, as laid down by ICAO.

6 State the main disadvantages of an aneriod type altimeter

& how they may be overcome.

7 State typical faults and installation checks.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT p.7a P.7-9-

~. /.;z

128
y
 LESSON I

SENSITIVE ALTIMETERS

METHODS OF PRESENTATION. (See Fig. 1)

In the multi-pointer type the pointers are of different lengths and indicate
I

'hundreds', 'thousands' and 'tens of thousands' of feet against a common

I

scale. In the drum/pointer type of presentation the pointer indicates

'hundreds' of feet against a fixed scale, while 'thousands' of feet are
indicated by a drum which is proportionally rotated by the pOinter mechanism.

MULTI-POINTER (6,375) DRUM/POINTER (660')

COUNTER/POINTER ( 28 , 000')
Fig. I TYPICAL ALTIMETER PRESENTATIONS
The drum scale is visible through an aperture in the instrument dial and is
referenced against a datum marker across the aperture. In the digital counter/
pOinter method of presentation 'thousands' and 'tens of thousands' of feet are
indicated by the incremental changes of separate counters located across the
centre of the dial. In order to avoid the mechanical loads which would other-
wise be imposed on the pressure-sensing capsules by actuating serveral
counters I a servo drive system may be used in altimeters employing this type
of presentation.
 SENSITIVE ALTIMETERS

DESCRIPTION

A. General

The aircraft altimetercProvides accurate visual indication of air-

craft barometric hei ht, in accordance with leAO regulations corceming
standard atmosphere. Each type of altimeter is fitted with an
adjustable, counter- ype barometric scale which affords concise
setting of the prevailing ground or sea level atmospheric pressure
coriditions between 800 and 1050 millibars. The unit baSically con-'
sists of an evacuated, triple-stack diaphragm mounted in a sealed
container and mechanically coupled to pointers which are displayed
over a suitablly calibrated dial. (The mechanism is compensated ~
for changes in ambient temperature by alU -shaped bimetallic bracket
attached to the diaphragm~ The barometric scale is visible through
an aperture in the dial and is set by means of a knurled knob
protruding from the front face of the unit. Adjustments to the baro-
metric scale cause the pointers to move accordingly, (the non -linear
relationship between the two scales being resolved by a ~orrection
cam;' )

A pressure connector at the rear of the unit facilitates connection

to the aircraft static system.

B. Detailed

Refer to fig 2.

The evacuated triple-stack diaphragm unit is connected to a rocking

s haft by means of a cranked link and a calibration ann. The rocking
shaft carries a sector which drives an intermediate pinion. This
pinion is attached to a wheel which engages with the sensitive
pointer handstaff pinion. A further pinion, mounted on the hand-
staff, drives the top mechanism gear train to operate the other
pointers or disc and pointer in the dial presentation according to
type. A hairspring, anchored to a bridge assembly and attached to
the intermediate pinion staff, serves to eliminate backlash from the
mechanism, whilst a spring loaded weight, coupled to the rocking
shaft, keeps the movement balanced irrespective of attitude.

The U -shaped bimetallic temperature compensating bracket is

linked to the centre piece of the diaphragm with two push rods.
Temperature changes which affect the flexibility of the diaphragm
similarly affect the bimetal bracket causing slight movement of its
130
 \ ~ ., II
7P" e",&/~4.rdt!'F "~ ~/?- ~/?e~ ,.-e~~j?-.,r~ ~r---~t!'"p ~
#",r:./?7~;R/,/t?/ ,~t!r./ a'.?/ %e k//~/c /~ /c::4~ e?
,,-et/fd'/?/.//T.' /J //~~~ C<9 c...P~e/?v=ce :7'l";- r ,.{! -?p...?~~.<?r­
re~c>i?/?o/'~t-;. /~/// AC~t'~/ ~ cP <'C.eI""-? .-..e>C/A"_,..:.r...,~ #.... r
rt-t?~4-Z;e./ ~ e #a-";-e;> . JCe:E/e.. .aT d V'~e:--t!!~ _n z(4'#'/? C-.-$e ~-~:.-, {\
,;??e ChAh/ '/ /?? )
IoII[CHAN IS" TH I RD POINTER
ADAP t OR

( ~LOW<.

-..
~:--''''P"_ ./4?~
C"'h "/...n"V,;' ~ t!-

Exploded view of altimeter mechanism

Figure Z
 side anns. The push rods then transmit the movement to the
diaphragm to counteract the errors introduced by the changes in
temperature. This arrangement provides a _g~_Grea~..e_jn._QQ!!!..:
pensation necessary
--~--- . . . . -. - ..-
with
.-' --
increased altitude
.. - _-----' ..... _-- ..........._""_ ...
.....

The barometric 5 etting mechanis m, located in fron t of the main

mechanism, provides adjustment to suit prevailing sea or ground
level pressure conditions. It accommodates the non -linear
pressure/height relationship by(Gsing a direct drive for the
pointers and a'Cam correction device10 set the barometric scale)
The altitude and barometric scales are calibrated in feet and
millibars respectively, both being linear.

OPERATION

Refer to fig 2

A. Main Mechanism
•
At ground level the diaphragm is partially collapsed due to the
atmospheric pressure in the case. With increased altitude
atmospheric pressure decreases causing the diaphragm to extend.
The rocking shaft and sector transform diaphragm deflection into
rotary movement which is then magnified by the gear train. The
pointers and disc, attached to certain gears, give an accurate
measurement of diaphragm movement and subsequently indicate
altitude.

B. Barometric setting mechanism

When the baroscale adjusting knob is turned the movement is

transmitted through a pinion to rotate the main mechanism and
pointers. (A cam gear situated in front of the main mechanism is
also rotated but at a higher ratio) The cam, embodied in the
rear face of this gear, operates --in conjunction with a cam follower
and follower pin to resolve the non-linear relationship between
pressure and height scales. The resultant total movement of the
cam output gear is used to drive the millibar counter.

I.C.A.O. IQ' CODE

~
The setting and correction of alt1met~rs to known atmospheric pressures
forms part of aircraft operating procedures and is of great importance for
take-off, landing and for maintaining adequate height separation of air-
craft and terrain clearance. Three settings are normally used and are
Signified undertheI.C.A.O. IQ' code for the transmission of meteor-
ological and other operational information. They are:-

132
(i) Setting airfield atmospheric pressure so that an altimeter reads ~
on landing and take-off (0. F . E .) .

(ii) Setting mean sea-Ieveiatmospheric pressure so that an altimeter

reads the airfield altitude above mean sea-level (0 N H) .

(iii) Setting mean sea-level atmospheric pressure in accordance with the

'-(

I.e ,A,P·, standard atmosphere i. e, 1013.25 millibars or 29 .92 in.Hg.

(0 N E), so that the altimeter reads I~.
 HEIGHT/ PRESSURE CURVE

,-I
-r --.. -- I
AIRCRAFT ~
-HEIGHT ~

QFE PRESSURE
HEHj3HT ALTITUDE

I
STANDARD QNH
TMOSPHERE HEIGHT

I I AERODROME
a - - - ................. - -1- - - -"1- - -HEIGHT
OFE
CORRECTION I
I
I I
I QNH"& - - -, T - -MEAN SEA LEVEL
ICORRN I I
~ - - ~"""""""""''''''''''---'''''''''''''--4-~-----r--------+-------~-- MEAN SEA LE VEL
I
(ICAO)
I
I I I
QFE QNH O.NE (1013'
... '" -
"
25mb)
........
"- ~{. -.., ~.- ~ .

PRESSURE
SETTINGS
PRESSURE

THE OFE AND ONH METHODS OF GROUND PRESSURE CORRECTIONS

 I
TRAnSITIon
LEVEL- T
Sa t orE wllf~n
TR!HIS tTlora 1110.1' to laud.
LAYER

TIlIIIISITJON I
J\I.T I'I'UI)E - - -
Altimeter set tOI
I013.25mb (29.92 1n IIg)

FLIGIIT LEVEL - - .........._ _ _... - - - - -

_ ...,.,,1111_ _ _ _..
-..
orE
II I:! I GilT
OUH
AI.TITlJOE
rnESSUItE
"InFIELD AL1 ITlJDE
1

~lcasurcd "tmosplier lc ELEVJ\Tlon

I'ressure-

1013.25111b
QUII: (leading set on
Unroscalc so· that
rdt:imctcr IruHcatc9
Airfield elevation
when on the Airfield.
 ;?;;~r" 'vt ;If' /'~.#r d /P 'r?~ r/'CdA /'r"p.- ~ C"'.-ht!"
~/?~4'" /""£"c;/'J~//"" rtf' ~7/p/.'./"4-7

i/#/79/fi/'ckJ ~ ~
,t:J c"'~"ce tP/' cr./C'/d
9 14//4fi '-"--'7/J;0~r:P/?

IHST"UMENT IHDlCAnOH
WITH UNlfOR ... LY
DIVIDED SCALE HEIGHT
1 "EVOLUTION - 1000 FT 1FT) IPfIIIISlM( _ HIIGHT. L:.\~
:.::.:
• 0,000

~ •0.000
\
1""- 3 0.000 1\
4 I'\. ,0.000
'\

4,. 1""- ,.
""- 0.000
f'
1
o t"--

.
..OINTER "OlATION
(REVOLUTIONS,
50 "0 30 o 10 0 0 200 . " 000 000 1

0
/ o.04
V
V o.~
V
3
V o.12 ~ 2

V o.10 .
V EXAMPLE....... 2Q:OOO It
r-- P-8ESSI;l8E ..66:......
o.20 2 CAPSU CE De:F'L Ec:rlO N~O;081 in

•
VARIA8 l E MAGN IFICATION CAPSULE I"AESSURE -OEFlECTION
LEVER AND GUlli. DEFLECTION CHARACTEfUSTI CS OF
<lI!OINTER:fIO'P\"!=ION 20 .
SYSTEM lINCHES) CAPSULES '-N OtCAXED F-fel:GMT . 20000 f1

Figu,~ 4. J6 Conversion of
pressure/heiltht relationship

__ . . . :O::sca1~r
/ & c..-dve ;?,,""p
V"4/;-;ZC;O,r.>./ ~~et?- ~c..Z'7b.-? ~/-""CVh../~J 1' / , ,,

,,/ ~'7m'0A-d/ C~./'.u'~..r-/ ~i!6 «~~ "...g....-Ck ""'::::4c;1'o-,?/,

~fftfC,./~./7e,r.>c....r a~_ a/~?.///-,!NY'/e/'c_____~e..-e? C'A? 4v-e.- ~
/e'//- ?,./z2'~ /?""y""';;4.C-.... C....,;....",. ~?"~ """".q..z:-~~-ctJ
4
c/'cc r.£e Cey./e:Y~ c?~~C'6r,-c;. kc.r-; ;
 *~ Altimeters are normally subject to very little maintenance when fitted to
aircraft beyond visual inspection and zero che~t. Before fitment to the
aircraft the Instrunientis'tUlly" check ;aliI;ia-ted in the instrument work- •
shop. A typical test spedfication for a sensitive altimeter is given
below.
•
The tests are carried out at a room temperature ~~ oC' to 25 0 C,;/
of ~ ."'"

/) LEAK TEST (Fig 1)

With the altimeter connected to a ~te[ maIJQw&te:r, as shown I and

~ 5 p. S . I. applied to the case ~ no leak shall be apparent.

~ BALANCE
(",;pvt.,.."iT)
By orientating about any axis the pointer shall not register a ,l;lWe.eJl greater
than 3 a feet.

y) ZERO ADJUSTMENT TEST (Fig 2)

With the altimeter static union connected to a source of \6riable pressure,

(Set millibar scale to 800 millibars and apply a pressure of 800 millibars
to the altimeter. The altimeter shall read a ft)+ 30 feet - 45 feet. I l
Repeat test at increaSing increments of 50 miriibars up to 1050 millibars
including 1013.25 millibars. ']he same tolerance will apply throughout. I
I
(

RANGING TEST (Fig 3)

\a .
With millibar counter set to 1013 .25 millibars and vibrator on apply
pressures in accordance with the table set out below. The errors are not
to exceed those shown in column 4.

·' Height

-1000
a
Pressure in
millibars

1050.41
1013.25
Pressure in ins Hg
B.S. 2520 (p°C !.AT 45°)

31 .019
29.921
Perrois sable
errors feet ±

50
50
1000 977.17 28.856 50
~
30000 300.89 8.885 350 \

35000 238.42 7.041 400 , rf

l
"v

135
 ,f) HYSTERISIS TEST (Fig 3)

With the vibrator on, check thE(?iifference between errors with decreasing
and increasing pressures .) Difference is not to exceed 150ft up to 3 0000
feet and 250 feet at any point above 30000 feet.

IJ FRICTIO N TEST (Fig 3)

Apply pressures in accordance with the above tableQaking readings before

and after switching on vibrato~ Typical tolerances are, at 1000 feet,
70£eet, 35000 feet, 210£eet. " / . ,.(\

7} FINAL MOVEMENT CHECK (Fig 3) ('.r_p~kt>/"; tf}/",,:1t!)Vep'eh~

Carry out complete movement check with decreasing and iocreasing pressure

• at 2,500 feet/min from 0 to 35000 to 0 feet with vibrator on. (Check for
stickiness of POinter')

137(5)
 IS P.S.I

--
(/,F~ J?/)
PRE SsuR E
,
ALT.
tL-~===Ji=====-- --'- 1
....- ve4tb
pC_P.r'

FIG . 1

ALT.
TO B ARO M ETER..
A S IN FI C . 3 .

