HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

GROUP 2
INTRODUCTION
● A building is defined as high-rise when it is considerably higher than the surrounding
buildings or its proportion is slender enough to give the appearance of a tall
building.
● According to NBC, all buildings 15 m or above in height shall be considered as high
rise buildings.
● The construction of high-rise buildings started at the end of the 19th century in
Chicago.
● Before 1945 the high-rise buildings in Europe were few and below the 100 meter limit
and it was not until after the Second World War the construction of high-rise
buildings excelled.
● This had to do with the reconstruction of all destroyed cities and the expanded
demand for offices and residential

High-rise building
NEED OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
The reasons for adopting high-rise buildings could be solutions for density problems and lack of available land for development,
sometimes tall buildings more about power, prestige status, where they play an important role in meeting occupier demand for large
prestigious headquarters, and aesthetics than efficient.
MATERIALS USED
STEEL
Steel is metal alloy of iron and carbon, other alloying metals makes
it strong and fracture resistant.
It is strong as compared to its weight and size hence, it is used for
structural framework of tall buildings.
Some of its qualities include:
● Steel has high strength-to-weight and strength-to-size ratios.
● It’s high-cost relative to other metals.
● It is less time-consuming
● It can be installed in any environment.
● Steel can be susceptible to corrosion.
● Chrome, gold, and silver are generally used for finishes.
CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material made of fine and coarse
aggregate bound together by a liquid binder such as cement
that hardens or cures over time. Portland cement is a fine
powder. Its concrete consists of the mineral aggregate, bound
with Portland cement and water.
Some of its qualities include:
● Strength varies depending on the mix.
● Concrete can be poured into a form to take.
● Its versatility, cost, and strength make it the ideal material
for a house foundation.
● To increase the tensile strength of concrete, it is reinforced
with steel rods or bars (rebar).
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
In terms of the great responsibility for the design of high-rise buildings, the following features should be considered:
1. Effective assessment of engineering and geological conditions.
2. Survey of the foundations of buildings, that are located in the zone of potential construction.
3. Consideration of design features of high-rise buildings.

a. Providing spatial rigidity of the structural system.

● The spatial rigidity is ensured by symmetrically

located diaphragms and structural cores;
● box-shaped structural systems with load-bearing
external walls along the whole perimeter of the
building.
● Rigid discs’ slab, combining vertical load-bearing
structures and performing the functions of horizontal
stiffening diaphragms under the effect of wind or
seismic loads.
● rigid nodal interfaces between load-bearing
structures;
b. Providing protection against the progressive collapse of structures.

High-rise buildings should be protected from progressive collapse

in case of local destruction of load-bearing structures as a result of
natural and man-caused emergencies.
● Natural emergencies include dangerous meteorological
phenomena, the formation of karst craters and dips in the
foundations of buildings
● Man-caused emergencies include explosions outside or
inside the building, fires, accidents or significant damage to
load-bearing structures due to defects in materials, poor
quality work, etc.

c. Additional calculations of various kinds of loads applied on

the structures of highrise buildings

● In high-rise buildings, additional short-term loads are taken into

account such as: - the load from the rescue capsule of the
fire-fighting helicopter to cover; - Load from vehicles, including
fire trucks; - load on the coverings of the stylobate
● It is necessary to take into account the various extra-impacts of
the wind, including:
- average and pulsation components of the design wind load
- the maximum values of the wind load acting on the enclosing
structures
- resonance vortex excitation
- effects that excite aerodynamic unstable oscillations.

SERVICE CORE
● Service core design is a fundamental element in tall building
design. It is defined as “An element that gathers the space
necessary to provide visual, physical and functional vertical
connections that work effectively to distribute services through
the building”
● Selection of the suitable service core configuration depends on
many factors such as, function of the building, building users
and building codes and legislations. The detailed comparison
of these six alternatives are indicated
Functions of the service core is classified in three groups:
1- Services: the main servant facilities of the building necessary to its existence and
operation, such as elevators, their shafts and corridors, egress stairs and secure spaces,
machine and electrical/ communication rooms, toilets and storage rooms.
2- Subservices: vertical risers, ducts, pipes and chutes, whose sub servant role derives
from being necessary to the operation of the main services. They are generally placed
in the residual areas left free by the design of the main utilities.
3- Core: the structural shell that often encircles the services. The core exists when the
structural scheme of the building requires shear walls/trusses or moment-resisting
frames to withstand the horizontal forces; otherwise, it is omitted.

