DEFINITIONS OF TECHNOLOGY

 derived from 2 Greek words: “techno” meaning art or skill and “technologia” meaning

systematic treatment

 a body or reservoir of skills and knowledge by which we control and modify its systems,

processes and developments in the world

 combination of software ( processes, techniques, organization, and management) and the

hardware ( machines, tools, equipment, and materials) relevant in the manipulation of the

environment toward the manufacture of a product or the provision of a service

 Is a practical science

 It is responsible for the production of important conveniences

 According to McGinn (1991), there are four meanings of Technology:

1. As a technics – material artifacts, or hardware produced by a person, group, or society

Subcategories of Technics

a. Device – invention serving a particular purpose, especially machine to perform one

or more simple task

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 b. Machine – device consisting of fixed and moving parts that modifies mechanical

energy and transmits it in a more useful form

c. Tool – device that facilitates work ( small manually operated device)

d. Instrument – relatively small precision tool used by trained professional

e. Implement- preferred term for tools in agriculture and certain building trades

f. Utensils- tool used in a household, especially in the kitchen

g. Appliance – power-driven device that performs an specific function

h. Gadget – small specialized mechanical or electronic device or contrivance,

especially on of which the name cannot be recalled

2. As a technology – the complex , knowledge, methods, materials, and if applicable,

constituent parts used in making a certain kind of technic at a certain point in time

3. As a form of human cultural activity

- specific type of endeavor practiced by technologists

4. As a total enterprise

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 - the complex knowledge, people, skills, organization, facilities, technics,

physical resources, methods, and technologies, that taken together and in

relationship to one another, are devoted to research, development,

production, and operation of technics.

Types of Technologies

(According to Specialization and Scope of activities by Roger Posadas, Ph. D):

1. Material Technologies – deals with the extraction, processing, fabrication,

combination, and synthesis of materials

2. Equipment Technologies – refer with the design and fabrication of tools, instruments,

devices, and machine

3. Energy Technologies – deal with the generation, conversion and distribution of

various forms of energy

4. Information Technologies – collection, storage, processing, retrieval, transmission,

and utilization of information

5. Life Technologies – preservation, repair, maintenance, reproduction, and improvement

of living systems

6. Management Technologies – deal with the planning, organization, mobilization,

coordination, and control of social activities

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Classes of Technologies

(based on a Country’s Level of Technological Sophistication from the book of Alvin Toffler

entitled The Third Wave)

1. First-Wave Technologies

 comprising the pre- industrial technologies w/c are labor - intensive,

 small-scale decentralized, and based on empirical rather than scientific knowledge.

 The intermediate, appropriate, or alternative technologies based on the philosophy of

“small is beautiful” also fall under this category.

2. Second –Wave Technologies

 comprising the industrial technologies w/c were developed since the time of the industrial

revolution up to end of World War II.

 These are usually capital-intensive technologies w/c are essentially based on the principles

of classical physics, classical chemistry, and classical biology.

3. Third- Wave Technologies

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 comprising the post- industrial or high technologies w/c are called science-intensive

because:

 these are based on our modern scientific knowledge of the structures, properties, and

interactions of atoms, molecules, and nuclei.

 Among the important high technologies are micro-electronics, robotics, computers, laser

technology, fiber optics, genetic engineering , photovoltaics, polymers, and other synthetic

materials.

Some Representative Technologies under the Different Wave

Classes

First-Wave Second-Wave Third-Wave

Type of Technology Technologies Technologies Technologies

Material

Technologies Copper Bronze Polymers

Equipment

Technologies Plow Engine Laser tools

Energy Technologies

Wood Coal Solar cells

Information

Technologies Printing Typewriter Computers

Life

Technologies Herbal Medicine Antibiotics Artificial organs

Management

Technologies Calendar Organizer Web pages

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Categories of Technology based on Stages of Development

1. Operative Technology – denotes implementation and practical utilization of

technology

a. Static – know-how skills which permit the possessor to execute technology’s

routine operation

b. Dynamic- know-how skill which endow its possessor with a comprehension

of scientific principles underlying the technology and with the capacity to

develop and design an improved version of the technology

2. ADVANCED, FRONTIER, OR HIGH TECHNOLOGY

 refers to modern or sophisticated technologies which

 began and developed after the 2nd World War of modern research in the basic sciences,

 Recombinant DNA technology, Lasers, computers, and the like fall under this category.

3. APPROPRIATE, INTERMEDIATE, OR ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY

 deals with technologies w/c are low- cost, low-level in complexity, small-scale, labor-

intensive, suited to local materials and skills, designed for decentralized and renewable

energy resources, and oriented toward rural industries.

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Characteristics of Advance and Appropriate Technology

Advance, FRONTIER Appropriate,

OR HIGH Technology INTERMEDIATE OR

ALTERNATIVE

Technology
1. Often involve big machines that Involves small to medium size machines that

displace many people do not displace too many people

2. Complex and understandable only to Is simple and understandable to

highly trained workers unspecialized workers

3. Provides meaningless and uncreative Provides meaningful and creative (whole

work roles product) work roles

4. Requires much capital build and Requires small amounts of capital to build

maintain and maintain

5. Involves machinery that is difficult Involves machinery that is easy and cheap to

and expensive to repair repair

6. Often depends on imported materials Emphasizes self-sufficiency and use of local

materials
7. Creates products designed for export Creates products designed for use in local

area
8. Requires centralized production Involves decentralized production

and control in urban areas under local or regional control in rural areas
9. Can disrupt local cultures Compatible with local culture
10. Produces standardized, short lasting Often produces unique handcrafted products

products that are soon thrown away that are durable and easily reused and

recycled
11. Emphasizes use of synthetic materials Emphasizes use of natural materials
12. Usually requires large input of matter Requires small input of matter and energy

and energy resources resources

13. Creates much pollution Creates little pollution

14. Usually emphasize use of non- Usually emphasizes use of renewable energy

renewable energy resources resources

15. Efficient only on large scale Efficient on a small scale

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 16. Attempt to disrupt and dominate Attempts to maintain and cooperate with

nature culture

MEDICAL AND HEALTH RELATED

TECHNOLOGIES

Diagnostic Technology

- Doctors use three main types of “clue” in making a diagnosis:

1. The patient’s case history

2. The doctor’s physical examination

3. The results of medical tests

Diagnosis

 Is the examination of a person to determine the cause of an illness or what disease is

present

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The process of Diagnosing

1. Patient provide their own medical history by answering questions posed on them such

as

a. Physical condition and past illness

b. Family disease and habits

c. Present illness

2. Doctors use certain tools and Techniques to perform physical examination diagnosis

by making chemical and microscopic tests on body

*Medical laboratories aid diagnosis by making chemical and microscopic tests on body

fluids and tissues.

General and physical examination include:

a. Height and length measurement

b. Taking of blood pressure

c. Eyes, ears, and mouth examination

d. Reflex tests for nerve conduction

Importance and Social implications

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 To make a final diagnosis, the doctor fits together all the clues from the patient’s case

history, physical examination, and medical tests. If the diagnosis is complicated, the doctor

may ask the opinion of other experts.

1. By diagnosing body fluids such as blood, urine, stool sample, spinal fluids, and mucus,

we will know the important information about a disease.

a. Blood – determine whether the person has anemia, infection blood disease.

b. Blood analysis – can also uncover nutritional deficiencies and other disorders.

c. Glucose tolerance test – measures insulin activity in the blood

2. Urine is tested for:

a. Glucose – Diabetes mellitus

b. Bacteria - can indicate kidney or bladder infection

c. Protein – its presence of blood may result from kidney disorder

3. Stool sample – tested for disease-causing microorganisms and other unusual contents

4. Spinal Fluids – examined for microorganisms and other unusual contents

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 5. Mucus ( in the nose and throat ) – tested to identify organism responsible for

respiratory infections

Various Types of Diagnostic Technology

1. Radiology

– uses electromagnetic radiation and ultrasonic for treatment of injury and

disease

2. Conventional radiography

 generally and commonly known as x-ray

 tumors, pneumonia, and tuberculosis could be diagnosed

 it can also be used to see bone fractures and other conditions and to examine the

muscular /skeletal system

 its disadvantage is, the organ overlaps in the image

3. Biopsy

 detect abnormalities of the cell

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 4. Myelogram

 test to identify spinal cord disorder

 such disorder often shows up in myelogram after a radiopaque liquid has been injected into

the spinal cord disorder

5. Angiogram

 various kinds of angiogram heart and circulatory diseases

a. cerebral angiogram

 involves the infusion of a radiopaque substance into the cerebral to the arterial system

 it provides important diagnostic information about the patency, size, irregularities, or

occlusion of the cerebral vessels

b. cardiac angiography

 used to visualize coronary arteries, aorta, pulmonary blood vessels, and the ventricles to

assess structural abnormalities in the blood vessels

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 6. By x-ray examination of the esophagus and stomach, we would be able to highlight

details in the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract.

7. CT ( Computed Tomography) or CAT ( Computed Axial Tomography )

 Can take highly detailed images of hard and soft tissues to detect very small tumors and

other disorders

Scinthigraphy

 uncovers metabolic diseases and other disorders

 this is a procedure in which a small amount of radioactive isotope is introduced in the

body.

Scintiscan camera

 also called gamma camera, it measures the uptake and concentration of the isotopes in

certain tissues such as the brain, kidney, or thyroid gland

2. Ultrasonography

 it is used to locate tumors of the lungs and abdominal cavity

 this device employs high frequency sound waves to form television of internal organs

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 3. Ultrasound

 high frequency sound waves produced by a hand-held device from the body tissues

detected by the same instrument, which transmits the signals to video monitor.

 The image is called sonogram or ultrasonogram and may be still or moving and produces

no radiation. It is used during pregnancy to determine the size and position of the fetus.