F'llli . '1
/~./.r.

J ALT. ~

," .~

i=IG . 3
136
<J e(
f

-u
::0
rn
(/I
(fl .:"
C
-:0.
fT1 ....
()
}>
1ft
fTl

I~
::0
Q

/J'/J:~.
/,,;-f J.r. ./"t?v""C'~.
U1
U1
c::
Cb
TC!58f68
 • .' ,

'-
• ::\.....
•

t ";·:!Jf-r ~.
.~.
&.JIIii
-.AIIII
';.. ;...•• :'~~;..,. l.,~

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSljRE CHAMBER Issue 1 141 (s)

 A.E. C. 8
SECTION 2: LESSON 7
SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

,1 With an altimeter the

a inside of the capsule is connected to static pressure

., b capsule is evacuated and sealed
c capsule and case are connected via a calibrated choke.

2 Temperature correction in a sensitive altimeter mechanism

is provided by a

rl> a U -shaped bracket acting on the capsule

b balance weight
c bi-metal strip

-- 3 With an aircraft on the ground and Q.N. H. set on the millibar

scale of the altimeter the altimeter will read
I

zero dc~et/ /:.., /~

the airfield height ("f!J:/":/£ /}?:Sf/J ~ reC.7 ':: -'~.
off scale

4 When carrying out a pressure Jeak test on an altimeter you

are checking for leaks in the

a pressure chamber
b capsule stack
c instrument case

5 When checking a sensitive altimeter on a pre-flight inspection

a the ambient air pressure is set on the millibar scale (Zf'h/> c4&
b the ambient air pressure corrected for temperature is
set on the millibar scale
c the standard sea level barometric pressure is always
set on the millibar scale

143
 A.E.C.8
LESSON 7 (CONT)

6 If an altimeter millibar scale was set to 1013.25 and the barometric

pressure at the time was 1020, the altimeter should read

a zero feet
b below zero feet (negative altitude)
c positive altitude

7 If the QFE reading is •set uP' on the millibar scale of an altimeter,

with the aircraft on the ground, the pointers will indicate
(ignore instrument error)

a always zero feet

b aircraft height above Mean Sea Level
c aircraft height above runway level

8
~ ,
The purpose of a spring loaded balance arm in a sensitlve
altimeter is to

a act as a controlling force and to prevent the capsule

collapsing under the normal atmospheric pressure
,.

•
b balance the movement and clamp out oscillations

c balance the pressure on the ca psule and make the

instrument 'Dead Beat '.

9 The effect of temperature compensation on a sensitive

altimeter will

a decrease with an increase of altitude

b increa se with an increa se of altitude
c remain constant at all altitudes

144
 A. E. C. 8

SECTION 2: LESSON 8

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions, be able to:-

1 Define the general terms used

2 State the relationship between static pressure & rate of height

change.

3 Explain the principle of construction and operation of a

typical VBI

4 Identify the sub components which form a calibrated leak

5 State the typical forms of tern perature and Altitude

compensation used

6 Explain the principle and methods of testing VSI

7 State the various tests that can be carried out.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E • H. J. PALLETT P. 97 - P. 103

y
 LESSON 8

RATE OF CLIMB INDICATORS

DESCRIPTION

GENERAL

The rate of climb indicator is used in aircraft to indicate the vertical

component of the aircraft's speed its operation is based onG-ate of change
I

of atmospheric pressur:) The rate of climb or descent is indicated by a

-
single pointer operating over a graduated dial.
-
Figure 1 shows a typical rate of climb indicator. The mechanism is housed
in a case which is rendered air-tight except for the pressure connection
at the rear, which is connected to the aircraft's static system.

Basically the mechanism consists of a sensitive capsule, a metering

I

unit and a mechanism to magnify the capsule movement and drive the
pointer. Static pressure is fed to the inside of the capsule and creates
a pressure differential between the inside of the capsule and the Jnside of
the cas e . The caps ule is deflected and operates a mechanical linkage
which drives the pOinter. The amount of deflection of the capsule is
,
dependent upon the rate of change of staticL pressure and ~not the actual
value of this pressure. This 1s due to the metering unit which~rovides a
'graduated leak' between the inside of the capsule and the mside of the
case, and allows the pressures to equalise) Some units are fitted with an

,
(' 9 /:
overload valve which(vents the capsule to the inside of the case when the
rate of change of pressure is beyond the range of the unit, thus preventing
damage to the capsule and linkage:') Those not fitted with an overload
valve have1mechanical stops-'to(ar£est the mechanism at the extremities of
the f8nge ~ All units incs>rporate a mechanism(to set the pOinter to zero)
the ~ero adjusting scre~being located in the lower part of the bezel.

DETAILED

Refer to Fig 1, 2 3 arid 4.

Rate of climb and descent is indicated by a Single pointer operating over

a dial graduated in thousands of feet per minute. The zero graduation is 'f • .

s Hua ted in the 9 0' clock posi tion of the dial, the pointer moving clockwis e
to indicate rate of climb and counter-clockwise to indicate rate of descent.
There is a gap between the maxima of the climb and dive scales in the
3 o'clock position of the dial, and the movement of the pointer is
restricted to approximately 170 deg from zero, in each direction, to avoid
ambiguity of readings. The pOinter may be set to zero by rotating the
zero setting screw located at the bottom of the bezel.

:."
.~,~n'#"~';'//~ h r ~c/r ?#~V:E 149
(~~a"./ ~..e4ee- £!:-£c _-.,,~p t:2-. ~ F./? Pt.)
t.t .. 't\.,

/
 p;/jr
.77r~&6 / >;:, ;~2'?

set Zero

Rate of climb indicator

AI\.
external view

Mete ri n9 Un; t or · Choke ·

.~'

Fig. 2 Schematic dial ram of rate of

climb mechanism

150
 SECTOR - - - - - - - - - - - - -

CALIBRATION ARM - - - - - - - - - . - - .

ROCKING SHAFT
(PIVOTED ,BOTH ENDS)

METERING UNIT --~~........

. . . . . . . - - - - - - - LltJK
_______ R.D.D. k: U ,,r ~~~)
1========-1'-:;==:1 ~CALI BRATION SPR' NGS
............... R.O.C. (/dCe ~c~~ttf)
lL~~~~~~iiiiiii[~~-:-- CAPSULE

I..-.--CAM
LEAF SPRING

RATE OF CLIMB INDICATOR _ SCHEMATIC

 ROCK ING SHAF T
ASSEM BLY

MET ER ING UN IT \~____~~-----SECT~

HANDSfAFF

CALIBRATION BRACKET

CAP SULE PLATE ECCENTR IC SHAFT

C..",LL"RY TUBE ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY WHEEL

F;g.3 Mechanism withou t overload valve

 The sensitive capsule is secured by two screws to a capsule plate assembly,
.one end of which is secured to the mechanis m body. The other end of the
capsule plate rests on an eccentric shaft assembly which is coupled by a
gear wheel to a pinion on the zero setting stem. (Adjus tment of the zero
setting screw rotates the eccentric shaft and the capsule plate moves up
and down:) This arrangement gives a minimum pOinter movement of ± 400 ft/
min and a1lows the pointer to be accurately set to zero. The capsule is
connected by a link to a rocking shaft assembly pivoted in jewelled bearings
in the mechanism body. A sector on the rocking shaft meshes with a
h~ndshaft pinion carrying the pointer. The mechanism is balanced by an
a~justable weight attached to the rocking shaft. A hairspring secured to
I

the rocking shaft and anchored to a pos t ol.l the mechanis m body, takes up
any backlash in the mechanism.

Air pressure from the aircraft's static s;stem is fed to theinsldM~e

. '"

capsule via the pressure connector and a capillary tube. The pr~sure in
this system is permitted to escape into the case via a metering unit. (The
metering unit comprises an gtlfiQfLan~ a .E!!p!~la..!¥ tub~ iQ a metering unit
'.
houstng;)a metering unit fitted wIth brass orifices is ~hO~~.i~ fig 4. The
housing .is secured to the rear inside face of the case and dSnnects with the
pressure connector. The flange of the metering unit housing also acts as a
junCtion for the capillary tubes which connect the pressure connector to the
inside of the capsule and to the overload valve (where fitted). In units
fitted with overload valves the copper capillary tubes fitted to the capsule I

metering unit and overload valve are joined by· .lengths of rubber tubing
held in place by capillary sle~ves .
(" !'.,J
The overload valve is fitted to some units to relieve the capsule of excessive
rates of change of increasing and decreasing pressures which otherwise
might damage the capsule or linkage. The rocking shaft carries an
operating lever which, when the rocking shaft rotates to the extremities of
the mechanism range bears on a plunger bar assembly. Pressure on the
I

plunger bar depresses a rod which operates a snap action spring. A ball
which is fixed to one end of the spring forms part of the overload valve.
Normally, the ball is retained on the valve se~t by the tension of the
spring, but when the overload mechanism is operated the spring snaps
I

over and the ball is lifted off the valve seat. Travel of the ball is restricted
by a looped wire 5 top which is arres ted by a stop screw.

~
Calibration is effected by two calibration springs which bear on a
calibrating stem connected to the capsule centre piece. The forces
exerted by the spring on the capsule are controlled by two rows of screws
located 1n a calibration bracket. The springs and the bracket are
secured at one end to the mechanism body. (Adjustment of the screws in
the bracket varies the effective length of the sPrings according to the
position of the capsule and thereby varies the restrain1ng_.QQ~.!.QIL of the
springs. The lower spring controls the rate of climb calibration and the
upper spring the rate of descent)

lS2
 eALANCE OPERATING
AOCKING SHAn LEVER
ASSE ......y WEICHT

...... _-ll"-_=__ .___...a..~~---- S~ING

METEAfNG RuBBER CAPtLLARY

UNIT CAPILLARY SLEEvE
lUBE

Fig.4 Mechanism with overload valve

 OPERATION

Refer to fig 5

The unit is connected to the aircraft's system and measures the rate of
change of static pressure. (When the pressure varies due to changing
altitude I the pressure change in the case lags behind the pressure change
in the capsule. This lag in pressure is caused by the metering unit
which restricts the flow of air into and out of the case; whereas the flow
of air to the inside of the capsule is unrestricted. The resulting
differential pressure deflects the capsule and the mechanism is operated,
producing movement of the POinter)

Un level flight the pressure inside the capsule and the case is the same and
the pointer remains stationary I indicating zero. When the aircraft climbs
the static pressure decreases and the capsule collapses slightly,
causing the pointer to indicate a rate of climb. The fall in pressure in the
case lags behind the capsule pressure until level flight is resumed and
the pressures equalise:) Conversely t when the aircraft dives, the increase
in static pressure expc(nds the capsule and the pointer moves the opposite
way. The rate of descent indication is maintained unt11 level flight is •
res umed when the pointer returns to zero.

The indication of the unit resolves itself into the pressure difference"
between the inside and outside of the capsule, that is, the pressure
difference across the metering unit. The metering unit is, therefore,
required to give a definite pressure difference for any given rate of climb
(or descent). At the same time the metering unit must compensate for
changes of air temperawe .. and the qe~,s1ty of t.!l~_2ir at different altitudes.
Compensation for changes in pressure is termed ~ltitude compensation ~
and compensation for changes in temperature is tenned ~emperature ~
compensation~ The compensation is obtained without any moving parts by
the combination of two basic types of metering unit, (i) an orifice and
(ii) a capillary tube. (The pressure difference across an ~ for a given
rate of climb decreases with increaSing altitude and the unit therefore
shows a negative error:) ~n the case of the ~eillar.¥, the pressure
difference across it, a1 a constant rate of climb, increases with increasing
altitude at a constant temperature, and the unit shows a sHive error.
The reason for the difference 1n the behaviOr of the air passing throu
the Orifice and the capillary is primarily due to the fact that whereas (the
flow through an""orifice'is turbulent, that through a ~apillar~is laminar.
The rate of flow of air through an orifice varies as the square root of the
differential pressure, while the rate of flow through a capillary varies
I/I//. directly as the differential pressure. A combination of orifice and
capillary: 1s found to give satisfactory altitude compensation over a
limited pressure range since the two OPPOSite effects produced cancel
each other out) ,
r~;/,;6v/~~'r,/./4:t;'7/~-"U- ///{"././.,(#/t'N..r./'T~;/tf. f/'C. fo e'//,.•...-..J

p;/;/;'ce: /ft,<J 17/';'t" ,y /,y/."t',--r,/Z',' " "OC~ (~;;~ eN"";;)

.7
 C".«/-- ~4"'7c:.-
(PrJ' 7": c ~~
AIR
GASKETS FILTER

CAPLLARtES

• STATIC
ENTRY

--,
. : .-: ~

CONNECTING TUBE
TO CAPSULE
~

Fig.5 Sectioned view of metering unit

155

/
I
 With regard to the temperature compensation, the pressure difference
across the capillary depends on the viscosity of the air, which is
proportional to the absolute temperature and, therefore decreas es with
I

decreasing temperature. The pressure difference across the orifice

varies inversely as the temperature of the air and will therefore, increase
with the decrease in temperature. This effect is opposite to the effect of
temperature change on the capillary so that compensation can be obtained
by a combination of the two types. Q:he sizes of the orifice and the
capillary are chosen so that the readings of the unit will be correct over as
wide a range of temperature and altitude conditions as POSSible)

.~.