COORDINATION OF PLANS AND SERVICE CORE

Outrigger frame building with primary core.
● Two level of outriggers with 2 story height is placed at 1/3 and 2/3 of
the building. In that way, the maximum story displacement to
building height ratio, which should be around 1/500 [12] is satisfied
when the building is subjected to the design wind loads.
● The floor plan with the indication of outriggers (red lines) of primary
core version of the outrigger frame buildings is indicated.
Floor plan (left) and elevation (right) of outriggered frame building with
primary core
Outrigger frame building with reduced core.
If the outrigger frame building in utilizes recently developed
elevator technology, the elevator footprint area within
structural core decreases. This version is named as reduced
core building as demonstrated. In this case, two parameters
of primary core building with outrigger frame system change
while the other two remains the same
Floor plan (left) and elevation (right) of outriggered frame building
with reduced core
Framed-tube building with primary core.
● 36 columns are placed in a typical floor plan with equal spacing
since the spacing between column axes of framed-tube building
should be between 1.5 meter to 4.5 meter. In framed-tube buildings,
the columns are used with deep spandrel beams.
● The beam dimensions are identified with the same dimensions of
columns as in the case of several real buildings. The floor plan of the
generic building with primary core is demonstrated
. Floor plan (left) and elevation (right) of framed-tube building with primary
core
Core positions can be classified into three types:-
● Central core
● Exterior core
● Double core

Central core
Advantage:
● It allows all window space to be utilized as rental office space. ii.Permits
offices to varying depth to receive natural light.
● It is suitable in terms of access and in some cases may be equidistant from
all sides. iv.Simplifies area division.
Disadvantage:
● The central interior location limits the depth of the offices.
● It requires an access corridor around its perimeter.
● Some examples of the central core: Equitable Building Place Victoria office
Tower Alcoa Building etc

Central Core
Exterior core
Advantages:
● It leaves the entire floor area of the building available for tenant use. The core does not
complicate the floor plan either functionally of structurally.
● Maximum flexibility is achieved with respect to tenant distribution of office depth and plan
layout.
Disadvantages:
● In case of multi-tenant occupancy, the core requires a long access corridor thus the flexibility
of tenant distribution is reduced.
● The core occupied desirable window spaces, so that, the offices immediately adjacent to the Exterior Core

core may not receive any natural light.

Double core
Advantage:
● The double cores are placed on the hot sides (east, west) thus, provide buffer zones, and
minimum air-conditioning is required.
● The window openings run through north and south. Lift lobbies, stairways and toilets are
naturally ventilated and a view out is possible.
● The double core has more flexibility in floor area division.
Disadvantages:
If the building is not that big, then it becomes costly. Some examples of the central core: One first
Double Core
national plaza Overseas Chinese Bank etc.
Floor to Floor Height Considerations
● According to the building safety regulations, a refuge area at every 7th
habitable floor should be constructed for the initial 24 m of a high rise
building. The refuge area must be constructed at the floor level, within
the building line.
● The stringent rules that states buildings above 30 meters (nine floors) are
categorized as high rise structures. For such buildings, the terrace space
will be used as refuge area.
● Every basement shall be in every part at least 2.5 m. in height from the
floor to underside of the roof slab or ceiling and with maximum height
not more than 4.5 m.
● Roof tanks and their supports not exceeding 1.0 m. in height, ventilating,
air conditioning and lift rooms and similar service equipments, stair
covered with Mumty not exceeding 3.00 m. in height.
● Chimneys and parapet wall and architectural features not exceeding
1.50 m. in height unless the aggregate area of such structures exceeds
1/3 of the roof area of the building on which they are erected.
 BASEMENTS

● Each basement shall be separately ventilated.

● Vents with cross-sectional area (aggregate) not less than 2.5 percent
of the floor area spread evenly round the perimeter of the basement
shall be provided in the form of grills, or breakable stallboard lights or
pavement lights or by way of shafts.
● Alternatively, a system of air inlets shall be provided at basement floor
level and smoke outlets at basement ceiling level.Ducts to convey
fresh air to the basement floor level have to be laid.
● The staircase of basements shall be of enclosed type having fire
resistance of not less than 2 h and shall be situated at the periphery of
the basement to be entered at ground level only from the open air
Basement
and in such positions that smoke from any fire in the basement shall
not obstruct any exit serving the ground and upper stores of the
building and shall communicate with basement through a lobby
provided with fire resisting self closing doors of 1 h resistance.
COLUMNS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

MATERIAL - reinforced concrete, structural steel, or a composite SHAPE - Square/round columns are
of both. preferred in high rise construction.