4. ECG ( Electrocardiograph)

 is useful for diagnosing heart conditions

 with electrodes taped to a person’s chest, the electrical activity of the heart can be

recorded

5. Pulmonary Test

 this measures the breathing capacity of lungs and airways and gives information on

respiratory functions

6. Fiber Optic Technology

 used to see parts of the body that previously could be seen only by performing surgery

 through this technology which uses fiber optic, we can examine small areas, up to areas

deep into the body cavity

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 also used to examine colon and the bronchial tubes in the lungs

7. Pap Smear

 a vaginal examination that can determine cancer of the cervix

8. Mammography

 procedure that involves using special x-rays to produce an image of soft and hard tissues of

the breast

9. Pelvic Examination

 test to assess the general reproductive health of a woman

10. Skin Test

 used to diagnose hypersensitive conditions and allergies

11. Psychological Test

 used to diagnose learning and mental processes

12. Magnetic Resonance Imaging

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 a technique of tomography based on the magnetic behavior of proton hydrogen nuclei

 indications for this procedure include the following: CNS malignancies, CNS hemorrhage,

cerebral infraction and spinal cord

 protons in tissues respond to a pulse radio waves while they are being magnetized, the

result of which is measured and the colored image is a 2 or 3-D print of cellular chemistry

13. Electroencephalograph

 a graphic record of brain wave activity

 it provides important diagnostic data about abnormal electrical activity in the brain

14. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction or DSR

 highly sophisticated x-ray machine which produces moving 3-D, life size images from

any view

15. Digital Subtraction Angiography or DSA

 a computer compares a radiogram of a region of a body before and after a contrast dye

has been injected into a blood vessel

 tissues around the blood vessel in the first image can be subtracted from the second

image, leaving an unobstructed view of the vessel

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 16. Positron Emission Tomography ( PET )

 positrons are injected into the body, the collision of which produces gamma rays which are

similar with x-rays

 computer receives signals from gamma cameras positioned around the patient and

constructs an image called PET scan

17. Cardiac catherization

 an invasive procedure that is used to visualize the heart’s coronary arteries, chambers,

valves and great vessels,

 it is used to measure pressure in the heart and blood vessels, to assess left ventricular

function, cardiac output and diastolic property of the left ventricle to measure flow of blood

through the heart and blood vessels, oxygen content of the blood, status of the heart valves,

blood vessels and conduction system, and to identify exact location of septal and valvular

defects

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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

- is an engineering discipline whose objective is to apply engineering in science and

technology to device practical solutions to medical problems

- has a major impact on all aspects of medicine including monitoring of the patient’s

condition and diagnosis of disorders, surgery, or treatment to correct or alleviate

disorders

- it is also used in rehabilitation of a disabled patient to participate fully in society and in

fundamental research to gain understanding of the nature of the living systems.

- The success of biomedical engineering is primary due to the practical, result oriented

emphasis of engineering and to the diversified repertoire of tools and techniques which

engineering can bring to bear on medical problems

BIOENGINEERING ACHIEVEMENTS

1. iron lungs - respiratory

2. improved artificial limbs - prostheses

3. braces - orthoses

4. artificial kidney machines

5. cardiac peacemakers

6. external heart lungs machines –pumps/respirators

7. life support systems are now common in instrumented intensive care facilities that

increasingly improve chances of survival

8. Medical applications of technology permits better diagnosis or spectacularly save lives

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 9. Sanitary and environmental engineering have had profound impacts on the prevention

of disease and injury, an avoidance of loss of life or on the need for rehabilitation

PHARMACOLOGY BREAKTHROUGHS

1.ANTISEPTICS

2.INSULIN

3.MAJOR HISTO COMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS

4.EPINEPHRINE

5.ILOSONE

6.PENICILLIN

7.SALVARSAN

8.NIACIN/PELLAGRA

9.NYSTATIN

10.CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF DRUGS

11.DIPTHERIA, ANTITOXIN, TRYPAN

12.POLIO VACCINE

13.LASER

1.ANTISEPTICS

 John Lister (1827-1912) was a British surgeon who radically changed surgical practice

with the introduction of antiseptics.

 He reduced the risk of bacterial infection during surgery.

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 Lister’s antiseptic solutions of carbolic acid was used to clean wounds and surgical cuts

and to scrub surgeons’ hands. Lister believe that infection was caused by airborne dust

particles so he also sprayed the air with carbolic acid.

 The equipment was heated to a high temperature to make it bacteria free. His discoveries

met with initial resistance but had become widely accepted by the 1880s when he

introduced antiseptic catgut ligatures.

 Ligatures are strong threads used to sew surgical wounds together. He also devised new

operations and invented several surgical instruments.

2.INSULIN

 Sir Frederick Grant Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Herbert Best (1899-1941)

discovered

 insulin, a hormone used to control the disease diabetes melitus. Diabetes usually results

when the pancreas does not produce insulin to use the sugar in the blood. al Hospital.

3.MAJOR HISTO COMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS

 Swiss immunologist Rolf Zinkernagel discovered how the immune system recognizes

 virus in cells, a finding that led to his receipt of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

in 1996.

 He spent the bulk of his career researching on this and other questions of immunology at the

University of Zurich Switzerland.

 Peter Doherty, however, a music lover himself, did not seem to mind and they were made

research partners.

 By the end of 1973, Zinkernagel and Peter Doherty made a discovery that was later to

win them a Nobel Prize. Through experiments conducted on cells with viruses, the scientists

determined how the immune system recognizes and attacks foreign materials on the human

body.

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4.EPINEPHRINE

 Jacob Abel’s research was mainly biochemical in nature.

 In1895, scientists in London had injected into animals an extract from adrenal glands

found that it produced an instant rise in blood pressure.

 Between 1895 and 1905, Abel worked on isolating the active substance that was found in

this gland.

 In 1897, Abel announced that he had managed to isolate though not in its pure form, the

active substance, which he called.

5.ILOSONE

 Dr. Abelardo Aguilar was in the news recently. He is the Filipino doctor who helped

discover a widely-used antibiotic without receiving anything from the sale of the drug that

earned billions of dollars for a giant US drug firm (Ely Lilly of Indiana).

 The drug’s proprietary name is Ilotycin and Ilosone which is commonly known by its

generic name erythromycin. Ilotycin derived name from Iloilo province where in 1952

Aguilar obtained soil sample that bore the Aspergillus species of fungi from which the

antibiotic was obtained.

6.PENICILLIN

 Penicillin refers to any one of group of antibiotics derived from the fungus penicillium or

created by using partially artificial processes.

 The action of natural penicillin was first observed in 1928 by British bacteriologist Sir

Alexander Fleming.

 Ten years later, penicillin was concentrated and studied by German-British biochemist

Ernst Chain, Australian pathologist Sir Howard Florey and other Scientists

 Penicillin acts both by killing bacteria and by inhibiting their growth.

 It does not kill organisms in the resting stage but only those growing and reproducing.

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 Penicillin is effective against a wide range of disease-bearing microorganisms including

pneumococci, streptococci, tetanus, and the syphilis spirochaetes.

 The drug has been successfully used to treat such deadly diseases as endocarditis,

septicemia, gas gangrene, gonorrhea and scarlet fever.

 Alexander Fleming was born in a remote, rural part of Scotland.

7.SALVARSAN

 In 1909, German chemist-physician Paul Ehrlich developed a chemical treatment for

syphilis.

 He had tried hundreds of compounds, and the six hundred and sixth worked. It was named

salvarsan (meaning “that which saves by arsenic”).

 The only previous treatments for this disease had been so toxic as to often kill the patient.

 Ehrlich brought news of his treatment to London, where Fleming became one of the very

few.

 His work was taken over by a team of chemists and mold specialists, but was cut short

when several of them died or relocated.

 It took World War II to revitalize interest in penicillin, and Howard Florey and Ernst

Chain picked up the work.

 In recognition of his contribution, Alexander Fleming was knighted in 1944. With Chain

and Florey, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945.

8.NIACIN/PELLAGRA

 JOSEPH GOLDBERGER

 In 1892, Joseph Goldberger had been fighting tropical fevers, typhus, typhoid and other

infectious outbreaks throughout the United States and the Caribbean.

 The surgeon general took note of his energy and success and

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 in 1914, appointed him to tackle the crisis of pellagra, a disease recently reaching

epidemic proportions in the South.

 Goldberger died of cancer in 1929 before his questions were answered.

 In 1937, researcher Conrad Elvehjem picked up Goldberger’s question, and after much

experimenting found that

 nicotinic acid or niacin, prevented and cured pellagra in dogs and in humans.

 The study and understanding of vitamins and cell chemistry advanced markedly during the

1930s.

9.NYSTATIN

 One of the most famous tales in the history of American medical science is the long-

distance collaboration of Elizabeth Lee Hazen and Rachel Fuller Brown, who developed

and patented a wonder drug of the 20th century: the world’s first successful fungus-fighting

antibiotic.

 Hazen and Brown invested all their royalties from Nystatin (over $13 million) in the

nonprofit Research Corporation, which had helped them earlier to obtain a patent for their

drug.

 Their generosity has provided for a great deal of further medical research. Their example has

inspired many women to pursue a scientific career.

10.CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF DRUGS

 Dorothy Crawford Hodgkin graduated from Oxford in 1932.

 She found a position in an x-ray crystallography lab studying biological crystals. This

technique helped ease out the structure of molecules.

 Though diagnosed at age 24 with rheumatoid arthritis, she became one of the most skilled

crystallographers of her time.

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 In Cambridge and later at Oxford, she always chose projects that no one else thought

would be quite possible.

 She ran into Ernst Chain one day, who was beaming from his recent animal trials of

penicillin. It took four years. But she cracked penicillin’s complex and misleading

structure in 1946.

 That knowledge would help manufacturers create semisynthetic penicillin. Ten years later,

she announced the structure of vitamin b12 and in 1964 won the Nobel Prize in chemistry

 in 1969, she finally solved the puzzle of the structure of insulin.

11.DIPTHERIA, ANTITOXIN, TRYPAN

 The work on immunity of the German bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), led to his

co-reception of the 1908 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine.

 Ehrlich determined the dosages for the diptheria, antitoxin of Emil Adolf von Behring.