156

/Cl
)

•
)
METERING UNIT

BI-METALLIC HEXAGON HEAD

LEAK STRIP OF
SPRING-LOADE-D ASSEMBLY OF STATIC
THERMAL LEAK CONNECTION
VALVE

• CERAMIC CERAMIC I
DOMED PART FILTER
LEAK LEAK OF STATIC GAUZE
CONNECTION

CUT-AWAY VIEW OF LEAK ASSEMBLY

V.S.I. METERING UNITS

VA70/920 TTC-I-109

Ct!'rt:tH>'-~ r;r-/4~,.;r /4'C) p~ -

~,~~ Are //7 (./'er".e/ ?2.-?/ ~pk~~~.
//?a/p -dz/~.r tt:?f'/~.re/?~a///e..r/,
 TESTING RATE OF CLIMB INDICATORS
~~

TYPICAL TEST SPECIFICATION

All tests to be carried out at a room temperature of 20

0e ± sOe with
vibrator 'ON' . -

a. Leak Tes t. (Fig 1)

Wi th the ins trument connected as in Fig I apply a press ure of 15 p. s . i. to

the Case. There must be no leak.
;;e , 2

b. Zero Adjus tment

Turn the zero adjus ting s crew and ens ure the pointer moves equal! y either
side of zero; there must be no sideways (rotary) movement of the mechanism
when the zero adj us tment s crew is turned.

c. Calibration (Fig 2.)

Carry out ranging at heights between 2000 and 8000 feet *,at 500; 1000;
2000; 3000; and 4000 feet/minute, both climbing and diving. The errors
must not exceed ±. 10% (or ± 50 feet/min). whichever is the greater.

Ranging is carried out as follows. Set YO.s.to the indicated datums and
time the Sub-standard altimeter over a datum change in altitude. This should
be 60 seconds if not -

INDICATED RATE x 601

€RUE RATE = TIMED PERIOD I N SEC. ,,-.. :t J~ /~~.~.,~

d. Overload Stops.
~,,;.. t: ~~ v~,· ;''l;-~I'r ptJ
Subject the instrument to overload pressures by slowly changing rate;
0
the pointer must not travel more than 170 from zero for either dive or
climb. (a slight hunting of pointer will be apparent at maxima of both scales,
on units fitted with overload valve.

* Test at low altitudes, otherwise choke is affected by pressure change

but not appropriate temperature change and errors will occur.

Example of calibration calculation.

Indicator set to 2000 feet per minute.

Altimeter shows a change of altitude from 4000 feet to 6000 feet in 50 sees.

TRUE RATE = 2000 x 60

50
= 2400 feet per min.
R .0 . C. is therefore under reading by 400 ftl min.
 ..... ,. .... ".

'---- --E:-- P~ESSU(?E

.~~
________________
-----r---J --tr-------:-----
.e.. FIG. 1

,.--.----~----'

®STOPWATCH.

BARoMETE.R..
,.------ -----. --~ if
IitEQut ~Eb-

159 (5)
 A.E"C.8
SECTION 2: LESS ON 8
SELF APPRAISAL'QUESTIONS

1 A V • S • I. is connected to r·
!
a pltot pressure
~ b static pressure
c vacuum

2 The units on the calibrated scale of a V.8.1. are expressed

in

a miles per hour (mph)

(J) b thousands of feet per minute
c knots (kts)

3 On descent the pressure in a V . S. I. capsule

ti a leads the case pres sure

b lags the case pressure !

l
c is the same as case pressure ~ ,

l.'.

4 With a V • S. I. pOinter at position 1 on the upper half of the

scale it indicates

a 100 ft/mlnute rate of climb

b 1 ,000 ft/minute rate of descent
~' c 1,000 ft/minute rate of climb

5 In level flight a V • S • I. will indicate

a vertically up I:
[,

b vertically down ~;
l'
fJJ c horizontal to left. I

161
 A.E.C.8
LESSON 8 (CONT)

6 The sensing element of a V • S •I. consists of

a a single capsule
b two capsules
c a bellows

7 A vertical speed indicator is made to read accurately at all

altitudes by

a arranging the lever system to give compensation

automatically with changes of altitude
selection of orifice size and capillary length in
metering unit
c connecting static nipple to the capsule with a
capillary tube.

8 A partial blockage in the orifice of a V.8 .1. would cause

the indicator, in level flight, to read

r& a zero
b a descent
c a climb

9 If the calibrated leak in a V . S. I. Is larger than it should

be then the V • S . I. will
I

a oveITead up and down

C9 b underread up and down
c overread whilst climbing and undeITead
whilst diving

10 In a V.S.I. the zero adjustment

a moves the capsule

b compresses the capsule
c expand s the ca psule
162
 '---\

INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (I.V.S.I)

)
Description

The presentation, integrally lit, takes the form of a pointer

rotating over a scale. The pointer rotates clockwise for an
upward change in vertical speed and- counter clockwise for a
downward change. The zero point is at the 9 0' clock position
on the dial. The scale is calibrated from 0 to 6,000 feet per
minute, in both directions at 1, 000, 2,000, 4,000 and 6,000
intervals. The first 1,000 feet in either direction is
further sub-divided in 100 feet graduations with .5 indicated
at 500 feet. (The ins trument indicates the anticipated-
vertical speed of the aircraft and dispenses with the errors
due to the movement lagging on the aircraft's change of
vertical speed.) The zero position of the pointer can be
adjusted by a small screw on the lower face of the instrument •

• Operation
Rotation of the pointer results from the interaction of a
dashpot assembly and an air leak through a diffuser. The
controlled changes in air pressure thus produced inside the
instrument actuate.r a pressure sensitive capsule. The capsule
drives a a linkage and gear tra-in to turn the pointer over the
graduated scale.

The 9J!.§PPQ.~... - assembly consists of two cylinders containing

istons, held in 6alance by springs, and a. pneumatic network.
change in vertical speed of the aircraft displaces the
pistons, this movement creates an immediate change in"pressure
to show an anticipated indication of vertical speed.
After a few seconds, the response of the dashpot decays;
meanwhile, because of the change in altitude that has taken
place, a pressure has built up across the diffuser. This
pressure differential is maintained between the air inside the
capsule and the air inside the sealed instrument body. In
this way, the pointer promptly responds to a change in
vertical speed and holds its indication until another change
in vertical speed indicates a new response. Actions of the
dashpot and diffuser overlap to produce a fast smooth response
of the pointer.

//
 DIA'HRACM

SECTOR CE4R

-STJ.TlC
CO~HfCT.O'"

SHAfT--.,...I....,(..

--VfRTICAL
.a.CCEl ER.\TIOtf PUMP

"""'IN METERING RESTRICTION

HAtoIDST A.F F PINtON

INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (I.V.S.I)

 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 9
AIRSPEED IN DICA'1;ORS

CONTENT~

PAGE NO.

MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED 167

DYNAMIC PRESSURE 167

- PRINCIPLE OF THE A. S.l.

ERRORS IN AIR SPEED INDICATORS

167

168

A.S.I.R., I.A.S.; E.A.S., T.A.S. 170

DESCRIPTION OF A SENSITIVE A. S.I. 171

OPERATION OF A SENSITIVE A. S. 1. 173

-I

1'";
A. S. 1. CALIBRATOR MARK 2a 175

e A. S. 1. TESTIN G 181

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 183

165
y
 A. E. C. 8

SECTION 2: LESSON 9

AIRSPEED INDICATORS

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions, be able to:-

1 Define the general terms used

2 State relationship between lAS and Dynamic Pressure.

3 State the four errors that instruments of this type are

subjected to

4 Explain the reason for the errors

5 State the meaning of ASIR, lAS, EAB & TAS

6 Explain the principle of construction and operation of a

typical Sensitive Airspeed indicator.

7 Identify method of Square Law Compensation

8 Explain the principle of methods of testing A. S. I.'s

9 State the various tests that can be carried out

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT P. 85 - P. 91

166
y
 LESSON 9

MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED

The air speed indicator is used on aircraft to show the speed at which
the aircraft is travelling through the air. It does not show the speed
of the aircraft in relation to a fixed point on the ground, since this
depends to some extent upon the speed and direction of the wind in
relation to the heading of the aircraft should there be any wind
present. The air speed indicators described in the following chapter
rely upon the measure of the difference between the pressure of the
moving air (Pitot Pressure) and that of still air (Static Pressure) at
the height at which the aircraft is flying.

•
The instrument is operated by pressures sensed by a pressure head
(Pitot) and a Static vent (Static) .

DYNAMIC PRESSURE

Because it possesses density, air in motion must possess energy and

therefore exerts a pressure on any object in its path. This dynamic
pressure is proportional to the density and the square of the speed.

If a volume of moving air is completely trapped and brought to rest

by means of an open -ended tube the total energy remains theoretically
cons tant. In being brought to res t the kinetic energy (the energy due
to movement) becomes pres sure energy which for all practical purpos es
is equal to

t p V 2 lb/ s q ft.
where p is the local air dens ity
and V the speed.

PRINCIPLE OF THE AIR SPEED INDICATOR (A.S.I.)

The air s peed indicator is calibrated according to the law

Dyna mic Pres sure = 1.2

Where P = Standard sea level value of

density of air

and V = indicated air speed.

l67
 However, the pltot tube experiences a total pressure made up of the
static pressure and dynamic pressure. The total pressure is fed through
a pipeline tc. the inside .of.-a capsule The static pressure ~is fed similarly
through a separate pipeline to the outside. of the capsule.

In the instrument the capsule is subjected to the two opposing pressures.

However, that part of the total pressure which is made up of static
pressure is cancelled by the static pressure in the other part of the
instrument. Thus the amount of any capsule movement is determined
purely by dynamic pressure. Movement of the capsule is transmitted
through a system of levers to the pointer of the A.S.l. The instrument
therefore reads the difference between the two measured pressures and
indicates dynamic pressure in terms of speed I the indicated speed
varying approximately as the square root of the dynamic pressure.

ERRORS IN AIR SPEED INDICATORS

•
All air speed indicator readings are subject to errors arising from various
sources. Allowance must be made for the error occas ioned by each
source I in order that the operator may be able to determine true air
speed from that shown by the air speed indicator. The errors are:-

(1) Instrument error

(2) Pressure error (Position error)
(3) Compressibility error
( 4) Dens i ty error

INSTRUMENT. ERROR

Instrument error is(Caused by constructional defect~ which will cause

the instrument reacting to differ from that of the calibrator during
calibration. A tolerance is speCified for each type of indicator which
I I

if exceeded, will render it unserviceable. Some types of air speed

indicators incorporate a bi -metal temperature compensator to minimize
the effect of temperature on metal parts, its chief function being to
compensate for the variation of elasticity of the metal capsule with
change of temperature.

PRESSURE ERROR (Position Error)

. Pressure error may be defined as(that part of the difference between

the calibrated airs peed and the indicated airs peed due to the recorded
static pressure not being equal to the ambient press ure:) The error,
which is strongly influenced by the position of pressun{heads and
static vents, 15 determined for each type of aircraft by conducting a
series of prototype test flights over various ranges of speed, altitude,
configuration, weights, etc. Details of the error so determined, and

168
 /-.L /Jt/ 2(/T.-L ~2e. j$./&'~-
- '2(/ YC a Q ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~_)
. ..s7'#AP: ~ ~ 0../../
.
/ -- ~Q.J'~,.r-e?,~~~$4'';r~~e/q/''~r::rpaPt?r
II?eP _ ~u/ r ~R.... / aT ~ 4..-<1'/.
the corrections to be applied to the readings of airspeed indica,tors and
altimeters, are presented in either tabular or graphical form and con-
tained in an appropriate section of the aircrafts'~

COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR

It can be shown that if tV/O streams of fluid having the same density
and speed are brought to rest, one fluid being compressible and the
other incompressible, then the pressure generated in bringing the
compressible fluid to rest will be greater than the other.

: Since air is a compressible fluid it will compress when brought to

rest in the pitot tube. The higher pressure recorded in the A.S.l. as
a result of compressibility is interpreted by the instrument as a higher
reading. Thus(compreSsibility error causes the A.S.1. to over-read,
and therefore compressibility error correction is always negative)

• /
/
i

! ( Air of low density is more easily compressed that air of higher density.
I Thus air near sea level is more resistant to compreSSion than air at,
say, 40,000 feet. At an altitude of 5000 feet the dynamic pressure
corresponding to an indicated air speed of 300 knots causes a com-
pressibility error of 2 knots, but at 40000 feet the same indicated air ,~
speed causes a compressibility error of 25 knots. C'hY;t'VV':.'//,;4f,¥ t7C,' ~4-.

DENSITY ERROR

The A.S.I. is calibrated to read correctly for only one density/altitude.

All British A.S.lls are calibrated for 1 C A.O. sea-level density; under
these conditions, (at a given true air air spee . (T. • .) and at
standard sea level density, the A.S.1. shows an indicated air speed
(I .A.S.) equal to the T .A.S.)