 He then theorized that certain substances could act as “magic bullets”, attacking only

disease-causing organisms in the body and leaving the rest of the body unaffected.

 His subsequent discovery of the effectiveness of trypan dye in treating African sleeping

sickness and his synthesis (1910) of Salvarsan which was used against beginning of

chemotherapy.

12.POLIO VACCINE

 Microbiologist Jonas Edward Salk (1914-1995) developed on June 23, 1995 the first

vaccine effective against poliomyelitis.

 Salk and his associates developed and inactivated virus vaccine that provided immunity

against polio.

 After massive field tests in 1953 and 1954, the vaccines quickly came into wide use in 1955

and helped to reduce the incidence of polio until an oral vaccine was introduced by Albert

Bruce Sabin in 1960.

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 Salk withdrew from biological research in 1985 but later returned to work on developments

of a vaccine against AIDS.

13.LASER

 The word LASER means Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

 Although the common usage today is to use the word as a noun – laser – rather than as an

acronym – LASER.

 A laser is device that creates and amplifies a narrow, intense beam of coherent light.

 Schawlow and Townes Invented the Laser

 The invention of the laser dates back to 1958 with the publication of the scientific paper.

 Infrared and Optical Masers, by Arthur L. Schawlow, then Bell Laboratories researcher,

and Charles H. Townes, a consultant of Bell Laboratories. That paper, published in Physical

Review, the journal of the American Physical Society, launched a new scientific field and

opened the door to multibillion-dollar industry.

INDIGENOUS/TRADITIONAL HEALTHCARE

PRACTICES
 With the increasing costs of medicines and physicians’ professional fees, the use of

indigenous health care practices is advocated by the Department of Health and other sectors

and organizations.

 This includes the use of herbal medicines, acupressure, acupuncture, naturopathic

medicines, homeopathy, and chiropractic.

 Republic Act No. 8423, known as Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act (TAMA) of

1997, created the Philippines Institute of Traditional Alternative Health Care (PITAHC)

to accelerate the development of traditional and alternative health care in the Philippines,

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 providing for a traditional and alternative health care development fund and other

purposes.

ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

 Psychophysiologic

 Bioelectromagnetic Applications

 Touch and Manipulation

 Alternative Systems of Medical Practice

 Pharmaco-biological Therapy

 Herbal Medicines

 Alternative medicine is synonymous to healing alternatives affecting those whom modern

medicine has little to offer as far as giving relief to their sufferings is concerned.

 It is usually performed by someone other than a licensed physician although some

physicians learn and practice alternative healing methods.

 Alternative medicine is also considered as unconventional medicine and/or

complementary medicine. It is categorized into several areas:

1. Psychophysiologic

- supports the premise that mental state has a profound effect in the immune

system.

- It includes meditation, hypnosis, art therapy biofeedback, and mental healing.

2. Bioelectromagnetic Applications

- uses nonthermal, nonionizing radiation in bone repair and in treating

osteoarthritis and wound. It is also for nerve stimulation and immune system

stimulation. It includes ultrasound.

3. Touch and Manipulation

- use of hands and tactile methods to cure ailments. It includes chiropractic,

osteopathy, and massage therapy.

4. Alternative Systems of Medical Practice

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 - the use of differing views of disease causation. These includes acupuncture,

ayurvedic medicine, homeopathy, and naturopathy.

5. Pharmaco-biological Therapy

- refers to the use of animal products or parts as medicine.

- It includes the use of anti-neoplastins from human blood and

- urine for AIDS treatment,

- honey bee products for arthritis, and

- milk and placenta product for skin rejuvenation.

6. Herbal Medicines

- the use of plants and plant products for their medicinal effects such as the

iscador from mistletoe for tumors, and allium sativum or garlic oil as

rubbing oil for lesion.

ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM OF MEDICAL PRACTICE

1.ACUPRESSURE

2.ACUPUNCTURE

3.CHIROPRACTIC

4. HOMEOPATHY

5.NATUROPATHY

6. OSTEOPATHY

1.ACUPRESSURE

- is a form of alternative medicine which aims to maintain health, treat diseases,

and alleviate pain through application of pressure or massaging certain points

on body surfaces.

- Acupressure started some 5000 years ago when the wounded Chinese soldiers

recovered from their chronic illnesses through this procedure.

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 acupressure/acupuncture points are discovered by rubbing the pointed stones

on the various parts of the body.

- Traditional Chinese medicine believes in the Qi or life energy.

- It enters a person when he or she is born, and leaves when he or dies.

- Qi has two aspects, the YIN and YANG.

- YIN is the negative and feminine force while

- YANG is the dominating, positive, and masculine force.

- For the person to be healthy, there should be a balance between the YIN and the

YANG. Imbalance of the two forces results to illness.

2.ACUPUNCTURE

- Acupuncture is another alternative medicine, which aims to maintain or restore

balance in the body to ensure health.

- If follows the same principle of the YIN and the YANG.

- acupuncture tends to stimulate the natural healing of the body through the

insertion of a needle to the various parts of the body.

- Special needles to the various invisible points of the various internal organs into

the skin or muscles of one or more meridians. Needles vary in length from half

an inch to several inches for use in different parts of the body. From two to

fifteen needles are used, and they rarely cause bleeding. The most commonly

used parts of the body are the hands, forearms, lower legs, feet, back, abdomen,

and ears.

3.CHIROPRACTIC

- Chiropractic treatment is based on the belief that human diseases are related to

misalignment of the vertebrae of the spinal column.

- This results to compression of the nerves.

- Chiropractors believe that the ability of the human body to work effectively lies in

the smooth functioning of the nervous system. They consider the spinal column

as the lifeline of the nervous system. therefore, any misalignment of this part

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 causes disease. To treat such disease, application of chiropractic is employed

after diagnosis using an x-ray.

4. HOMEOPATHY

- Homeopathy is a comprehensive system of medicine developed by a German

doctor, Sameul Hahnemann in the late 1700s.

- The world homeopathy is derived from the Greek word homoios, meaning

“similar” and pathos, meaning “suffering/disease”.

- Hahnemann found that giving his patient tiny doses of substances that would

cause the symptoms of their illnesses in a perfectly healthy patient could, in fact,

cure them.

- The founding principle of his system, then, is to treat “like” with “like”, similar

to the medical theory underlying vaccination or immunization. This method of

treatment is said to stimulate the body’s own healing process to cure the

particular ailment or overpower the bacteria, rather than treating the symptoms

themselves, which may suppress the problem temporarily.

- Homeopathy is based on the Hippocrates Law of Similars which states that the

use of small doses of a substance that caused a disease could stimulate and

infected organism to heal.

- This method is an exceptionally safe form of medicine that uses natural substance

found in mineral.

- Plants, and animals can be used to treat a specific ailment or used for

maintenance of good health.

5.NATUROPATHY

- Naturopathy is the western equivalent of the traditional medicine of Ayurveda.

- The Ayurvedan healing practice from India proffers that a disease is caused by

imbalance in movement structure and metabolism; hence, fasting, nutrition, and

meditation ared to cure diseases.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - This principle was also established in ancient Greece by Hippocrates, who taught

that the body has the power to heal itself , and illnesses are reactions to

disharmony and imbalance.

- Health could be regained, provided that the natural process of healing not

interfered with.

- Naturopathy is a treatment that goes by the belief that diseases occur when the

natural chemical substances in a person’s body have been abused. It used natural

forces such as light, heat, air, water, sunlight, natural food, vitamins and

minerals, and herbs.

- The object the naturopathy is to help the body restore its natural balance rather

than deal with symptoms. Naturopathy seeks to treat and avert diseases by

bolstering the body’s defense system through a healthy diet and living sensible

lifestyle.

6. OSTEOPATHY

- Osteopathy is the practice of medicine that uses all of the usual techniques of

drugs, surgery, and radiation, but looks more on the links between the organs,

the muscle and the skeletal system. Osteopathic physicians may correct

structural problems by chasing the position of bones in the treatment of health

problems (Mosby’s Medical Encyclopedia, 1997).

- The name osteopathy come from the Greek words osteon (bone) and pathos (to

suffer), so it literally means “suffering of the bone”. The name has created

confusion, leading people to think that an osteopath treats only conditions of the

bone.

- However, Dr. Andrew Still (1898 - 1917), a civil war surgeon who founded

osteopathy, choose the name because he recognized the importance of a properly

functioning musculo-skeletal system for the total well-being of the individual.

- He based it on the principle that best way to fight a disease was by naturally

stimulating the body’s immune system.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
UNIT VI – TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT:

ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS

I. INFORMATION AGE

- Is defined as a “ period starting in the last quarter of the 20th century when information

became effortlessly accessible through publications and through the management of

information by computer networks”

- Also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated with the

development of computers

- Is a historic period in the 21st century characterized by the rapid shift from traditional

industry that the industrial revolution brought through, an economy based on

information technology

- The digital revolution is also known as the Third Revolution, is the shift from

mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began

anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of

digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day.

- According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in

1982, “the information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of

computers via telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a

real-time and as-needed basis

II. ROBOTICS AND HUMANITY

Robotics – is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and

operation of robots

Robot

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - A machine resembling a human being and able to replicate certain human movements

and functions automatically

- Are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space

exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research and mass production of consumer

and industrial goods

Modern Robotics

- Commercial and Industrial robots are now widespread use performing jobs more cheaply

or greater accuracy than humans

Roles played by Robotics

- Robots play different roles not only in the lives of the people but also in the society as a

whole

1. Service Robot

- Performs useful tasks for humans or equipment excluding industrial automation

application

2. Personal Service Robot

- Robot for personal use which is for a noncommercial task, usually by

laypersons

- Examples: domestic servant robot, automated wheel chair persona; mobility assist

robot, and pet exercising robot

3. Professional Service Robot

- Used for commercial task, usually operated by a property trained operator

- Examples: cleaning robot for public used places, delivery robots in offices or

hospitals, firefighting robot, rehabilitation robot, and surgery robots in hospitals

List of Misconceptions commonly attributed with Robots

 Robots will steal our jobs

 Robots will take away our freedom and fun

 They will turn us into fat, lazy couch potatoes

 They are not safe

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 Robots will take over human

ADVANTAGES

 Quality/Accuracy/Precision

 Efficiency/Speed/production Rate

 Freedom from human limitations like boredom

 Reduce waste

 Attract more customers

 Work in environments that are inhospitable to humans

DISADVANTAGES:

 Increasing unemployment

 Cannot handle unexpected situation

 The ROI of your business may suffer if your operation relies on too many robots

 They are not as intelligent as human

 Robots installed in workplaces still require labor attached to them

 Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience or empathy

 Robots operate on the basis of information fed to them through a chip.

 Where a robot saves ties, on the other hand it can also result in a lag.

 If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the human will just sit and monitor them,

health hazards will increase rapidly

 High initial investment-typically require large upfront investments in hardware and

software, as well as the costs of workplace training and education.

 Expertise is scarce: industrial robots need sophisticated programming, and while the

number of people with this skillset is growing, it is currently limited

 Ongoing costs: while robots reduce some labor costs, they introduce other ongoing

expenses, such as preventive maintenance, troubleshooting and programming. Having

those skills in house-house would introduce costs that you’re not accustomed to seeing.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS

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  Safety - Who should be blamed and who should be held accountable or responsible if

such thing happens

 Emotional component - looking at how fast technology progresses nowadays, it is not

completely impossible for robots to develop emotions

 Inequality – How do we distribute the wealth created by machine?

 Robot rights-How do we define the humane treatment of AI?

III. NANOWORLD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

- Is of great interest to governments, industries and academia

- the prefix “nano” denotes sizes of the order of one billionth of a meter.

- Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of

research and development activity that has been growing explosively worldwide

in the past few years.

- It has the potential for revolutionizing the way in which materials and products

are created and the range and nature of functionalites that can be accessed.

- The two terms often used in the literature with reference to the world of nano

materials

NANOMATERIAL

- Denotes divided matter

- “ As Rao ( 1999 ) said“ if you take a piece of a solid matter ( say a metal)

containing an Avogadro number of atoms and go on dividing it to smallest bits,

you will reach a stage of ultimately end up with an atoms of the substance. Before

that, you will reach a stage of very tiny particles containing 100 to 10,000 atoms,

Such particles with diameter of 1-5-nm are referred to as nanoparticles.

- Exhibit properties entirely different from bulk materials and constitute

materials of the future

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NANOSCIENCE

- Refers to the scientific study of materials of nanometer size, e.i., one billionth of a

meter

- It is a combination of developments in solid state chemistry, synthetic chemistry,

molecular biology, solid state physics and engineering, and scanning tunnelling

microscopy

NANOTECHNOLOGY

- Refers to the various technologies to produce materials of extra high precision

and dimensions on the scale of one-billionth of a meter

- Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo Science University is credited with coining the term

“nanotechnology” in 1974

- Implies the ability to generate and utilize structures, components, and devices

with assize range from about .1nm to about100 nanometer by control at atomic,

molecular, and macromolecular levels

- One of the interesting aspects in nanotechnology is building molecule by

molecule materials similar to those produced by biological self-assembly,

selforganization and self-regulation ( Carraher,Jr., 1994

- As Stoddard ( cited in the Royal Society,1994) described,” think of atoms as the

equivalent to letters, molecules as words, assemblages of molecules as sentence,

and supramolecular arrays as paragraphs”

NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

1. NANOCRYSTALS: formed by combining two or more molecules of inorganic

substances,i.e, silica and aluminium to form commercial grade heat and rust resistant

coatings.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 2. NANOTUBES: Carbon atom aggregates in various forms at nanoscale, for examples in

shapes of cylinders which are electrical conductors, can be mixed with special polymers

to make nanofibers and painted on rooftops as part of solar cells

3. QUANTUM DOTS: Size and arrangement of nanocrystals impact physical properties

such as color. For example, nanogold appears orange depending on the size and

arrangement of gold aggregates.Clear sunscreen containing nanosized Zinc Oxide

particles allows visible light to pass through and absorbs UV rays, hence appears

colorless whereas bulk Zinc Oxide in regular sunscreen scatter visible light resulting in

white color

EXAMPLES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

1. Pharmacology :Use nanomachines for site specific delivery of drugs, and useful in

chemotheraphy of targeted cells.

2. Molecular electronics: Use atomically precise molecular parts for molecular switches,

circuits and nanocells for creating miniaturized nanocomputers.

3. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy: useful for imaging conducting surfaces

ORGANIZATION

The National science and Technology Council ( NSTC ) Committee on Technology,

The Interagency Working Group on NanoScience, Engineering and Technology (IWGN)

1999 broadly organized nanoscience and nanotechnology into four groups as follows:

1. Dispersions and Coatings: ( e.g., functional nanocoatings, optical and thermal insulators,

ink-jet, recording devices)

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 2. High Surface Area Materials: e.g., bacterial filters, molecular sieves, adsorption

surfaces, energy storage devices)

1. (e.g., biomedical sensors, nanotubes in color displays, DNA sizing and sequencing}. The

functional nanodevices have a large biological component compared to the other three

categories

2. Consolidated materials ( nanocomposite cement, ultra-high strength materials, soft

magnets, magnetic refrigerants)

NANOSCALE DIMENSIONS

The Royal Society and Royal academy of Engineering 2004 have categorized

nanoscale into :

a. One dimension: includes thin films, layers and engineered surfaces. They

provide large surface support in catalyst useful for “on-site” manufacturing of

pharmaceuticals in smaller quantities.

b. Two dimension: consists of materials such as carbon nanotubes, inorganic

nanotubes, nanowires and biopolymers. Carbon nanotubes in the form of wires

and tubes exhibit a wide range of electrical and mechanical properties , inorganic

nanotubes are potentially useful as catalysts and lubricants

c. Three dimensions: includes nanoparticles, fullerenes, dendrimers and

quantumdots. Nanoparticles show optical properties, high chemical reactivity and

are useful for targeted drug delivery while fullerenes resembles miniatures ball

bearings

Potential Uses

The joint Center for bioethics in Canada ranked potential uses of Nanosciences and

nanotechnologies with respect to development. The top ten uses:( BBC News, 2005).

1. Energy production, conservation and storage

2. Enhancement of Agricultural productivity

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
3. Treatment and remediation of water

4. Screening and diagnosing diseases

5. Systems for drug delivery

6. Processing and storing food

7. Controlling air pollution

8. Construction

9. Monitoring Health

10. Detecting and controlling pests

ISSUES:

The nanoworld is not without issues. The NSTC Committee on Technology in the US

raised concerns over the short term and long term health issues originating form

nanotechnology products. Certain types of single walled carbon nanotubes are water soluble

and shown to enter T cells (King,2005). Carbon nantubes are pulmonary toxicants. The

british government (2005) in a regulatory effort required all new nano materials be treated with

caution as new chemicals in terms of registration, evaluation, authorization, and restriction.

The Nanoworld is perhaps the fastest growing world in the twenty-first century, Global

competition among nations in nanotechnology towards improving the quality of life are many.

However, disadvantages of nanotechnology especially related to human health and the

environment are only beginning to surface raising serious concerns, Systematic exploration,

characterization, organization, and regulation of the nanoworld are warranted to make the best

use of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The nanoworld will continue to influence Science and

Technology.

IV. BIOTECHNOLOGY

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 The use of microorganisms, cells, or cell components to make a product such as

commercial production of foods, vaccines, antibiotics, and vitamins.

 It encompasses tools and techniques including those of recombinant DNA technology, the

living organisms to be improved (plants, animals or microorganisms), the products from

these organisms which can be new or rare.

 Is the use of biological processes, organism, or systems to manufacture products

intended to improve the quality of human life

 The earliest biotechnologists were farmers who could developed improved species of plants

and animals by cross pollination or cross breeding

 The science of technology can be broken down into sub disciplines called

A. RED BIOTECHNOLOGY

- Involves medical processes such as getting organisms to produce new drugs, or

using stem cells to regenerate damaged human tissues and perhaps re-grow

entire organs

A. WHITE

- also called Gray Biotechnology

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - involves industrial processes such as the production of new chemicals or the

development of new fuels for vehicles

B. GREEN

- Applies to agricultural and involves such processes as the development of

pest – resistant grains or the accelerated evolution of disease-resistant animals

C. BLUE

- Rarely mentioned, encompasses processes in marine and aquatic environments,

such as controlling the proliferation of noxious water-borne organisms.

MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY AIMS TO:

1. develop new precision tools and diagnostics;
2. speed up breeding gains and efficiency;
3. develop pest- and disease-resistant crops;
4. combat salinity, drought, and problems of agriculture;
5. enhance the nutritional quality of food;
6. increase crop varieties and choice;
7. reduce inputs and production costs, and
8. increase profits. (Bragdon et al., 2005)

ADVANTAGES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. It can improve health and reduce hunger simultaneously
2. It can create flexibility within the food chain.
3. It offers medical advancement opportunities.
4. It allows us to preserve resources.
5. It helps us minimize or eliminate waste products.
6. It can reduce infectious disease rates.
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. It creates an all-or-nothing approach.
2. It is a field of research with many unknowns.
3. It could ruin croplands.
4. It turns human life into a commodity.
5. It can be used for destruction.

The latter is made possible by inserting genes into cells by recombinant DNA (rDNA)

technology sometimes called genetic engineering.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
IMPLICATIONS AND ISSUES

4 SOCIETAL CONCERN WITH BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. Harm to the environment

 This concern is perhaps the most widely cited by those opposed to GMOs.

 It is very difficult to predict what will happen in an ecosystem where a new organism has

been introduced-whether genetically modified or not.

 Take weeds for example. If farmers introduce an herbicide-resistant marker into a plant,

there is the possibility those traits may be transferred to a weed, making it resistant to

herbicides as well.

2. Bioterrorism

 Government are worried terrorists will use biotechnology to create new Superbugs.

 Infectious viruses, or toxins for which we have no cures.