Although the A.S.I. is accurate as a measure of true speed only at sea

level, the I.A.S. is an important figure during flight. (The air loads

,t4t
on an aircraft in level flight or during straight dives and climbs are
directly proportional to the dynamic pressure and thus to the I.A.SJ
An aircraft which i~ flying at an altitude of about 75000 feet at a ~A.S.
of some 1300 knots has a corresponding I.A.S. of about 270}~nots;
therefore, although the T .A. S. is high, the forces experienced on all
1\ parts of the airframe are the same as those which they would experience
at sea level at a T .A.S ./1 .A.S. of about 270 knots.

\c#2-cb .",/ cU~;tfo -

/1//
('/
d
d
4..-// '
~
~ €A?
/?ff/,:.r ,;??,.e?,-e
C;>7/'1!",/fV'
re~.f4'?r -r~ c:;,,~.-O:>P~

CtPf/Cc~;./'.r . /' &?<7..r -V<e. ~...r C_7"/l!"./7~¥~ 169

C)t2·R/e./- 7~ / c.f'~ ~ 6Jc/e/--/ed~
 J.e.
The speed of an aircraft canvgiven in four different forms, namely:-

A.SrI,R. (Air Speed Indicator Reading) is the uncorrected reading on

a specified air speed indicator.

I .A,§. (Indicated Air Speed) is the reading of the air speed indicator,
corrected only for instrument error.
"C·A·j·.hr~¢~
'1: ,A,S. (Equivalent~)«r Speed) is the I .A.S. corrected for pressure
error and compressibility error.

T A, S. (True Air S peed) is the E. A. S. corrected for dens i ty error.

The density error and T ,A. S. are normally obtained graphically or by
use of a circular slide rule on which is set the outside air temperature
(0 .Ar T,) and altitude/and T .A,S. 1s read off opposite the E ,A.S .
 SENSITIVE AIRSPEED INDICATORS

DESCRIPTION

General

The sensftive airspeed indicator (fig 1) is designed to provide continuous

indication of the speed of the airflow passing an aircraft The instrument is
basically a differential air pressure gauge consisting of a twin capsule
assembly connected, via suitable linkage and gearing, to pointers which
move over a circular dial calibrated in knots The interior of the capsule is
connected by a capillary tube to pitot pressure while the exterior of the
capsule is open to static pressure One side of the capsule is secured to
the instrument frame, but the other side is free to move in respons~ to
pressure differences and it is this movement which is transmitted to the
pointers

The instrument has two concentric pointers consisting of a 'fast' and a

'slow' hand The fast hand indicates on an outer scale in tens of Knots,
one rev. equals 100 Knots .The slow hand moves over an inner or subsidiary
scale and indicates hundreds of knots. The mechanism is contained in a
case which is airtight except for the connections to the aircraft system
Connectors for the aircraft pipelines project from the back of the case, the
pitot entry being centrally disposed and identified P The static entry is
s1 tuated to one side of the pitot entry and is identified S The letters PC
suffixed to the code number denote that the instrument is designed for use
in a pressurised cabin and for this reason the glass in these instruments is
extra thick and toughered to enable the instrument to withstand external
pressures of 15 lb/in

Mechanism

The complete instrument mechanism is mounted in a frame comprising front

and rear plates separated by three pillars One outer face of the capsule
assembly is clamped rigidly to one of the frame pillars, while the free
outer face is connected by a link to a rocking shaft Thus linear movement
of the ca~ule assembly is converted tnto rotary movement of the rocking
shaft A bimetal compensating arn?is00nnected between the capsule
. assembly and lin~ to ensure that errors are not introduced into the movement
f due to temperature variations.

171
-
 ...r-------- cx:unawmtfr
ITOPMW

~;~ ~ ~~,;;..Q"t';1".rt!
Fig .1 Sensitive airspeed indicator mechanism

B A
RNGNG SPRING
PLATE

.R

---~ . ..,.._K...._:
.
_.
L
--I ..,---_...

r·····'
,
........... .....
~"'~l~

,
• • ...~-~.~'II
--- :"#1."
-~----~--
~

, I
,
o CAPSULE PRESSURE
Fig. 2 Principle of ranaiftl device

172
 Rotary movement of the rocking shaft is transmitted to the pointers via
a gear train situated in the frame front plate. These gears consists of
a fast hand pinion and staff an intermediate pinion assembly and a
I

slow hand gear. The fast hand pinion is actuated by a sector gear
attached to the rocking shaft and, in tum, operates the intermediate
pinion assembly which acts as a reduction gear to impart proportional
movement to the slow hand gear. The rocking shaft is mounted between
the front and rear plates of the frame. The rear bearing seats on a
removable pivot screw, but the front pivot is housed in an eccentric
jewel bearing which permits adjustment to take up backlash between
the sector gear and fast hand pinion.
"
stop pin is located on the rocking shaft (0 prevent reversal of
A ("
indica tion if a revers ed dU~er.~ntial pres sure is a ppliec9

• To ensure accurate linear calibration it is necessary to govern the

movement imparted to the pOinters. This is achieved by means of
the ranging s pring and plate as s embly which is located in the centre
of the instrument frame. The ranging spring contacts the capsule and
applies. a controlled retardIng force to the expansion of the capsule.
This retarding action is governed by screws in the ranging plate which
are' positioned to contact the spring at appropriate points on its
surface during the flexing of the spring. Thus the effective length
of the spring is progressively shortened to an extent necessary to
obtain the required amount of capsule movement for a given pressure.

OP~RATION (fig 3)

Wh~n the pitot and static pressures applied to the capsule are equal,
the pOinters remain in the null position, that is, between 4 and 8
knots below the minimum reading. When differential pressures are
applied, the capsule will expand or contract accordingly. The
resultant movement of the free side of the capsule assembly is
trans mitted by the linkage to rotate the rocking shaft and this
causes the sector gear to actuate the pointer gears. Differential
pressure changes are therefore indicated, in terms of airspeed, by
the pointers in conjunction with the calibrated dial. The fast hand
indicates on an outer dial calibrated in tens of knots and makes one
complete revolution for each 100 knots. The slow hand indicates
on an inner dial calibrated in units of hundreds of knots. It there-
fore records the number of revolutions made by the fast hand.

173
 LOCKNUT

.. OVE"ENT
RETAINING iPRING- POINTER GEARS

CAPSULE A"E .....Y ---t-'"'

ROCKING SHAFT
ASSEMBLY
&1t..!ETAL AR ..

RANGING SPRING
- CAPSULE LINK
AND PLATE AS'EM"'Y

-------... RANGING ARt..!

CAPSULE CAPILLARY

P PIN

PITOT UNION--

PI TOT CONNEC TOR

"ATIC CONNEC TOR

Fig. 3 Sectioned view

174
 CALIBRATORS, AIR SPEED INDICATOR.

INTRODUCTION

The air 5 peed calibrator Mk. 2A is us ed. for checking the accuracy of air
speed indicators to 605 Kts. (pressure is applied simultaneously to the
calibrator and the instrument under test, and the readings are compared)

PRINCIPLE

The calibrator has a mercury manometer which conSists of a vertical open

ended. tube immersed in a cistern of mercury. The t.ube contains a float
connected to a chain running over a pulley on to a spindle to which a
pointer is attached. When the mercury level in the cis tern is lowered
by application of air under pressure, the level of mercury in the tube rises I

lifts the float and chain and moves the pointer over a dial. The principle
of the calibrator is illustrated in fig. 4.

DESCRIPTION

The Mk. 2A calibrator consists of a .base carrying two columns, one the
mercury tube and the other the support for the pointer mechanis m .

The base has four supports fitted with levelling screws used in conjunction
with two spirit levels. Attached to the base is the valve block.
This is fitted with three valves; one inlet valve, (1), one screwdown type
relief valve (2) to the mercury cistern, and one of a diaphragm non-leak
type (3) in the line to the instrument under test.

The mercury cistern (29) is bolted. to the base and has a slightly sloping
I

bottom to permit draining through a screw plug exit. The mercury tube (26)
is joined. to the cistern cover by a Hermetite joint on to which is shrunk a
steel collar faced up from the axis of the tube, Hermetite is used to
make the joint between the collar and the cistern cover to which the collar
I

is bolted. The whole interior surface of the cistern and tube is stove
enamelled to prevent chemical action between the mercury and steel.

t
The float consists of a in. diameter steel ball with three holes drilled at
o
120 intervals. Thes e holes are tapped to take the screwed plugs of three
t
steel balls in. dia. which are thus attached securely to the t in. ball.
By adopting this design, there is no tendency for the float to come into
contact with the walls of the tube. The chain, which has at least 36 links
to the inch I Is made of nickel-pIa ted cilding metal.

A steel mercury trap containing a loose plate in which is drilled a 1/8 in.
diameter hole is to prevent mercury passing from the cistern and up the tubes
to the valve block or the stabilizer. The latter is for stabilizing the
indication. By preSSing a button (31) below the base a sealed diaphragm
I

connected by a pi pe to the cis tern I via the tra p, is compres s ed; this
obviates tapping the calibrator.
175
 At the top of the mercury tube the chain passes over a duralumin pulley
(14). The pulley frame (13), which is pivoted for adjustment purposes,
may be raised or lowered by a screwed rod (15) operated by a knob from
below the base. This operation alters the height of the pulley, so that
the spindle and pointer can be rotated to adjust the zero before starting
the tes t. When adjus ted, the rod is locked by a clamp adjacent to the
5 etting knob.

The pointer mechanism is illustrated in fig. 4. The pointer (23) is attached

to a nickel-silver spindle (18) with inserted 60 0 hardened steel pivots
which run in hollow cone sapphire bearings. The spindle is adjustable
for end-play by fine -thread screws, which are. locked by means of nuts.
Attached to the spindle are two arithmetic scrolls of duralumin over which
pass the chains. The rear scroll (20) receives the chain (16) from the
float and the front scroll (21) bears another chain (22) carrying a weight
(24) .

• The scrolls are made spiral to compensate for the laws governing the
ratio of pressure to air speed, and so to permit even calibration of the dial.
The scrolls, pointer and spindle are balanced as a unit so that the pointer
has no tendency to assume the vertical. The datum mark on the rim of the
front scroll is made to correspond with a fixed mark behind the dial, and
it is important that these should be in line when the pointer is at zero.
If the pointer, having been bent, is set to zero by adjusting the top pulley,
incorrect res ults will be obtained .

The dial is marked off with a spiral scale of four turns denoting 5 peeds of
0-240 Kts, 240-380 Kts, 380-500 Kts and 500-605 Kts I starting at the
outside and increasing in a clockwise direction, The spiral scale consists
of three parallel lines; m. p. h. on the outer marked in black, knots on the
inner marked in red, and pressure in mm. of water on the middle one,
marked in black.

To ascertain which tum of the spiral the pointer is reading I the position
of the weight in relation to the figures I, 2, 3 and 4 engraved on the column
should be noted; when the weight is out of sight the reading is on the
outer spiral; when the weight is between the edge of the dial and the number
2, the reading is on the second spiral (working from the outer spirals
inwards). When the weight is between the numbers 2 and 3 the reading is
on the third spiral, and between numbers 3 and 4 the reading is on the
fourth 5 piral.

The whole apparatus is protected from dust by a glass and steel cover
which rests on a rubber or cork surround and is held in position by two
bonnet clips. (See Figure 5) •

177
 OPERATION

When using the calibrator proceed as. follows:-

1. By means of the setting knob I set the pointer to zero.

2. Press the rubber button to stabilize the mercury level.

3. Using! in. bore rubber tubing attach the pressure connection of the
I

air speed indicator to be tested to the valve marked INSTRUMENTS.

I

4. Close the relief valve.

5. Connect an air supply to the inlet. The pressure of this supply should
be not greater than 12 Ib/in 2 for the calibrator I Mk. 2A.

6. Turn the knob of th~ inlet valve in a counter-clockwise direction,

I

until the lowest reading on the indicator is reached, then cut off the
air supply by means of the in1et valve. (Compare the indicator reading
with that of the calibrator, and check that any error is within the
specified tolerance. )

7• Turn the knob of the inlet valve until the next reading is reached.
Repeat until the highest reading on the scale is reached.

8. If instructed by the specification to do so, subject the instruments

to an overload pressure by increasing the pressure beyond the normal
maximum. The degree of overload is laid down in the relevant
specification.

9. Decrease the pressure by opening and closing the relief valve and
check the reading down the scale until zero is reached.

WARNING \

VALVES MUST BE OPENED & CLOSED SLOWLY .. AND THE PRESSURE OF THE
AIR SUPPLY MUST NOT EXCEED THE VALUE LAID DOWN, OR THE MERCURY
MAY BE SPILLED OVER THE TOP OF THE TUBE.

178
•
'-

179
Fig. 5 AIR SPEED CALIBRATOR Issue 1
 TESTING AIRSPEED INDICATORS

TYPICAL TEST SPECIFICATION

(a) Tests are to be carried out at a temperature of 15°C to 20°C,

with the instrument in the normal position. Vibration is
permitted.

(b) ~(fig6)

With the instrument connected as shown apply a pressure of

t p. s .1. if no leak a pparenytncreas e pres sure to 15 p. s . i.
(No leak allowed)

- (c) . s.a~ (fig 4)

With the instrument connected as shown exercise over full
range.

Apply increasing and decreasing pressures and check at all

-...I

main scale markings. The allowable tolerances are as· follows:-

50 to 79 knots ± 3 knots
80 to 200 knots ±. 2 knots
201 to 400 knots + 2.5 knots
401 to 5 00 knots ±. 3 knots

(d) ~
0
Tilt instrument through...2.2..-. in all directions I range and tolerance
mus t not be exceeded by more than 80%

( e) Friction test (fig 4) \III

e
~ \:
i;
Test at 5 positions over scale. Take 2 readings at each position
one before vibration and one after. Maximum difference in
reading must not exceed
4.5 knots at 50 to 79 knots
2.5 knots at 80 to 500 knots

(f) Minimum Reading (fig 4)

~

Check pointer reading before 50 knots.

(g) ~(fi94)

Apply a pressure equal to 110% of maximum scale reading for 5-

minutes, decrease pressure whilst range checking. Accuracy
shall be as in (c) .

181
 FIG.6.

182
 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 9

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

1 The applied pressure to an A. S. 1. varies with the

a square of the speed

b square root of the speed
c cube root of the speed

2 1m Airs peed indicator is

a an absolute pressure gauge

b a differential pressure gauge
c a ratio type pressure gauge

l/,eJ.r. e~"~;)
3 P~sition error on an A. S. 1. is partially caused by

a wrongly positioned A.S.I. in instrument panel

b wrongly positioned A. S. I. with regard to pitot head
c air flow around pitot head

4 The pltot connection to an A.S.I. is

II a located centrally at the rear of the instrument

b on the left when viewed from the back
c on the right when viewed from the back

5 The supply (or supplies) to an A. S. I.

a is pitot pressure only

, b
c
is static pressure only
are pitot and static pressures

183
 A.E.C . 8
LESSON 9 (CONT)

6 If an aircraft flying in still air at 400 knots encounters a

I

head wind of 50 knots its ground speed ill4'W /e,...

a 400 knots
6 b 350 knots
c 450 knots

7 If an aircraft flying in still air at 400 knots encounters a tail

wind of 50 knots its ground speed W'",W /e"
a 400 knots
b 350 knots
c 450 knots

184
 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 10
SOUND AND MACHMETERS

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

SOUND 1t~9

190

•
PRINCIPLES OF A MACHMETER

OPERATION 190

TESTING 194

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 1'97

187
y
 A. E. C. 8

SECTION 2: LESSON 10

SOUND AND MACHMETERS

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions, be able to:-

1 State the relationship between sound & height

2 State the meaning of critical mach number

3 Identify the relationship between mach numbers & MMO

4 Explain the principle of construction and operation of a

typical machmeter

5 State the relationship between mach number & the velocity

of sound

6 Explain the principle & methods of testing machmeters

7 State the various test that can be carried out

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1• AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT P.91 - P. 97

188
y
 LESSON 10

SOUND

Sound is produced by movement of matter the sound from a vibrating

I

body being transmitted through the air in waves.. These waves are
formed by alternate compreSSion and .refaction of the air surrounding
the vibra ting body.

Sound cannot therefore travel through a vacuum( ""v.rz:' ,t{,;ve.- ;? /r~v~ >

The fact that sound does not travel ins tantaneously is well known by
common examples, e. g. the flash of lightning followed some time
I

after, by the sound of thunder .

The velocity of sound in a gas is independent of changes in pressure I

but is proportional to the square root of it's Absolute temperature. The

•
(velocity of sound in air is therefore independent of the atmospheric
pressure but decreases with decrease of temperature as altitude is ~

*' gained)j../ ./
(~eeP')' ~1'V;"'~~t:.~
> _L.;~_ /~:/ ~~ '.
'--~&ce:r / ' ~/~./J(,e.OIC'
At 0 C the velocity of sound in airo is 109-6 ft (332 metres)
jd.k,k~·
per second and
p"r-
'
.
increases 2 ft (60 cm . ) for every I C rise in temperature.

-1(- THE SPEED OF SOUND DECREASES WITH AN INCREASE IN ALTITUDE

SPEED OF SOUND IN
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
AT:- IN KNOTS (T .A.S.)
Sea Level 662 approx.
10,000 ft. 638 ..
20, 000 ft. 614 "
30,000 ft. 589 II

36,090 ft + 574 "

189
 PRINCIPLES OF THE MACHMETER

At high airspeeds compressibility of the air as it impinges on the

airframe assumes great importance but the significant factor is not the
actual speed of the aircraft but the<!atio of its true air speed to the local
velocity of sound;} this ratio is known as the Mach. number. During
flight, the distur£;'"ance caused by the aircraft ~re waves which
spread out in all directions at the speed of sound. At airspeeds much less
than the speed of sound the pressure waves move ahead of the aircraft so
I

tha t when the aircraft reaches any point the air is already modified and
flow over the airframe is reasonably smooth. When on the other hand the

•
airspeed is grea ter than that of sound, the pressure waves set up by the
motion cannot reach the air ahead; the aircraft is then flying into
undisturbed air; there is intense compression on the leading edges and the
flow pattern is much less smooth than the one which prevails at low speeds.
These changes have an adverse effect on lift and drag, on the stability of
the aircraft and on its reaction to the controls and begin to become
I

noticeable at about two thirds the speed of sound (dependent on aircraft

design) .
(' -'
For each aircraft type a critical mach number 1s lstablished €elow which 1
no effects of compressibility are felt~ A normal Maximum Mach Operating
speed, MMO (in terms of mach numb~r) is thljaid down which(allows
a margin below this critical mach number for 'mal manoeuvres I

turbulence or auto pilot runaway 1

The machmeter gives an indication of the mac~umber of an aircraft in
flight. The dial is sometimes provided with a lubber marK'which can be
(Set to indicate the MMO for the particular aircraft type)

In both the equation for true air speed and the equation for the speed of
sound, air density is one of the factors included. (In deriving the
.1
machmeter formula, ensit is cancelled out in both equations and a final
expression of mach um r n erms of pitot and static pressures only is
obtained. This expression of mach number is therefore quite
I I

.;.~~d~Hen~f air temperatur? and the machmeter requires only pitot and
static pressures to give a visual indication of mach number)

OPERATION (Fig. 2)

Mach number is defined as the ratio between ~he true air speed and the
local speed 0fund:-:;
~ Mach No = ;t
True Air S peed
.:;-
Local Some Speed
oc
P - S
S
)./ i:::..~1"'~;ru
.-==.;;.::. .;-%_ .
-- ~

(In the machme er this ratio is derived by modifying the mechanical output
of an.Air speed mechanism with a corrective movement obtained from an
,9.1t1tude mechanism),

190
 DIAL ~NTATIOfiI

'wI

FiJUI'8 1

MACHMETER - EXTERNAL VIEW

..
'

191
 6he airspeed capsule is connected directly with pltot pressure, and is
surrounded externally with static pressure. The capsule therefore
responds to the pitot/static pressure differentta9. Expansion of the
capsule causes the air speed link to move upwards against the tension
exerted by the curved res training spring. This movement is
transmitted to the sector and hand staff pinion by a rotary motion of the
sliding shaft assembly.

6,he altitude capsule is evacuated and surrounded by static pressure and

responds only to changes in altitude) Capsule movement is transmitted
through the altitude rocking shaft causing the push rod to thrust against the
sliding shaft inner pivot. As a result of this movement, the sliding
shaft moves in a line parallel to the horizontal axis of the instrument.
The two calibration arms on the sliding shaft are then carried to different
points of contact with the angled calibration arms on the air s peed link
and sector.

• This change in points of contact has the effect of increasing or

decreas Ing the magnitude of the mechanical movement obtained from the
air speed mechan15$~su,eral ~e indicated movement obtained from
the air speed mech~nrs~~rease. in magnitude with an increase in
altitude~ o~z1,,;, ~~;,&t;-~).
The resultant of these two combined movements is transmitted through the
sector to the handstaff pinion. Mach number is then indicated by the
pointer against the calibrated dial.

193
 •

TESTING MACHMETERS

Typical Test Specification

o
,All tests are carried out at a room temperature of 20 C ±. 5 0 C with vibrator
'aNI.
/' . ' / . . . . /" ~"/I-'" ,.r . ';40.,~./f! '
a. ~.:?/~ L" t!~ C~ 0<" S""-

(ii) Case leak test as for A.S.I.

(ii) A.S.I. Capsule:- Apply a pitot pressure to give a maximum

scale reading, shut off pressure and observe pointer. No
pOinter movement is to be observed in 1 minute.

b. .~(Fig.3)

Apply increasing and decreasing pitot pressures at the following

altitudes 0; 20, OOOi 3 0, 000; and 35,000 feet.
•
The following tolerances will apply

..
"
0.34 to O.SM ± O. 02M
O. 6 to O. 8M ±. O. DIM
O.86M ± O. 015M

Notes on use of test rig shown in Fig. 3.

(i) A Barometer can be used for height, but an altimeter is

normally used to indicate ICAO pressure altitude conditions.
Set the altimeter millibar scale to 1013.
(ii) With valves I, 2, 3 and 4 closed ensure balance valve 5 I

is fully open. Apply pressure or suction by valves 1 or 4

respectively until altimeter reads zero. Close balance valve 5.
(iii) Slowly open ~alve 1 until A.S .1. reads correctly for first major
graduation on machmeter. Close valve 1. Note mach reading.
Repeat for all major graduations of machmeter to maximum.
(iv) Repeat (iii)at 20,000; 30,000; and 35,000 feet.
When altering aiti tude close valves I, 2 and 3 fully open I I

5 and open 4 to increase altitude to desired reading; close 4

and 5; open 1* to increase A.S.I. reading.
* At higher altitudes valve 2 can be used to increase A.S.I.
reading.
(v) To obtain decreasing machmeter readings, close valves
I, 2, 3 and 4, open 5 until A.S.I. falls to appropriate reading.
Close 5 and re-adjust altitude if necessary by valves 3 and 4.

NOTE: In para v. balance valve 5 is used to vent pitot to static as the

194 value of pitot pressure at altitude will be less than atmospheric
pressure.
?Vet {'r h? HRrl'7{!rer
p,r
ALT.
(5.5.)

195
 c.~
0
Rotate machmeter through 90 clockwise and anti-clockwise and face
upwards. Pointer movement should not exceed o. DIM from readings
in normal position at 30,000 feet.

d. Check freedom of lubber mark and set to the specified reading.

196
 A.E.C.B
SECTION 2: LESSON 10
SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

1 The Velocity of sound with an increase in altitude will

a increase
<9 b decrease
c remain constant

2 A Machmeter is an instrument which indicates the s peed of

• a the aircraft relative to the s peed of sound at ground

level
sound relative to the aircraft's altitude
the aircraft relative to the local sonic speed

3 If an aircraft is flown at a constant speed

~
of 200 knots during
...v/;?'
a climb from zero feet to 40,000 fee;,V,P5iL the machmete~ead a

a constant mach Humber

b increase of mach number with increase of altitude
c decrease of mach number with increase of altitude

4 The Mach number is sensed in terms of a

a pressure ratio
b temperature ratio
c sound ratio

5 The critical mach number of an aircraft is given aPs 0.8. M

This means

a that the aircraft will pass through the .sound barrier at

that speed
b the aircraft must not fly at less than that speed
c the aircraft must not fly in excess of that speed.

197 (s)
G
 A.E.C.8
SECTION 2: LESSON 11
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

PRESSURE HEADS
.
. !
203

"
STATIC VENTS 205

PIPELINES 207

DRAINS 210

TYPICAL PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM 212

MAINTENANCE 214

LEAK TESTING 215

PITOT -STATIC LEAK TESTER 216

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS .1 221

t///.<,y'~ ~H~~t" "Q"./'T ./)tFT (/1/12 ~72j

201
y
 A.E.C.8

SECTION 2: LESSON 11

PITOT STATIC SYSTEMS

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions, be able to:-

1 State the problems associated with sitting of pitot tubes

& static vents.

2 State the practical checks & precautions on inspection of

these systems

3 State the reasons for water traps & drains

4 State the servicing procedures for water traps & drains

5 Explain the location & layout of a typical pitot static system

& effect of crossfed pipelines.