 According to the CDC, bioterrorism happens when viruses, bacteria or other germs are

released intentionally to inflict harm on or kill people, plants or livestock.

 The agency says the most likely agent to be used in an attack is anthrax-a serious disease

caused by a bacteria found naturally in soil.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 The use of viruses and diseases as a weapon in warfare has been well documented in

history.

 Native Americans were infected by the British army in the 1760s when they were given

blankets from a smallpox hospital.

 During World War II, Japan released bombs on China containing fleas infested with

diseases.

 In modern times, bioterrorists are able to transfer diseases and viruses through explosives,

food and water, and even aerosol sprays.

 But the use of biotechnology as a weapon was banned by the Geneva Convention.

3. Laboratory/production safety

 It’s hard to protect yourself if you don’t know you’re working against. Some new

technologies, usually non-biological such as nanoparticles, make commercial production

lines before they have been sufficiently tested for safety.

 There is also concern about technician safety in laboratories-even under secure conditions-

when working with organisms of unknown virulence.

4. Ethical Issues

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 a. The construction of genes from scratch means we might someday be able to

create life from a chemical soup which will most certainly go against the ethical

or religious beliefs of a significant number of people.

b. Ethical concerns including when scientists protect their subjects when they are

ensure of the results or side effects of any study

C. Activists are critical of the use of animals as test subjects in biotechnology.

Scientists may manipulate animal genes all for the benefits of human lives. The

animal therefore becomes nothing more than a piece of property, rather a living

being.

A.GENETIC ENGINEERING/ RECOMBINANT DNA

TECHNOLOGY

- A technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one source to

another.

- it is the artificial modification of an organism’s genetic composition.

- Typically involves transferring genes from one organism into another

organism of a different species to give the other specific traits of the former.

- The resulting organism is called a transgenic or genetically modified organism,

or GMO

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - It leads to the production of living modified organisms or genetically modified

organisms.

IMPORTANCE:

1. used on microorganism help in the creation of new pharmaceuticals which cannot be

made in any other way.

2. it helps in the process of bioremediation which is the process of cleaning up waste and

pollution with the help of living organisms.

3. It has helped lower the overall usage of herbicides and pesticides

4. has help in the production of vaccines and other drugs in plants

5. has produced very useful genetically modified breeds which can tolerate factory farming

without any suffering

6. used to treat genetic disorders and cancer and also helps in supplying body parts

7. Certain bacterial sequences are manipulated to transform waste into ethanol, so that it

can be used as fuel.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or Transgenic organisms

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - A plant, animal, microorganisms, or other organism whose genetic makeup has been

modified using rDNA methods.

- The result of a laboratory process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted

and artificially inserted into the genes of unrelated plant or animal.

Overview of Recombinant DNA Technology

GENETIC ENGINEERING/ RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. A gene must be isolated and well characterized before it can be used in genetic

manipulation.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 2. Isolation of plasmid and DNA containing gene of interest. The gene of interest is

inserted into the vector DNA in vitro.

Two major categories of enzymes involved:

a. Restriction endonucleases

- acts as scissors to cut DNA at specific sites.

b. DNA ligase

- acts as glue that joins 2 DNA molecules.

- In the figure, the vector is a plasmid.

Plasmids

- are circular pieces of bacterial DNA that often contain genes not related to basic life

functions but it provides bacteria with genetic advantages such as antibiotic resistance.

3. This recombinant vector DNA is taken up by a cell such as a bacterium, where it can

multiply and grown in culture to form a clone of many identical cells. Each of which

carries copies of the vector. DNA vectors are often called gene-cloning vectors.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
ADVANTAGES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
 It allows for faster growth rate
 It can create an extended life
 Specific traits can be developed
 New products can be created
 Greater yields can be produced
 Risk to the local water supply are reduced.
 It is a scientific practice that has been in place for millennia

-----------

1) It allows for faster growth rate

- Genetic engineering allows plants and animals to be modified so their maturity

can occur at a quicker pace. Engineering can allow this maturity to occur

outside of the normal growth conditions that are favorable without genetic

changes as well.

2) It can create an extended life

- Genetic modification can help to create resistance to common forms of organism

death. Pest resistance can be included into the genetic profiles modified to

reduce the risks of common health concerns that may affect the breed or species

3) Specific traits can be developed

- Plants and animals can have specific traits develop through genetic engineering

that make them more attractive to use or consumption.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - Different colors can be created to produce a wider range of color, Animals can

be modified to produce more milk, grow more muscle tissue, or produce

different coats so that a wider of fabrics can be created.

4) New products can be created

- With genetic engineering, new products can be created by adding or combining

different profiles together.

- One example of this is potato, and alter its profile so that it can produce more

nutrients per Kcal than w/o genetic engineering. This makes it possible for more

people to get what they need nutritionally. Even if there food access is limited,

and this could potentially reduce global food insecurity.

5) Greater yields can be produced

- It can also change the traits of plants and animals so that they can produce

greater yields per plant.

- More fruits can be produce per tree, which creates a greater food supply and

more profits for a farmer.

- Using modified organisms in multiple ways because there is greater yield

available. Modified corn, for example, can be used for specific purposes such us

animal feed, ethanol, or large cobs for human consumption,

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 6) Risk to the local water supply are reduced.

- Because farmers and growers do not need to apply as many pesticides or

herbicides to their cropland due to genetic engineering, fewer applications to the

soil need to occur. This protects the local water shed and reduces the risk of an

adverse events occurring w/o risking the yield and profitability that is needed.

7) It is a scientific practice that has been in place for millennia

- Genetic engineering just speed up this process and can predict an outcome with

greater regularity

RISKS RELATED TO THE USE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: Dhan

Prakash, Sonika Verma, Ranjana Bhatia, and B. N. Tiwary, “Risks and Precautions of

Genetically Modified Organisms,” ISRN Ecology, vol. 2011, Article ID 369573, 13 pages, 2011.

https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/369573.

6. Genetic contamination / interbreeding

- Introduced GMOs may interbreed with the wild-type or sexually compatible

relatives. The novel trait may disappear in wild types unless it confers a selective

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 advantage to the recipient. However, tolerance abilities of wild types may also

develop, thus altering the native species’ ecological relationship and behaviour.

7. Introduced GMOs may interbreed with the wild-type or sexually compatible

relatives.

- The novel trait may disappear in wild types unless it confers a selective

advantage to the recipient. However, tolerance abilities of wild types may also

develop, thus altering the native species’ ecological relationship and behaviour.

4. Ecosystem Impacts

- The effects of changes in a single species may extend well b beyond to the

ecosystem. Single impacts are always joined by the risk of ecosystem damage and

destruction.

8. Horizontal Transfer of Recombinant Genes to Other

Microorganisms

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is the acquisition of foreign genes (via transformation,

transduction, and conjugation) by organisms in a variety

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
EXAMPLES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

 Mouse-ear cress

 Bananas

 Golden Rice

 Carrots that help prevent osteoporosis

 Drug producing Chicken

 Onions that do not make you cry

=======

1. Mouse-ear cress

 This is a small invasive species, and we know a great deal about its genes. This little plant

helps us understand the hereditary nature of numerous plant characteristics relating to

drought, low nitrogen requirements, low temperatures and freezing, high temperatures, light

( e.g. shade ), tolerance to UV radiation, photosynthetic activity, low pH and aluminum in

the soil, high pH, growth speed, flowering period, greenness during maturation time, plant

architecture, fertility, organ size, ramification form, stem width, ozone, high carbon dioxide,

high nitrogen, carbon/nitrogen, seed morphology, biotic resistance, and the composition of

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 seed oil, seed proteins, lignin and sterols. After the genes for these characteristics are found

in the mouse-ear cress, they can be used to modify cultivated species.

2. Bananas

- In many countries around the world bananas are the main source of calories.

According to reports from Uganda, their production is compromised by the

emergence of new diseases, Ugandan scientist have successfully used a genetic

modification, inserting a pepper gene into bananas, which prevents the fruit from

getting the disease.

3. Golden Rice

- On July 31st, Ingo Potryskus on the cover of Time magazine. The Swiss scientist and

his German colleague Peter Beyerhad produced a breed of rice which, unlike any

other, also contains provitamin A. the lack of this vitamin is especially harmful to

the poorest and is estimated to cause blindness among 250,000 – 500,000 children

everyday year. Another two million people a year die from other deficiency-related

causes. So far, the measures taken to introduce vitamin supplements have not yet

reached those poor countries. Because of its color, the product was first given the

name golden rice, which remains the same to this day. After concluding numerous

tests, researchers from the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines

have proven that even small amounts of the rice are sufficient, and that it is

absolutely safe. Unfortunately, partly due to the vandalism of “green” activists, the

rice has yet to reach its target group in 2011, which contains four times as much iron

as the regular one, and could therefore save more lives.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
4. Carrots that help prevent osteoporosis

- In 2004, an American research team transferred a CAX1 gene mouse-ear cress into

carrots so that they contained larger amounts of organically bound calcium. In 2008,

they performed a study where such carrots were tested on mice and 30 volunteers,

and the results showed that humans absorbed 42% more calcium from the modified

carrots than from regular ones. The aim of this test was to help prevent osteoporosis,

while the emphasis was on its biodiversity in target tissues.

5. Drug producing Chicken

- A group of scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland, have developed a GM

chicken that lays eggs containing medicinal proteins. Egg-whites are naturally

loaded with a protein called ovalbumin. What the group of scientists did was

introduced the gene for a foreign protein, instead of the ovalbumin gene, in a set of

chickens. Consequently, the eggs of these GM chickens were loaded with the

foreign protein .Although a bit bizarre, this attempt if successful, will provide an

easy way to generate large amounts of medicinal proteins useful for treatment of

anemia, certain cancers, haematological disorders, etc. The ultimate result one

may expect is availability of these drugs at comparatively lower prices.

6. Onions that do not make you cry

- In 2008, a New Zealand research team lead by Colin Eady produced an onion that

does not make you cry while cutting it. Interestingly, the insertion of a single gene

which down regulates the activity of the onion enzyme that make your eyes

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 water, and secondly, they now have even more health beneficial sulphur-

containing substance than regular onions.