6 Explain the prinCiple & methods of leak testing a typical

Pltot-Static system.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING e'

1. AIRCRAFT rnSTRUMENTS BY E. H. J. PALLETT P. 55 - P. 68

202
y
 --
- ~J. ~ro.
I
FUEL
+ ROCKET
OXIDISER
ROCKET
FUEL
WATER
INJECTION
COOLANT
BREATHING
OXYGEN
FUEL
+ ROCKET ROCKET WATER
COeLANT

COOLANT
BREATHING
FUEL
+ OXIDISER FUEL INJECTION
COOLANT
OXYGEN

+
ROCKET ROCKET WATER BREATHING
FUEL OXIDISER ~::'jEL INJECTION COOLANT OXYGEN

_- ·AIR •••
C(){)ITIONING •••

1: • •
••
FIRE
PROT~CTION
LUBRICATION II
II
II
HYDRAULIC

•• PNEUMATIC ~----
INSTRUMEN
AIR

••
AIR ••• LU8RICATiOtJ HYDRAULIC
Cm;~)iTIONING .:. FIRE
PRQTECTIOrJ II PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENT
AIR
LUBRIC.A.TtON _ HYDRAULIC
I AIR
e.
•••

•
FIRE
!CONDITIONIN:3 •
PROTECTIGiJ II
l .:. LUBRICATION II HYDRAULIC PNELtv1ATlC

DE-ICE A
DE-ICE

DE-ICE

DE-ICE
•
A
A
DE-ICE
A

IDENTIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT PIPELINES

14
 Drain Alternate Pitot
Traps change-over
valve

CAPTAINS
INSTRUMENTS

CE~TR1\L AIR
DATA COMPUT ER
MIlCH AIRSPEED
SNITCH
FLIGHT DATA
RECORDER
Alternate
change-over
valve
~;::;-t

Left R.ight
f o rward fuse l age forward fuselage
static pla t e static plate

ALTERN liT E
STATI C PL,\TE

:<OTES: 1. Alternat e pi tat and static change - over valves

ar e shown in 'n orma l l
positi on .
2. To reduce error a~ hig h mach numbe rs some
ai r c r aft have static vents on the sides 0:
the pi tot probes .

TYPICAL -->BALANCED
::::::::; c:::::::..,- _ PiTOT - STATIC
________ _ _ -SYSTEM
 LESSON 11

PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMS

Pressure heads are of two main types, i.e., the pitQt":,s~t..!f type which
senses and transmits both pitot and static pressuresl7'~atR'e pitot only
type(Fig. 1) which is used in conjunction with a separate static vent
sys tern.

Pressure head pipe connections are arranged to suit the method of

installa tion L e . frontal installation fuselage side or underwing
I I I

ins ta11a tion . In the former the connections emerge in line with the head
0
while in the latter they emerge at 90 to the axis of the head. The
connections may be of the low pressure type for use with rubber grommets I

or of the high pressure type for use with flared pipes and collets.

When aircraft are permitted by the terms of their Certificate of Airworthiness

to fly in ice-forming conditions, pressure heads equipped with a means of
preventing ice formation are fitted. This is achieved by a system of
heating elements appropriately positioned inside the body of the head.
Pressure heads designed for fuselage side or underwing mounting have
additional elements located inside the support mast. The heaters are
supplied with power from the aircraft electrical system and controlled
from the cockpit.

Pressure heads should be examined for physical damage and freedom from
obstruction before installation and it should be confirmed that the type
I

of head is correct for the particular aircraft. Before connecting heate'r""

element cables it must be ensured that the pitot heating circuit of the
aircraft is isolated from electrical power sources.

1. Drain holes of a calibrated size are provided in the bodies of

some types of electrically-heated pressure heads and thes,e must
be at the bottom when such heads are installed.. Certain type
of pressure head designed for mounting on the sides of a fuselage
are 'handed', and the drain holes and support mast drain screw
are located in such a way that they are at the lowest point
compatible with the angular poSition of the head when installed.
It is therefore important to ensure that the correctly handed
pressure head is fitted.

2. In order to prevent distortion of mounting flanges, fixing screws or

bolts, pressure heads must be adequately supported during
installation and not allowed to hang on their fixing screws when
these are being tightened.

203
 Stop valve

P"I ADU'TlIII----...

Fig. 1 PITOT HEAD - PITOr ONLY TYPE

-----~

204
. '
 I S1 (S3)
HEATERS ARE MADE SO THE RESISTANCE 82(84)
CHANGES AS THE TEMPERATURE AROUND
THE PROBE CHANGES. MORE CURRENT HEATER
IS DRAWN WITH COLDER TEMPERATURES POWER
SUCH AS IN THE AIR AND LESS WITH .
WARMER TEMPERATURES SUCH AS ON THE
GROUND.

STATIC PRESSURE PORTS

IN THIS AREA, ON TOP AND
BOTTOM

S2(S41 \ .

1 01
101
l/S1
0
(S31 VENDOR·
ROSEMOUNT ENG. CO.
PIN 856 CR·1 LEFT SIDE
I 010 856 CR·2 RIGHT SIDE

PITOT. DRAIN HOLE HEAD HEATER

ON BOTTOM SIDE (ENTIRE PROBE)
OF PROBE

AERODYNAMICAll V
COMPENSATED PITOT-STATIC TUBE . (FIG.2_ a)

-11-
 3. Pressure heads should not be painted as this may impair their
thermal efficiency. Furthermore paint may cause inadvertent
I

obstruction of the necessary orifices and result in inaccurate

sensing of pitot and static pressures.

4. After installation the pressure connections should be checked

for security and locking, and a leak test of the complete pitot-
static system carried out in accord.nee with the requirements of
the aircraft Maintenance Manual. The hea ting elements of
electrically-heated pressure heads should be checked for
functioning by connecting aQ ammeter in the circuit and noting
that the current consumed is' correct for the voltage and power
ratings of the pressure head 1nstalled.

NOTE: Heater elements can reach very high temperatures when switched
on in still air. In order not to impair their life the heating circuit

• should not be switched on for longer than the period recommended

by the manufacturer to carry out the functioning checks.

STATIC VENTS
~

In order6o minimise the effects of position error and to provide greater

freedom from ice formatiorJthe sensing of static pressure is by means
of separa te vents)(Fi9. 2) in the form of flat metal plates secured to the
fuselage skin at pre-determined positions. There are two principal types
of static vent in use their application being governed by the size and the
I

number of pitot-static systems required for a specific aircraft type.

In the basic system, the static vent consists of a flat brass plate,
rounded at the ends and having through its centre a quarter inch diameter
hole communicating with a short section of plain pipe which provides
for the connection of the vent with the pipeline system. The pipe section
may in some versions, be positioned at 90 0 to the plate or directed
I

upward at 300 to provide drainage for moisture. A drain trap is usually

fitted in the section of pipeline immediately adjacent to vents of the
former type.

In aircraft employing several independent pitot-s tatic systems, the static

vent consists of a flat stainless steel plate through which are drilled a
number of 3/16 inch diameter holes. Each hole is connected to the
pipeline of a specific system or component requiring static pressure byI

means of a threaded coupling adapter welded concentric with the hole.

Holes in the fuselage skin accommodate the coupling adapters of the plate
which is bolted to the skin.

205
 ITHIOKOL FILLET Q =b
LEFT STATIC
PIPE STIFFNUT AND
WASHER

(
THIOKOL
- COLLAR -_~----ll...--_ _ _~

SEALING WASHERS
ADAPTER

AIR CONDITIONING TRUE

STATIC VENT ORIFICES

- - - : " ' ' - - - - - - - - STATIC POINT

OUTER PLATE

;/

(Fi g. 2-~~ point installation

INSTALLATION
I .
The vents a-ie normelly<!itted in a position free of turbulenc~from aerials
or other external fitmen ts and loca ted where the s kin in the area of the
vent is flush riveted and free of butt straps etc., since such features
I

would cause a varying behaviOr of the boundary layer.

1. . '1l"1 order to reduce errors due to pres sure unbalance a t the vents
t. whenever yawing of the aircraft takes place, static vents are
(fitted on each side of the fuselage and are interconnectecpinto
the same static pressure line. .

2. Bress statie vent plates should be provided with a stiffener

~ on the·inside of the fuselage skin to prevent distortion of
the vent plate. On metal aircraft a metal stiffener, similar in
shape to the vent pia te, should be riveted to the skin, while
with aircraft having a plywood skin, a plywood stiffener should
be glued to the ·Skii\. The vent plates should make complete
contact a t their outer edges and be secured te- "the fuselage
skin by means of the spigots provided on the rear face and by I

knurled nuts which should be tightened by hand and wirelocked;

overtightening may cause the vent plate to distort.'(A suitable
sealing compound should be used between the contacting surfaces
of the vent and skin j Exuded sealant should be trimmed off by
using a plastic scraper.

3. Stainless steel vent plates should be bolted directly to the

fuselage skin and,. depending on the modification state of the
aircraft sys tem, are sealed either by sealing rings around the
flanges of the coupling adapters, or by filling"'the inner surface
recess with sealing compound.

4. Smoothness of the outer surface of all static vent plates is vital

to the accurate senSing of static pressure.S{They must therefore
be kept free of s cra tches and other inde.nta tions' ,.. and mus t
never be pa inted)

----------
PIPELINES

Pi tot and s ta tic pres s ures are trans mi tted throughout s ys terns by means of
light alloy pipes (tungum pipes may also be used in some aircraft) and
nexible hoses the latter being used for the connection of resiliently-
I

mounted instruments and components. In order to prevent moisture

blockage and to minimise pressure lag, theQnside diameter of pipelines
must not be less than a quarter inc..!l) Two basic types of unions are
employed. Allow pressure union is illustrated in Fig. 3a and 'high'
pressure unions in Figs.3b and 3c.

207
 LESSON 11

RUBBER RINC 80DY UNION IllUT

Fig. 3(a) Low-Pressure union

~.
NIPPLE COLLAR

UNION NUT

[ TYPtcAL PIPE CONNEC T I ON

J •
I
Fig. 3(b)
High-Pressure union
o
with 32 included angle of flare

UNION NUT

(TYPICAL HOSE CONNECTION I

Fig. 3(c)
High-Pressure
hose connections

208
 The procedure for the installation and removal of pipelines' depeNds upon
the size and complexity of individual systems; reference should always
be made to the aircraft Maintenance Manual. The following points,
common to applied practices, are given as a general guide.

(i) Before installation, pipelines should be blown out with a rt n h/,/,?en

.d:Ps 18'..
prSS8ttFe eiF supply to ensure cleanliness and freedom
from obstruction.

(ii) When tightening the end connections of flexible hoses it must

be ens ured tha t the hoses do not become twis ted.

(iii) Bending of r>ipes through too small a radiUS, and kinking, mus t
be avoided since the resulting depressions and reduction in
bore diameter will create unwanted moisture traps and erratic
transmission of pressure •

• (iv)

(v)
Metal pipes mus t be securely a ttached to the" airframe structure
at regular intervals throughout their run and should slope towards
points at which drain traps or drain valves are located.

Pipelines leading from static vents should be installed so that,

where possible they rise continuously towards the instruments
I

but if this cannot be achieved, they should ris e for the firs t
I

six inches at least. Where two static vents are interconnected,

the pipelines from each should be symmetrically disposed.

(vi) Clearance mus·t exist between a newly1.Rstalled pipe and other

pipes or structural parts to avoid chafing during flight.

(vii) When pipelines are removed from an aircraft, blanks should be

fi tted to their end connections and all other connections in the
sys tern which become exposed by the removal. Support

•
clamps should be returned to their original positions as soon
as a pipeline has heen removed to ens ure their correct loca tion.

(Viii) The mating surfaces of pipe ends and connections must be clean.

(ix) When connecting pipelines employing low pres sure unions and
rubber grommets, (Fig. 3a) the union nuts should be tightened
by hand and should then be secured by a half-tum with a
spanner since overtightening may damage the grommet and
I

result in a leaking joint.

(x) When tightening the union nuts of pipelines on to the connectors

of instruments, .~he connector must be held securely with a
spanner to avoid undue stress upon the"cases of the instruments.

\.

209
 (xi) After installation of a pipeline, the system with which it is
concerned mus t be checked for leaks in the manner prescribed
in the aircraft Maintenance Manual. On sa tis factory completion
of such individual checks, a leak test of the complete pitot-
static system must be carried out.

DRAINS (Fig. 4)

In addition to the moisture drainage of pressure heads, facilities must

also be provided for the removal of moisture which 'might accumulate
in the pipelines connecting the sources of pres sure to ins truments and
associated equipment. Such draining facilities may take the form of
either drain traps or drain valves (in some aircraft they are used in
combination) ~ocated at the lowest points in pltot and static pipe runs
The design cons truction, and application of drains varies between
I

manufacturers and type of pitot-static system.

J
•

210
 eJ
~.....:.? ~./'h9a--#~pV'V/'" 2!e;9,J - z .....~

JC~~~~~~/~~~'
9 ?~;~~~~~?>
:I /~ ~~ ~~~
h-z,.....