- of environmental situations. It occurs especially in response to changing

environments and provides organisms, especially prokaryotes, with access to

genes other than those that can be inherited.  HGT of an introduced gene from a

GMO may confer a novel trait in another organism, which could be a source of

potential harm to the health of people or the environment.

CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY

- An international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport,

and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that

may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to

human health.

IMPORTANCE OF GMO

I.GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

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 The center for Ecoenergetics and Environmental Health ( CEEH, 2013 ) identified the

following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:

 Pest resistance

 Virus resistance

 Herbicide tolerance

 Fortification

 Cosmetic preservation

 Increase growth rate

==========

1. Pest resistance

- genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - an example is Bt corn. The DNA ( genome) of the Bt Corn has modified with the

gene of Bacillus thuregensis, a soil bacterium that produces protein which is

toxic to corn borers ( worm)

2. Virus resistance

- genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses

- an example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya

- The papaya ringspot virus ( PRSV)is known to be detrimental to papaya, The

protein of PRSV was introduced to the papaya plant through the plant tissue

which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like the vaccines

humans have against measles or influenza virus

3. Herbicide tolerance

- Tolerate herbicides

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds,

was introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then

can spray the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.

4. Fortification

- genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals

- An example is golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was

introduced through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified

with vitamin A.

5. Cosmetic preservation

- genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration

- An example is Arctic Apple, the apple variety was genetically modified to

suppress the browning of apple due to superficial damage

6. Increase growth rate

- a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth than normal

species

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 - An example is Aqua Advantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-

like fish was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow

faster than its normal rate.

II.GMOs IN NON-FOOD CROPS AND MICROORGANISMS

 Flower production

 Paper production

 Pharmaceutical productions

 Bioremediation

 Enzyme and Drug production

 GMOs in the medical field

1. Flower production

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 - GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and extended vase life

- Examples are the so called “blue” roses, which are, in reality, lilac or purple,

contained cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, together with large amount of flavonols

2. Paper production

- Modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper production

- Examples are poplar trees , Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that removed

from wood to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that

code for ferulic acid in young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified,

making lignin easier to breakdown.

3. Pharmaceutical productions

- Modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products

- Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle

plants to enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to

drugs for cancer treatments like Hodgkin’s lymphoma

4. Bioremediation

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 - Use modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of polluted sites

- An example is shrub tobacco, Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically

modified with phytochelatin TaPCSII, is used for bioremediation. It shows high

level accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high

biomass.

5. Enzyme and Drug production

- Use of microorganisms that can produce enzyme for food processing and

medicines

- One example of this is CGTase ( cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase, an

enzyme used for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by

bacterium Bacillus which was genetically modified with the gene of a

thermophilic anaerobe, thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase

6. GMOs in the medical field

- Genetic engineering is playing a significant role from diagnosis to treatment of

human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene therapy, and

laboratory researches

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 - One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type

1 diabetes patients who are insulin-dependent, in the past, insulin is extracted

from the pancreases of pigs and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some

diabetics using it.

BENEFITS OF GMOS

1. Higher efficiency in farming

2. Increased in harvest

3. Control in fertility

4. Increase in food processing

5. Improvement of desirable characteristics

OTHER DIRECT AND INDIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS CAUSED BY GMOS

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 1. Direct environmental risks:

a. may cause disruption of the natural communities through competition or

interference

b. the possibility of an unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it

escapes its intended use and may post threats or become pest

c. . may cause harmful effects to the ecosystem process if GMOs interfere with the

natural biochemical cycles

d. The persistent of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative to the

consumer of GMO products

2. Indirect environment risk

a. Alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs to

the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that became

resistant to GMO crops

b. May have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural

practices

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 c. May have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release

in the natural environment

POTENTIAL HUMAN HEALTH RISK CAUSED BY GMOS

1. May have adverse effects since it is not naturally or organically produced

2. May alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the human digestive system

3. Production of toxins may be detrimental to human health

4. Production of allergens may have adverse effects on human

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food consumption. They

encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be vigilant in checking if the food they buy

has GMO ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt

eggplant, another genetically modified crop

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OTHER POTENTIAL RISKS THAT RAISE MAJOR CONCERN ARE:

1. Human genome Project ( HPG)

- Mapping of human genes to provide framework for research and studies in the

field of medicine. It was feared that the ability to produce human genetic

information would create biases and give much power to people holding the

information and to the disadvantages of those who do not have the genetic

information.

2. Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms

- Genetically modified bacteria and viruses may mutate to become more resistant

or virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human beings

3. Cloning

- The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through genetic

engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from

Scotland, was born through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of

human cloning. It emerge the ethical issue of man “playing God”

The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate it its unnatural production or what is

termed to be violation of nature. The creation of new organism, like GMOs, post moral issues

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on defiance to natural laws< another concern is the potential risks to the environment and human

health, to which so much is unknown yet.

GMOS IN THE PHILIPPINE CONTEXT

Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to other

countries with GMOs. there are, of course, proponents and opponents of these issues.

1990
- The GMO concern started with the creation of the National committee on biosafety of

the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order no. 430 of 1990.

1998
- The NCBP develop the guideline on the planned release of genetically manipulated

organisms (GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic species

2002
- The Department of Agriculture released Administrative Order No.8, the guideline for

the importation and release into the environment of GM plants and plant products

- The entry of GMO importation started

- The Philippines was marked to be the first country in Asia to approved commercial

cultivation of GMOs when GM corn planting was approved

- From December 2002 to present, there are

 70 GMO applications approved by the DA for the release to the environment,

 62 GMOs of which are approved for food feed and processing and the remaining 8 were

approved for propagation

2001
- The Philippines was classified by International service for acquisition of agri-biotech

applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50,000 hectares

or more of GMO crops annually

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 - Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food products with

GMOs but the senate did not pass the bill

2006
- The Philippines became part of Cartagena protocol on biosafety

- EO No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol

and the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF)

2010
- The Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture than GMO-

related agriculture

- Prior to this act, Negros Occidental and Oriental which agreed to support organic

agriculture and there was establishment of the Negros Organic Island through a

memorandum of Agreement between the two provinces through provincial ordinance

- Similar to this case, Davao city ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of GM Bt

eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus

2012
- Representative, Teddy Casino, together with other congressmen, filed a bill pushing for

the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products

- To date, there no Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF

- A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing

regulation is weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a Republic Act

December 2015

- The Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of GMO Bt eggplant and

declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of Agriculture as

null and void

March 7, 2016

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 1. Five government agencies:

1. Department of Agriculture ( DA )

2. Department of Environment and Natural resources (DENR)

3. Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)

4. Department of Health (DOH)

5. Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

Passed a joint Circular No. 1 series of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research

and development, handling and use, transboundary movement, release in the environment, and

management of genetically modified plants and plant products derived from the use of modern

technology. This joint department circular paves way to issuance of new permits for planting

and importing GM crops in the country

GENE THERAPY

- Is a technique that uses genetic material for the long term treatment of genetic

disorders

- This may involve delivering a copy of a healthy or therapeutic gene, repairing a

faulty gene, and /or altering the degree to which a gene is turned “on” and “off”

- The insertion into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, and hereditary

diseases in which a detective mutant allele is replaced with a functional one

IMPORTANCE

1. Gene therapy is a novel treatment which utilizes genes or short oligonucleotide

sequences as therapeutic molecules, instead of conventional drug compounds.

2. Gene therapy could eventually target the correction of genetic defects, eliminate

cancerous cells, prevent cardiovascular diseases, block neurological diseases, even

eliminate infectious pathogens.

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TYPES OF GENE THERAPY

 Somatic

 Germ Line

1. Somatic Gene Therapy

- The somatic cells of a patient are targeted for foreign transfer. In this case, the

effects caused by the foreign gene is restricted to the individual patient only

2. Germ Line Gene therapy

- The functional genes, which are to be investigated into the genomes, are inserted

in the germ cells. Targeting of germ cells makes the therapy heritable.

GENE THERAPY STRATEGIES

 Gene augmentation

 Targeted Killing of Specific Cells

 Targeted Inhibition of gene expression

 Targeted Gene Mutation Correction

1. Gene Augmentation Therapy

- Addition of functional alleles to treat inherited disorder caused by genetic deficiency

of a gene product

2. Targeted killing of Specific Cells

- Involves utilizing genes encoding toxic compounds, or prodrugs to kill the

transferred/transformed cells. This is popular in cancer gene therapies

3. Targeted Inhibition of Gene Expression

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 - This is to block the expression of any diseased gene or a new gene expressing a

protein which is harmful for a cell. This is a particularly suitable for treating

infectious disease and some cancers

4. Targeted Gene Mutation Correction

- Use to correct a defective gene to restore its function which can be done at genetic

level by homologous recombination or at mRNA by using therapeutic ribozymes or

therapeutic RNA editing

APPROACHES OF GENE THERAPY

1. Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.

2. Inactivating or “knocking out” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.

3. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.

ETHICAL ISSUES SURROUNDING GENE THERAPY

1. Because gene therapy involves making changes to the body’s set of basic instructions, it

raises many unique ethical concerns. The ethical questions surrounding gene therapy

include:

a. How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished?

b. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or disorder?

c. Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available to the wealthy?

d. Could the widespread use of gene therapy make society less accepting of people

who are different?

e. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human traits such

as height, intelligence, or athletic ability?

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 2. Given the technology involved, it is obvious that this treatment will be expensive. It will

be just the rich who would be able to afford its benefits. This gives rise to increasing

disparity between the rich and the poor. The rich will become richer and the poor

become poorer.

3. Genes are regions of DNA that code for proteins and failure to produce normal levels

of functional protein due to a defective gene can result in disorders.

B.CLONING

2. It is the process of creating an exact copy of a biological unit ( e.g. a DNA sequence,

cell, or organism from which it was derived, especially by way of biotechnological

methods.

3. Could either be natural or artificial. The copied material, which has the same genetic

makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone.

IMPORTANCE OF CLONING

 Advances In Medicine

 Producing Livestock Faster

 Improving Crops

 Used By Police

1. Advances in Medicine

a. important in making stem cells – maintain and repair the body throughout an

individual’s life, as these processes are naturally occurring they can be

manipulated to repair damaged or diseased organs and tissues

b. cloning stem from an individual with a disease lets scientists and researchers

understand the disease and develop a treatment for it

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 c. by using cloning, a person is able to find out if he or she has inherited a gene on

a chromosome from an affected parent by a procedure called genetic engineering

2. Producing livestock faster

a. instead of cloning livestock for consumption , livestock is cloned to make

breeding stock. This is a more time effective way to breed livestock. However,

only cells from a high quality carcass can be cloned to give to an animal that is

able to pass its superior genes to its offspring.

3. Improving crops

a. cloning can make plants resistant to herbicides, pest damage, infections and

diseases improving the quality of the crops we eat.

b. cloned plants such as wheat, rice, maize, soybean, potato and others have

already been produced and ready to be introduced into agriculture

4. Use by police

a. police also used cloning in investigations for identification, called genetic

fingerprinting. This process is done by extracting DNA from body fluid such as

blood or saliva and cutting the DNA with restriction enzymes.

THE LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES OR

IMPLICATIONS OF CLONING
 Religious belief and control

 Relationship and individuality

 Failure Rate

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 Altering gene pool

 Illegal cloning and clones

1. Religious belief and control

- cloning goes against the basic belief of certain religions that only God has created

life and its various forms in nature. Humans cannot act as “God”

2. Relationship and individuality

- it creates a new human, yet strips him off his individuality. A man, along with his

clone can never be dignified as a single identity. The uniqueness attributed to

humans for God might be at stake. The replication of an individual is a major blow

to his most distinct feature-his identity.

3. Failure Rate

- physicians and doctors have a moral obligation to ensure and translate the safety of

any medical procedure to his/her patients. As of now, no one can guarantee that

the child born due to cloning would be a healthy one.

4. Altering gene pool

- if cloning becomes widespread, the genetic diversity of humans will go down. This

would result in the decrease in immunity of humans against diseases. Thus making

humans susceptible to epidemics and unknown diseases.

5. Illegal cloning and clones

- a cloned child having multiple doors might complicate parental right as well as

inheritance and marital eligibility issues. Another view suggests that there is a

possibility of clones being developed without the concerned individual’s consent.

This will definitely create legal issues not to mention violation of medical as well as

moral ethics.

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C.HYBRIDIZATION
- refers to the process of producing offspring by mating two parents of different

varieties or species.

- used synonymously with crossbreeding, which is defined as the process or the act of

producing offspring particularly mating two purebred individuals but come from

different breeds or varieties

- important especially in agriculture herein it is applied to come up with hybrid crop

that is both hardy and disease-resistant

- in animals, ligers and mules are example of a hybrid

IMPORTANCE

1. ants of the same species cross easily and produce fertile progeny

2. important in agriculture like crossing genetically different individuals to create new

genotypes

3. two species can hybridize, and a few individual hybrids can give rise to a third species

that is distinct from the two parents and can coexist with it.

4. may influence evolution in a variety of ways.

 If hybrids are less fit, the geographicaly range of ecologically divergent population may be

limited, and prezygotic reproductive isolation may be reinforced.

 If some hybrid genotypes are fitter than one or both parents, at least in some

environments, then hybridization could make a positive contribution

5. two species combine to form the best of the organism eliminating the unwanted qualities

of boththe parent species

EXAMPLES OF HYBRIDIZATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

 Hybrid Lilies

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 Sweet Corn

 Pomato

 Rabbage

 Liger

 Grolar Bear

 Mule

 Beefalo

1. Hybrid Lilies

- they are classified as Asiatic hybrids and Oriental hybrids. Oriental hybrid

lilies have large 6 to 8 inches, fragrant, pink, red, purole or white flowers.The

flowers of the Asiatic hybrids are smaller and usually have no fragrance.The

flowers come in bright shades of yellow, gold, rose,pink, white and orange. The

Asiatic lilies naturally flower from late spring to early summer.Hybrid lilies can

easily be grown as potted plants when grown in the right medium with proper

light and watering.

2. Sweet Corn

- The vast majority of U.S. corn grown are hybrid varieties.The characteristics of

these varieties have made it easier for home garderners to grow and there are

sweeter than the past crops.

3. Pomato

- is a hybrid variety of potato and tomato. It is a small tomato-like fruit, with

white flesh, edible either raw or cooked. Pomato produces tomatoes on the top

and potatoes underground.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 4. Rabbage

- Also known Brassicoraphanus

- A crossed between cabbage and raddish, and was developed successfully to self-

propgate by a Soviet agronomist named Georgi Dmitrievich Karpenchenko in the

1910s and ‘20s

- It has fallen out fashion, though, because the hybrid wasn’t quite as well-integrated

as consumers would like.

- The majority of these animals do not occur naturally in the wild and have been bred

by humans which has stirred much controversy and criticism. For most of theses

animals, while successfully crossed, the offspring tend to be infertile, meaning their

continuation as a hybrid is solely determined by human intervention.

5. Liger

- Is a hybrid cross between a mole lion ( panther leo ) and a tigress ( Panthera

tigris ).Thus, it has parents with the same genus but of different species. It is distinct

from the similar hybrid tiglion. It is the largest of all extant felines.

6. Grolar Bear

- A grizzly-polar hybrid ( also pizzly bear,prizzly bear, or grolar bear) is a rare ursid

hybrid that has occurred both in captivity and in the wild.

- In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA

for a strange-looking bear that been shot near Sachs Harbour, northwest

Territories on Banks island in the Canadian Arctic motherless beings and could open

the way to the creation of beings that are effectively owned

7. Mule

- Is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and Donkeys are

different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F! hybrids

between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny ( the offpring of a

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 male horse and a female donkey). All male mules and most female mules are

infertile.

8. Beefalo

- Are a fertile hybrid offpring of domestic cattle, Bos Taurus, and the American Bison

(generally called buffalo in the US). The breed was created to combine the

characteristics of both animals with a view towards beef production

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OR ISSUES

“We believe,too that we are God’s partner in work of creation, both as innovators and as

protectors, and that this partnership obliges us to be guided by ethical principles.”

Arguments against hybridization

“… the creation of an animal-human being represents a natural border that has been the most

grave of violations.”

( Bishop Elio Sgreccia, president of Pontificial Academy for life, May 2007 )

 It blurs the distinction between human beings and other animals

 It violates human dignity

 It’s the start of a slippery slope that could lead to creating animal/human creatures

capable of independent life

 It’s wrong to create beings ( embryos ) that are solely at the disposable of scientists. It

says that it is acceptable to create motherless beings and could open the way to the

creation of beings that are effectively owned by whoever controls the medium in which

the embryos develops.

D.STEM CELL

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 - is a cell with the unique ability to develop into specialized cell types in the body. In

the future they may be used to replace cells and tissues that have been damaged or

lost due to disease.

- They can divide over and over again to produce new cells

ADVANTAGES:

1. Adult stem cells have low rejection rates.

2. Can be transform into pluripotent stem cells.

3. The current treatment options for stem cells are numerous.

4. Because stem cells have regenerative properties, the potential is unlimited.

5. Embryonic treatments can be developed through stem cell research.

6. Abundant somatic cells of donor can be used.

7. Very useful for drug development and developmental issues.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Embryonic stem cells can have high rejection rates.

2. Stem cell treatments are an unproven commodity.

3. Stem cell research is a cost process.

4. We do not know if there are long term side effects to worry about.

5. Adults have very few stem cells.

6. Current embryonic stem cell harvesting requires the death of an embryo.

7. Embryonic stem cells body recognises the cells as different and will reject them without

the use of drugs.

8. All stem cells may produce cancer cells instead of healthy cells.

9. ( adult )Currently there is no technology available to generate large quantities of stem

cells in culture.

10. (Adult ) Cannot be grown for long periods of time in culture

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 11. Viruses are currently used to introduce embryonic genes and has been shown to cause

cancers in mouse studies.

E.TISSUE CULTURE
- is the practice of growing tissues or cells in an artificial medium which is

separate from organism and done by using a liquid, semi-solid, solid growth

medium, such as broth or agar which can provide nutrition to the cells or tissues

once they are removed from an organisms’ body.

- Can be done to both plants and animals

- Is recognized as the growth of cells or tissues are taken from donor organism and

provided with nutrients and energy for the cells’ survival

IMPORTANCE of tisue culture

1. Important technique for the production of disease free and high quality plants with a

short period of time

2. It allows the production of a large number of plants having identical features to the

parents

3. Adult plants can be produced within a short period of time

4. Many plantlets can also be preserved or conserved by this technique which is applicable

for those species which have difficulty in reproduction and facing extinction.

ADVANTAGES

1. Produce more copies of same plant with desired characters like big fruits, colorful

flowers, disease resistance etc. This allows us to produce a variety of plants through

shorter period of time.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN
 2. Helps us produce plants which do not depend on seasonal changes of that area for

particular yield. This makes it possible to produce seasonal crops all year-round.

3. As seedlings are made available, planting is possible all through the year

4. All the plants developed by tissue culture are uniform at size, shape and their yield.

They are exact clones which resemble each other.

5. Time taken to obtain mature crop is very less.

6. Crops are almost pest and disease resistant since they are not exposed to the

environmental stress

7. is useful which produce seeds insufficient amounts, or when plants are sterile and they

do not produce viable seeds or when seeds cannot be stored.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Extremely expensive since it requires specialized laboratories and equipment.

2. Same genetic material makes them all equally vulnerable to environmental factors,

infections and pests since there is no genetic variation.

3. As all the plants are genetically similar there is a reduction in genetic diversity.

4. Certain crops may not be easily grown in vitro.

5. There are no new traits or new genes introduced since all are clones of parent

generation.