&4/~~~~
OC~ . ~~~~
I) ~~~~~fTh?0/''-??/~
-.
tJ~~d" , ..
.
~~~~-

,
/~'t/~ ~,

.. } ?'&d~~r~~~~
~~a~~ ~~f//
~~~,~r~.~~
~~~~~.
 VALVI

TRANSPARENT
DRAIN TRAP

•
DRAIN
VALVE

I WATER DRAlttt 1

FIG. 4 WATER TRAPS AND DRAINS

211
 TYPICAL PITO~STATIC SYSTEM

A simplified diagram of a dual pitot-static system is shown in(Figure 5))

The symptoms of typical faults are as follows:-

~
r. •Crossed' pitot and static connections
a) with Static (suction) applied to instrument 'P' connection.
A.S.l. - against bottom stop.

•
Machmeter It " tt

b) with Pitot (pressure) applied to instrument'S' connection.

i) A.S.l. - against bottom stop
ii) Machmeter _ It .. tt

iii) Altimeter descends below zero (rotates 'backwards')

iV) V.S. I. '.Ilf indicates descent whilst pressure
increasing.

2. Instrument case leak in pres8urised aircraft

i) A.S.l. reads low
ii) Machmeter reads low
iii) Altimeter under reads
iV) V.S.l. indicates climb
3. Static pipeline leak in pressurised aircraft
A.S.I. )
idl
iV)
Machmeter) As '2' above
Altimeter)
V.S.!. indicates dive

212
 PORT STBD
A S I V S I ALT

)l ~ .1- ' Jlr- r1- ,1-

. . . 1- 100..1-
t
I--'
- PITOT
HEAD I'

0
STATIC DRAIN
PLATE
0
I J -,rr 0
TRAPS

o0
0 - 0
0
o0 0

(rIG . 5) P ITOT - STATIC SYSTEM (simplified)

 MAINTENANCE OF PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMS

The following notes lis t the main paints of maintenance. For full data ils
see C . A . I. P. Lea fl e t ALII 0-1.

PRESSURE HEADS AND MASTS

1. Inspect for security and distortion.

2. When called for in rna intenance manual, check for 1a teral and
longi tudinal alignment wi th res pect to aircraft da tum.
3. Inspect pressure entry and drain holes for obstruction. DO NOT
use tools likely to cause enlargement or burring. Use of a
stiff brush is recommended.
4. Check hea ting elements for functioning by hand when firs t
switching on or by in-situ ammeter if fitted. ""'e
If necessary, insulation tes t when hot and cold typical minimum
I

value is 3 megoh~.
DO NOT leave hea ters switch on for long periods in s till air
conditions.
5. If aircraft is parked overnight or under hangar maintenance fit
canvas covers to prevent entry of foreign matter. Covers must
be prominently coloured with a s trea mer attached.

STATIC VENTS

1. Inspect to ensure exposed surfaces free from scratches,

indenta tions and tha t holes are unobs tructed edges free from
I

burrs. DO NOT use tools likely to cause enlargement or further

burring. Remove dirt wi th clea n lint.:.!r.~~~~lo.!_b,.; .~.

2. Fit blanking plugs if aircraft left 5 tanding. Inspect plugs for

fracture which might allow part to remain in hole when assembly
is removed.

3. DO NOT paint.

PIPELINES

1. Ins pect for freedom from corros Lon, kinking, etc.

2. Ins pect for security of clamping.
3. Ins peet for tight and locked connections.
4. Check fleXible hoses for twisting and deterioration - particularly
at jOints.
5. Drain at periods specified - to avoid contamination of adjacent
parts, us e suitable conta inef for collection of wa ter .

214
 LEAK TESTING OF PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMS

(Aircraft pitot-static systems must be tested for leaks after the

installation of any component parts, at any time system malfunctioning
is suspected, and at the periods specified in the aircraft Maintenance
Schedule ~ The method of testing consists basically of applying pressure
and suction to pressure heads and static vents respectively by means of
a special leak tester and coupling adapters I and noting that there is no
leakage/or the rate of leakage is within the permissible tolerances
prescribed for the system. Leak tests also provide a means of checking
that the instruments connected to a system are functioning correctly, but
they do not serve as a calibration test.

Specific applications of the bas ic method of leak testing and the type
of equipment recommended depend on the type of aircraft and its pltot-
static system, and as these are detailed in relevant manufacturer's and
aircraft Maintenance fv1anuals reference must always be·made to these

•
I

documents. There are however certain as pects of the procedures and

I

precautions to be observed which are of a standard nature, and these

~ are s ummaris ed for guidance as follows:-
rri!C4&C/;'AJ' -
~essure and suction must always be applied and released slowli)
to avoid damage to instrument capsules. In multi pitot-static
systems involving the use of selector valves, pressure or suction
Qnust be restored to ambient pressure before operating the valvej>
as specified in the tests.
(it) (if two static vents are interconnected, one vent should be blanked.
off before the tes ts are commence'9 " .
.
~

(iii) When fitting leak tester adapters to pressure heads, care must be
taken not to apply loads which tend to dis turb their setting.
.I.~.

(iv) In carrying out a leak test of a static pressure system iln(apparent

leak will be indicated by the dropping back of the altimeter pointev

• (v)
This is a normal indication which@tabilizes when the s tauc
pressure across the vertical speed indicator capsule has equalised)

When conducting leak tests and functioning checks of air data

computer systems, the electrical power supply must not be
interrupted as there is the possibility of the system;be~oming
de-synchronised. it' ~I

(vi) When testing a system to which autopilot altitude and airspeed locks
are connected, the autopilot mus t be powered but not engaged with
the aircraft's flight control system.
(vii) On completion of tests which have necessitated the blanking-off
various sections of a system, a check must be made that all
blanking plugs, adapters, or pieces of adheSive tape, ha..ve been
removed.
215
 THE PITOT AND STATIC LEAK TESTER

The leak tester and its adaptors (Figure 6) includes ~ modified air speed
indicator a double action hand pump and a control valve)to provide
I

pressure or suction as follows:-

1. Control Valve at 'Pressure to Pitot'. The pump delivers

press ure to the pi tot connector and to the pi tot union of the
integral indica tor.

2. Control Valve at 'Suction to Static'. The pump then operates

as a suction pump and is connected to the static connector and
to the static union of the integral indicator.

3.
(It should be noted that the indicator will still indicate
positively) •

Control Valve at 'Release'. The pump is ineffective and both

connectors are connected to atmosphere.
•

216
 K rs

LEAK TESTER

PUMP

Fig. 6a

1M i II'
Fig. 6bSTATIC VENT
ADAPTOR Fig. 6c PRESSURE HEAD ADAPTOR

PITOT -STATIC LEAK TESTER & TEST ADAPTORS

t(!,
.1. Pitot leak tes t
TYPICAL TESTS ON SYSTEM

f/t,eu~
a) Apply press ureA:0 150 Knots and hold.
The tes ter A. S . I. should not drop more than 5 Knots in
~ -
To check for restriction, release pressure and check
instrument pOinter drops smoothly to zero.

To check pres sure head dra in holes, pull forwa rd the

adaptor (Fig. 6c) and seal the drain holes separately.
Reapply pressure, unseal drain holes and check pressure

•
drops rapidly and smoothly to zero.

Repea t on each pi tot head.

2. S ta tic leak tes t

Blank vent hole with approved plug on one side of

aircraft. Apply suction to 150 Knots and hold. The
tes ter A. S • I. should not drop more than 5 Knots in
3 minutes.
To check for res triction I releas e suction and check
instrument pOinter drops smoothly to zero.

To check for restriction on alternative vent, - reapply

suction, remove vent plug and check that instrument
pointer drops smoothly to zero.

NOTE:. During the preceding leak checks , ~he~and

pp oximat indications of the aircraft instruments
should be checked but this must not be regarded as a
method of check alibra Han.

With suction to static, useful approximate equivalents

are:-

150 Knots -1000 ft -1 in. Hg. - 0.5 p.s.i.

350 Knots -6300 ft- 6.3 in Hg - 3.1 p.s.i. - 0.59 Mach.

3. If leaks require to be traced in Pitot or Static lines ,(DISCONNECT

ALL INSTRUMENTS in the suspected section and blank connections.
Apply clean, dry, low-pressure air and use a white acid-free soap
and distilled water (8 % teBasa 31 B' elnelwQ.S% e1istilleel Ud!lieF ~ (L..FA~cC)
!

ii' UeJele) externally to loca te the area of the leak. On completion

wipe off and dry)

218
 4. Where res trictions are sus pected (DISCONNECT ALL INSTRUMENTS
I

from the Section concerned. Use clean, dry, low - pressure air -
~ca~ (the supply should have a relief valve) at approx. 10 p.s. i., to
re!J~/cZ'!;~~ blow back from the disconnected section towards the pressure head
or static-vent)

219 (s)
) ~tscuon I) IBI
8.4.2 USING THE PITOT/STATIC TEST SET 102 BTE

PREPARATION FOR TEST

1. Connect electrical supply (either 115v or 200v. 400 Hz) as

appro pria te •
Switch ON test set.
Check that both 400 Hz SUPPLY and PHASE lamps illuminate.
(If the PHASE lamp faUs to light, switch off immedIately and
check for correct power supply).

2. Select HANDPUMP position on the SUPPLY CHANGEOVER VALVE (A)

3. Connect adaptor pipe to the pressure outlet marked P and f1t the
adaptor to the aircraft pitot head.

• Connect adaptor pipe to the pressure outlet marked S and fit the
adaptor to the aircraft static vent.
Seal off any parallel static vents as necessary.

TESTING PRESSURE OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

(A) AIRSPEED INDICATOR

1. Carry out preparation described above.

CAUTION Ensure that the EQUALISING VALVE (E) is closed at
all times during these tests.

2.. Close PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) then close STATIC CONTROL
VALVE (D) ..

3.. Select PITOT INPUT on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B) ..

• 4. Operate the handpump and at the same time slowly open the PITOT
CONTROL VALVE (C) to obtain the first pressure setting on the
P .. 8 .. GAUGE (Use tables for conversion of calibrated airs·peed to
differential pres sure in millibars) •
Close PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) and record the reading on the
a irs peed indica tor under tes t .
5. Repeat procedure as in 4) above for each required test pressure
throughout range, making use of the PITOT FINE ADJUSTER (F)
6. After highest airs peed test has been carried out, select PITOT VENT
on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VUVE (B) ..
7. Slowly open PITOT CONTROL VALVE (e) to release pressure .
Check each test pressure reading on the instrument with decreasing
pres 5 ure and record ..
8. On completion of test, fully open the PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) I

the STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) and EQUALISING VALVE (E).

Select SAFE POSITION on the SUPPLY CHANGEOVER VALVE (A).
 (B) ALTIMETER

"J 1. Carry out preparation for test as previously described •.

2" Set the altimeter under test to 1013.25 mb.

3. Close PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) I STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) and
EQUAUSING VALVE (E).

4. If the prevailing barometric pressure is less than the first

pressure test, it will be necessary to apply pitat pressure to
the static system as follows: - .

a. Select PITOT INPUT on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER

VALVE (B).
b. Open EQUAUSING VALVE (E)
c. Open PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) and operate the handpump
until the required pressure is indicated on the STATIC GAUGE.
(Use tables per conversion of calibrated altitude to
corresponding pressure in millibars)
NOTE: Fine adjustment can be made us ing the STATIC FINE ADJUSTtR (G)

d. To release pressure after test, select STATIC VENT on the

PITOT-STATIC ·CHANGEOVER VALVE (B) and fully open the
STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) •
e. Close EQUALISING VALVE (E) and PITOT CONTROL VALVE (e).
5. Select STATIC INPUT on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B) •

6. Operate the handpump and at the same time slowly open the STATIC
CONTROL VALVE (D) to obtain the required pressure on the STATIC
GAUGE.
Close STATIC CONrROL VALVE CD) and recQrci reading on the altimeter
under test •.

Repeat procedure as in 6) above for each required test pressure

• 7.
throughout the range I making use of the STATIC FINE ADJUSTER (G)
8. After hignest altitude test has been checked, select STATIC VENT
on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B) •

9. Slowly open STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) to increase the pressure.

Check each test pressure reading on the instrument with decreasing
altitude and record.

10. On completion of tests fully open the STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D)
I

the PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) and the EQUALISING VALVE (E) ~
Select SAFE POSITION on the SUPPLY CHANGEOVER VALVE (A) •

-24-

/8/
 TYPE I02DTE PITOT-STATIC r'SET
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 A.E. C. 8
SECTION 2: LESSON 11
SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS

1 The Port and Stbd. static vents on an aircraft are inter-

connected to

a minimise errors caused by leaks in the system

b cancel errors caused in the static system when the
aircraft yaws
c reduce compressibility error

2 A pitot or static leak check is carried out

a only when· a leak is suspected

b only when an instrument is changed
c whenever the pitot or static systems are disturbed

3 After replacing an instrument of the pitot-static group it is

necessary to

a carry out a leak test on the appropriate system(s)

b calibrate the instrument concerned
c blow through the lines with a clean low pressure air
supply

4 A leak test of a pitot-static system for a pressurised

aircraft

a serves as a check calibration test

b provides a means of checking that the connected instrument
function in the correct sense
c must always be carried out with the aircraft pressurlsed