6. Tissue culture is not successful with all the plants species usually because of the growth

medium and some plants produce secondary metabolites that might kill the plants.

7. If precautions are not highly taken the whole stock may be contaminated and infected

8. There may be error in the identity of the organisms after culture.

9. The procedure needs special attention and diligently done observation.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH TISSUE CULTURE

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 1. Since tissues and cells are taken from a donor organism, one concern is that these may

cause pain to the organism especially if we are dealing with animal donors and suffer from

disfigurement and death if not properly handled.

7. With regards to tissue sourcing is the consent of the donor. Prior consent from a donor

must first be sought and this is possible for humans but not for other animals since

they cannot speak for themselves.

8. Animal cruelty may also be possible

9. In some cases, tissues may be taken from humans without them knowing that their tissue

samples had been used for research without their prior knowledge

10. Another deals with how life is created, more within the parameters surrounding cloning

and asexual reproduction. Tissue culture research and technology look for ways to create

organs, tissue, and possibly even life itself entirely within a lab which in some aspect is

still considered as controversial.

BIODIVERSITY

- The variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms.

- The variability among living organisms from all sources including aerial, terrestrial

and aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this

includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

- Includes all ecosystems –managed and unmanaged.

- Some biodiversity is presumed to be relevant feature of only unmanaged ecosystems,

such as wild lands, nature preserves, or national parks. This is incorrect, managed

system be they plantation, farms, croplands, aqualculture sites, rangelands, or even

urban parks and urban ecosystems have their own biodiversity.

- Is the foundation of ecosystem services to which human well-being is intimately linked

THREE LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

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 1. species diversity- the number and variety of organisms an ecosystem contain

2. genetic diversity- the genetic variety within a species

3. ecosystem diversity- the variety of ecosystems found on earth

 Extinction-the death of a species occurs when the last individual member of a species

dies.

 Endangered species- a species in imminent danger of extinction throughout all or a

significant part of its range.

 Threatened species- a species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future,

throughout all or a significant part of its range.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

1. having an extremely (localized) range

2. requiring a large territory

3. living on islands

4. having low reproductive success

5. needing specialized breeding areas

6. possessing specialized feeding habits

WHY PROTECT BIODIVERSITY?

1. Aesthetic and Economics- source of beauty and pleasure; can provide economic

benefits

2. Food, Pharmaceuticals, Scientific Information and Products

3. Protecting Free Services and Saving Money

- protecting natural systems helps preserve many ecological services such as

flood control and water pollution abatement

4. Ethics- Doing the Right Thing

CAUSES OF DECLINING BIODIVERSITY

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 1.Destruction or modification of habitat

- Habitat fragmentation- the breakup of large areas of habitat into small

isolated segments

- Island- small patch of forest surrounded by agricultural and suburban land

2. Biotic pollution- the introduction of foreign species into an area where it is not native

3. Hunting

a. sport hunting

b. subsistence hunting

c. commercial hunting or harvesting

d. illegal hunting or poaching

4. Pollution

5. Population growth and over consumption

6. Climate change

INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF BIODIVERSITY- 2010

- focuses on boosting awareness of biodiversity’s importance by promoting

actions to foster biodiversity worldwide.

CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

- an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of

biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; fair and equitable sharing of the

benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

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 - Its mission is to influence, encourage and assist global societies to conserve

nature. To ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically

sustainable.

- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species -provides scientifically based

information on the status of species and subspecies at a global level.

CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES (CITES)

- aims to ensure that the international trade of plants and animals does not

threaten the survival of the species in its natural habitat.

WILDLIFE RESOURCES CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION ACT (RA 9147)

- to conserve and protect wildlife species and their habitats to promote ecological

balance and enhance biological diversity;

- to regulate the collection and trade of wildlife;

- to pursue, with due regard to the national interest, the Philippine commitment

to international conventions, protection of wildlife and their habitats; and

- to initiate or support scientific studies on the conservation of biological

diversity.

CHANGES IN BIODIVERSITY

Alteration in any system could bring varied effects, A change in biodiversity could have

erratic effects only in wildlife or marine life but also to human beings

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the United nations’

environment Programme.

1. Habitat loss and destruction

2. Alteration in ecosystem composition

3. Over exploitation

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 4. Pollution and contamination

5. Global climate change

THE IMPACT OF BIODIVERSITY INTO THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND

SOCIETY

SCIENCE

- We are at a critical moment for the Earth’s biodiversity, as direct result of human

pressure, Overcoming challenges will call for improvements in our knowledge of the

mechanisms producing and sustaining biological diversity and predict how

ecosystems will respond to man-made global change. The science of biodiversity

aims to be inclusive and interdisciplinary, combining knowledge of natural history.

- In short, in order to be able to predict and attenuate the effect of global change on

biodiversity and ecosystem services, the challenges is to understand the structure

and functioning of natural systems on temporal and spatial scales never seen

before, something which calls for a high level of cohesion across the international

scientific community. Given the speed at which species are disappearing, new

strategies and tools need to be developed with which to conduct an urgent inventory

of biodiversity, particularly in tropical regions, and extreme or little explored

environments. Systems to monitor biodiversity on different scales and

organizational levels are needed in order to understand the factors exploding

changes in biota and identity regions particularly vulnerable to biodiversity loss.

Together these efforts should enable us to improve models predicting biodiversity

changes in response to human pressure and to make reliable quantitative

projections that are useful to governments when making management decisions

TECHNOLOGY

Advances in brain mapping may eventually be applied to technologies that can

determine how species perceive their environment. Such information could help identify and

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ameliorate stressors that could be impediments to reproduction or survival. Such technologies

are now within reach. Robots or perhaps even cyborg animals could be used to enter areas that

either cannot or should not be accessed by humans, and to limit unwanted contact between

humans and species targeted by protection, although there are ethical issues to be considered

with this latter approach.

Monitoring reproductive status and other physiological parameters in the wild can

be facilitated by broader deployment of biotelemetry devices and the use of mobile

communication networks.

SOCIETY

“Loss of biological diversity due to species extinction is going to have major impacts

on our planet, and we better prepare ourselves to deal with them,” more biologically diverse

ecosystems are more productive. As a result, there has been growing concern that the very high

rates of modern extinctions-due to habitat loss, overharvesting and other human-caused

environmental changes-could reduce nature’s ability to provide goods and services like food,

clean water and stable climate.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

- discovered by French mathematician Joseph Fourier in 1824;

- experimented on by Irish physicist John Tyndall in 1858;

- and reported by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius 1896 quantitatively

- a naturally occurring process by which thermal radiation from a planetary earth’s

surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all

directions

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GREENHOUSE GASES

- make up only about 1 % of the Earth's atmosphere, which regulate our climate by

trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet

- concentrations is determined by the balance between sources and sinks

MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) - product of the oxidation of carbon in organic matter, either

through combustion of carbon-based fuels or the decay of biomass.

2. Methane (CH4) - produced by anaerobic decay of organic material in landfills,

wetlands, and rice fields; enteric fermentation in the digestive tracts of ruminant animals

such as cattle, goats, and sheep; manure management; waste water treatment; fossil fuel

combustion; and leaks from natural gas transportation and distribution systems and

abandoned coal mines.

3. Nitrous oxide (N2O) - produced by fertilizer use, animal waste management, fossil fuel

combustion, and industrial activities.

4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) - synthetic chemicals that

are used in a variety of industrial production processes such as semiconductor

manufacturing. HFCs and PFCs are replacing CFCs in applications such as

refrigeration and foam-blowing for insulation.

5. Water vapor - most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. The surface warming

caused by human production of other greenhouse gases leads to an increase in

atmospheric water vapor because warmer temperatures make it easier for water to

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 evaporate and stay in the air in vapor form. This creates a positive “feedback loop” in

which warming leads to more warming.

USES OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

1. Burning of fossil fuel

2. Deforestation

3. Industries

- industry creates chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbons for use in

various products

- producing lime (calcium oxide) to make cement accounts for 2.5% of CO2

emissions from industrial sources

4. Domestication of animals and rice cultivation

- most livestock-related methane emissions are produced by "enteric fermentation"

of food by bacteria and other microbes in the animals' digestive tracts; another

source is the decomposition of animal manure.

- livestock account for about one-quarter of the methane emissions from human

activities, totalling some 100 million tonnes a year.

- the nitrogen contained in many fertilizers enhances the natural processes of

nitrification and denitrification that are carried out by bacteria and other microbes in

the soil.

CONSEQUENCES/IMPACTS OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

1. Increase in average temperature

- Global warming refers to the increase in average temperature of the

atmosphere. It is caused by an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

2. Increase in sea level

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 - Due to increase in temperature and excess of heat, melting of snow and ice

takes place which ultimately increase the level of seas and oceans.

5. Change in rainfall patterns

- The differential heating of layer in the atmosphere i s the main cause of pressure

difference, which govern the rainfall system and it`s quantity. The air moves

from high pressure to low pressure region, when it crosses the water body it

become the source of rain and vice versa. The increase of average temperature

substantially affect pressure region and so the wind direction and ultimately

affect the rainfall pattern.

4. Changes in Seasonal Characters

- -Due to change in air temperature and rainfall patterns, it is observed that the

seasonal characters have been substantial changing/shifting a lot throughout

the globe. At many places the duration of winter has extended and at some

place summer along with more severity.

5. Expansion of Disease Carriers

- There would be expansion in the territory of diseases, either by moving to

higher elevations in mountainous areas or by expanding their territory farther

from the equator.

6. Destruction of coral reefs

- As global temperatures rise, so too do average sea surface temperatures. These

elevated temperatures cause long-term damage to coral reefs.

6. Increase pressure on ground water supplies

- The resulting dry conditions will increase the pressure on groundwater supplies

as more is pumped to meet demand even as less precipitation falls to

replenish it.

7. Disruption of food supplies

- Rising temperatures and the accompanying impacts of global warming

including more frequent heat waves, heavier precipitation in some regions, and

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 more severe droughts in others has significant implications for crop and meat

production.

CECILIA K. POGONGAN