5 To check the alignment of a pitot-head, use a

a spirit level
b plumb line
221
• c inclinometer
 A.E.C.8
LESSON 11 (CONT)

6 If a pipeline water trap is operated or removed and no water

is found, then the system must be

a purged
b check calibrated
c leak tested

7 If the Pitot and Static lines were cross connected at the instrument
panel connection, application of pressure to the Pitot head would
cause the

a Altimeter reading to decrease, vertical speed indicator to

indicatcr climb
b Altimeter reading to decreasE7vertical speed indicator to
indicate descent
c Altimeter reading to increase vertical speed indicator to
indicate descent

8 When using a portable A.S.l. calibrater to check an A.S .. !. a

a drying agent should be used on the pitot line

o b wetting a.ge.nt should be used in the water barometer
c ..- ·-drying agent should be used on the static line
t'~ r·~.ce·
.1'//' C t"//t?~
A

\
f'
(!·.e;c/eAhe/ /4~7 c//;,'" 7 d--;)
9 When a Pitot-Static system is purged
..
,-..--- -.---~

a only the static instruments are disconnected

b only the pitot instruments are disconnected
c both pitot and static instruments are disconnected

222
 A.E.C. 8

SECTION 8: LESSON 1

AIR DATA COMPUTER

CONTENTS

•
PAGE

AIR DATA COMPUTER 1'1'7

AIR DATA COMPUTER OUTPUTS 177

SMITHS 102 BTE PITar -STATIC TEST SET 180

USING THE PITar/STATIC TEST SET 182

102 BTE

SELF APPRAISAL QUESTIONS 185

175
y
 A.E. C. 8
SECTION 8: LESSON 1
AIR DATA COMPUTER

LESSON OBJECTIVES

The student will, on answering multichoice questions, be able to:-

1 Identify the component parts at block diagram level of a typical

Air Data system.

2 State the inputs required for a typical A. D. C. system.

4
Identify the outputs to the Instruments for Airs peed, True
Air Speed,...... Height, Mach No. and Ve rtlcal Speed.
J..4Z>
State the precautions to be taken when testing an A. D. C. syste m
•
RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING

1. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BY E.H.J. PALLETT Pol04 - Pol,t (#.L>. C)

1.. // 1/
/1 2b?-/.2~ (7/YT/v?9rJ

176
y
 AEG

AIR DATA COMPUTER

The air data computer is basically an electro-mechanical analogue

computer to which pitot and static pressure inputs from the
aeroplane's pltot static system are fed. Extreme accuracy of output
ls obtained by compensating the computer for pltot - static pressure
. , \.J;
errors.

Differential pressure (P-S) and static pressure (S) are measured by

two pressure transducers. Output shaft'rotations from the
transducers are transmitted through mechanical links to other

• electro-mechanical units in the computer which computes the

information received and converts it lnto electrical signals fig.
r ..

~
I

.......,(.>$, aeAfl'''''G

=---- LEAD 5CJU!,...J

........._--a.el'DSCR&J NUT
_____ TttCClST'
____ t..a\:b~~N
~,q

- - LCAoSCR.aU ~
~""'100-- P~$.of\l'SPltINfi

AIR DATA COMPUTER OUTPUTS

The information computed from the pitot and static sources 1s

indicated air speed, mach number, alta-t,ude and vertical speed.
The data obtained 1s transmltted by using a synchronous control ?J~,.eK
transmission for altitude and airspeed to both indicators and the
autopilot, a synchro torque transmission .system is used for the
vertical s.peed and mach number indicators. Other air data
requirements are satisfied by additional outputs from the computer
in the form of synchro potentiometer and cam operated 's\vltch outputs.

177(5)
 P-s
--

I
t •

LOG oF"
P-S
~o~ CAM ","00 Hz. Ifll'PL Y .

SVPPLi
.'

r- -
I
I
I /
,

s H~/GHT

.. "4, " .~
x
• .. ... I • • t >". I' P I f .~,~,."
-;fah~~ ~/'f??/-/' --'~.r~er ~ch' ir
=P'~~ ~/~~- ~~j)
ex CT
/,A/~C#~~
p
~----~--------------------------------~ AIRS~EED
--, p-s
--1 Transducer LOG p.S
S
----~- ..... ;r"e
+Position I MACH
~omprfs.!.i b i!lt l.
I Error corrfe t ion MACH

TAS
,S f LOG S
Transducer
eX

HEIGHT - VERT
dHt
df
.VERTICA
~p~
--------------------~~ SPEED SPEED

cr
HEIGHT

CENTRAL~IR DATA COMPUTER B\.OCK DIA-GRAM

 Section 8
SMITHS 102 BTE PITOT-STATIC TEST SET

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The Universal Voltage Portable Pitot/StaUc Test Set provides an accurate

means of testing aircraft manometric equipment, in situ, ,without breaking
into the aircraft piping and without the use of calibrators containing wa'ter
or mercury.

The test set incorporates a double-action hand pump to provide the source
of pressure and vacuum, but external sources may be used if available.
Electrical supplies, which may be obtained from the aircraft electrical
system, may be connected through one of two Plessey miniature plugs
mounted on the panel.

NOTE: The pressure measuring units of the mechanism are provided

with transit clamps which must be unlocked before the test
set is used.
fc-hp-..a~~ ~y: cf'/e(;:~. 2) ·
The panel, illustrated inlFlg. ~carries the test set controls, present:ltions
and pressure and electrical connections. The controls and presentation
associated with pitot/static (P-S) pressure are on the left of the panel and
those associated with static JS) pressure are on the right, The pressure
supply changeover valve 'AI~,elects the sourC,e of pressure or vacuum to be
used~ either external or hana pump'. This valve should always be turned
to ~ SAFE position on completion of a test. The' pitot/static changeover
valve .:J!.:. @.rects the pressurelo either the pitot or the static lines of the
apparatus under test. It is~so used to vent the pressure to atmosphere
when PITOT VENT or STATIC VENT has been selected. The(amougt of
pressure or vacuum appl1ecYis regulated by the PITOT CONTROL VALVE ~
and the STATIC CONTROL VALVE 'DI.

The EQUAUSING VALVE 'E' colOred white, (8QPtrols the flow of pressure
between the pitot and sTadc l1nev Should the static pressure exceed pitot
pressure, when this valve is closed, it is automatically by-passed by a
solenoid operated valve (See Schematic diagram) which opens until the
pressures equalise. The solenOid is energised by the clOSing of a micro
switch fitted to the P-S pressure measuring transducer.
•
CAUTION: VALVE IE' MUST NOT BE OPENED WHEN A LARGE PITOT PRLSSURE
IS APPUED OR SERIOUS DAMAGE MAY BE CAUSED TO
INSTRUMENTS IN THE STATIC SYSTEM.
The knobs:.r.: and fG' control sylphon bellows in the pitot and static lines
respectively. These accurately(9ontrol the applied pressure0by finely
adjusting the volume of each system.

180
 '. C~A.]).C.

..- -.....
FLAGS
o-{ VALlb fowEK.
0-
ALT. ASP. MAUl. MAca.
At(.
~SP.
ATlc..
-
~
'Is\.

...... ,
~

r -
.-

fnfttH ,~ 1\ Fo~cttetJ DF ht(. COf-fu'f A5P. OOifll1':

IU{])
A MrtC" Ir{VftlJll enoLl) &e MI\c.H o( ONE of; t\L-r. o~ f\ Sf
 '''.':

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I - 4 KHz.
-f. "Ag'E~ Wl1'H fRs:ssoRE.
 .;,t:Scl.1on 0 lSI
8.4.2 USING THE PITOT/STATIC TEST SET 102 BTE

PREPARATION FOR TEST

l.... Connect electrical supply (either 11Sv or 200v. 400 Hz) as

a ppropria te •
Switch ON test set.
Check that both 400 Hz SUPPLY and PHASE lamps illuminate.
(If the PHASE lamp fails to light, switch off immediately and
check for correct power supply).

2. Select HANDPUMP position on the SUPPLY CHANGEOVER VALVE CA)

3. Connect adaptor pipe to the pressure outlet marked P and flt the
adaptor to the aircraft pitat head.
Connect ada ptor pipe to the press ure outlet marked Sand fit the
.~ adaptor to the aircraft static vent.
Seal off any parallel static vents as necessary.

TESTING PRESSURE OPERATED INSTRUMENrS

(A) AIRSPEED INDICATOR

1. Carry out preparation described above.

CAUTION Ensure that the EQUAIlSING VALVE (E) is closed at
all times during these tests •

2. Close PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) then close STATIC CONTROL

VALVE (D).

3. Select PITOT INPUT on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B).

4. Operate the handpump and at the same time slowly open the PITOT
CONTROL VALVE (C) to obtain the first pressure setting on the
P.S. GAUGE (Use tables for conversion of calibrated airspeed to
differential pressure in millibars) •
Close PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) and record the reading on tne
a irs peed indica tor under tes t.
5. Repeat procedure as 1n 4) above for each required test pressure
throughout range, making use of the PITOT FINE ADJUSTER (F)
6. After highest airspeed test has been carried out, select PITOT VEN':'
on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VllVE (B).
7. Slowly open PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) to release pressure.
Check each test pressure reading on the instrument with ciecreasin9
pressure and record.
a. On completion of test, fully open the PITOT CO~'TROL VALVE (8) I

the STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) and EQUAUSING VALVE (E).

Select SAFE POSITION on the SUPPLY CHANGEOVER VALVE (A).

-23--
 (B) ALTIMETER

1. Carry out preparation for test as previously described.

2. Set the altimeter under test to 1013.25 mb.

3. Close PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C), STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) and
EQUAIlSING VALVE (E) •

4. If the prevailing barometric pressure is less than the first

~ pressure test, it will be necessary to apply pitot pressure to
the static system as follows:-

a. Select PITOT INPUT on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER

VALVE (B).
b. Open EQUALISING VALVE (E)
c. Open PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) and operate the handpump
until the required pressure is indicated on the STATIC GAUGE.

.'
(Use tables per conversion of calibrated altitude to
corresponding pressure 1n millibars)
NOTE: Fine adjustment can be made using the STATIC FINE ADJUSTER (G)

d. To release pressure after test, select STATIC VENT on the

PITOT-STAnC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B) and fully open the
STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D).
e. Close EQUALISING VALVE (E) and PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C).
5. Select STATIC INPUT on the PITOT-STATIC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B).

6.. Operate the handpump and at the same time slowly open- the STATIC
CONTROL VALVE (DJt to obtain the required pressure on the STATIC
GAUGE.
Close STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) and recQrci reading on the altimeter
under test.
7. Repeat procedure as in 6) above for each required test pressure
throughout the range, making use of the STATIC FINE ADJUSTER (G)
8. After highest altitude test has been checked,. select STATIC VENT
on the PITOT-STA'nC CHANGEOVER VALVE (B).

9. Slowly open STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D) to increase the pressure.

Check each test pressure reading on the instrument with decreasing
altitude and record.

10. On completion of tests, fully open the STATIC CONTROL VALVE (D)
the PITOT CONTROL VALVE (C) and the EQUALISING VALVE (E) ~
Select SAFE POSITION on the SUPPLY CHANGEOVER VALVE (A).

-24- II
/8/
 (fig. 2) ___ PITOT/STATIC _TEST SET-SCHI:Iv!ATiC DIAGMM

PfT(JT-STATIC TRANSDUCER

r=CD===========-~ ~~

p :==5
e-- PlTOT FINE
ADJUSTMENT
STATIC FINE
ADJUSTMENT
E

F EQUALISING
VALVE

PITOT
CONTROL VALVE STATIC
CONTROL VALVE
PITOT/STATIC
CHANGEOVER
VALVE B

EXTERNAL EXTERNAL
PRESSURE - - =::::::::f VALVE
)::;:== . . . . .SUCTION
SUPPLY A SUPPLY

HANO PUMP

J
)
183(5)
@ @

o o
o o o
eAEATHER
!Ol ~
 The two gauge presentations are identical. The dials are graduated into
one hundred equal divls ions each representing 0.5 mb; the pointers making
two complete revolutions to indica te 100 mb. In the middle of each dial is
a three digit counter on which the number of revolutions of the pointer are
counted. The scale marks and figures from a to 40 inclusive are coloured
°M11te, and when the pointer is sweeping this scale, 00 (mb) appears in the
r1ght hand window of the counter, also coloured white. When the pointer
has completed one revolution the second set of figures from 50 to 90,
coloured green, are used and 50, also coloured green ,appears on the counter
display. The two windows on the left of the dial display hundreds of
millibars.

Pres sure inlets and outlets are by means of plain shank connectors,
incorporating filters, located at the top right hand comer of the panel. When
external sources of pressure are used they are attached to the appropriate
EXTERNAL pressure or suction inlets. The aircraft system or unit under tes t
Is attached to the two outlets labelled PITOT HEAD, pitot to P and statlc to S .
All are provided with caps to prevent the ingress of dirt and water when not
in use •
. 6 ,., .
A breather is fitted 1n the panel adjacent to the hand pumruo prevent a
build-up of pressure within the case)while the test set 1s be~ operat5-d.
Qn order that the test set may be safely transported by ain a vent plug,
provided 1n the case above the right hand carrying handG, must be loosened
prior to the flight.

tiS I NG THE PlTOT/STATIC TEST SET 102 BTE

t-

400 Hz SUPPLY and P lamps illumina tE:.

tch off immediately and

2.

3. Connect ad or pipe to the pres sure

adapto the aircraft pitot head.
ect adaptor pipe to the pressure outlet m
adaptor to the aircraft static vent.
Seal off any parallel static vents as necessary.

1,-

182
 A.E.C. 8

SECTION 8 LESSON 1

SELF APPRAISAL QUE8rIONS

1. U sing an A.D.C. system a true, a irspeed indication will be a function

of

a. Pitot and Static

b. Mach and Pitot Head Temperature
c. Mach and Outside Air Temperature

2 When using the BTE 102E test set if the neon phase lamp is on,
then the

.~ a test set 15 safe to use

b test set is not safe to use
c pha se rotation of the supply Is inCCXTect

3 When transport1n9 the BTE 102£ test set by air

a the transit clamps should be unlocked

6iP b the valve in the ca se should be vented to atmosphere
c the supply changeover valve should be set to hand pump_

~
185ls)