● Concrete has the advantage of offering some fire SIZE - cross section is normally reduced
resistance capacity without further protection. as the floors go up.
● Steel has the advantage of carrying more load than
concrete at equal section, and it is easy to install and to SPAN - The maximum span depends on
connect. the load-bearing capacity of the
● Composite columns (steel tubes filled with concrete, or columns and the capacity of the
any steel sections encased in concrete) are difficult to beams and/or girders between the
design and to install but provide best of both materials columns.
Interior columns- Can be eliminated,
supposedly the entire load is carried by
the periphery columns, leading to a
thin structure.

COMPOSITE COLUMN EXAMPLES

 COLUMN AND WALL RELATIONSHIP

● The frame and the load bearing wall are first considered in relation to high-rise
construction, followed by a consideration of the factors relevant to the choice
of an appropriate structure.

● In a framed structure, the wall being relieved of its load bearing function, it is
possible to fulfil the enclosing functions by forms of construction more suited
to the purpose than heavy load bearing walls, and to provide a structure
lighter in weight and often more quickly erected.
● In the case of taller buildings with suitable plan forms, such as some types of
flat blocks, the wall used as a load bearing element can again be a more
economical structure than a frame.
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS:

Foundations
The foundations of high-rise buildings support very heavy loads, but the systems developed for low-rise
buildings are used, though enlarged in scale. Bearing piles and floating foundations are also used.

Wind loads
● Maximum 100-year-interval wind forces differ considerably with location; in the interiors of
continents they are typically about 100 kilograms per square metre at ground level.
● In coastal areas, where cyclonic storms occur, maximum forces are higher, ranging upward
from about 250 kilograms per square metre

Earthquake loads
Earthquake or seismic forces, unlike wind forces, are generally confined to relatively small areas, RETAINING WALL
primarily along the edges of the slowly moving continental plates that form the Earth’s crust.

SEISMIC FORCE
WIND LOAD
1.Thermal Expansion
● Variations in the temperature of a structure can result in thermal movements of its constituent parts. Most building materials will expand
with rises in temperature caused (in most cases) by solar heat gains.
● Different materials are likely to have different rates of thermal expansion. It is possible for variations to exist even among samples of the
same material.
● The degree to which solid materials expand as a result of temperature change is expressed by their coefficient of linear thermal
expansion (CLTE).
● Variations in temperature – i.e between a hot summer’s day and a cold winter’s night – can be as much as 30°C. This can induce strain
and damage a building.
● When materials are restrained excessively and cannot expand, the release of built-up internal stresses can result in cracking, bowing,
buckling and other forms of deformation.

THERMAL EXPANSION IN
STEEL
SOLUTIONS-

● One of the most useful and widespread thermally resistive material is the concrete
that is used during the construction of buildings and homes. Building with materials
that have a high thermal resistance can dramatically increase the energy savings
and in turn the economic savings for the future owner of that building.

● Cement is composed of a mixture of sand, gravel, broken stone and water. Cement
rarely has a uniform composition and particle sizes vary throughout the mixture.
Combining MP(Magnetite Powder) into cement mixture is one example of integrating
production waste into a common material to help improve some of its physical and
chemical properties that will increase strength and energy efficiency but keep the
thermal resistance of cement high as well.

● Use of Forged steel, an alloy of carbon and iron that is compressed under extreme
pressure to make a very hard and strong substance. It is very durable and resistant to
changes in temperature and any other environmental forces.
FORGED STEEL
2.Contractions
In concrete structures -
● Materials expand or contract when subjected to changes in temperature. Most
materials expand when they are heated, and contract when they are cooled.
● Thermal contraction on the concrete’s surface without a corresponding change in its
interior temperature will cause a thermal differential and potentially lead to
cracking.
● Temperature changes that result in shortening will crack concrete members that are
held in place or restrained by another part of the structure, internal reinforcement or
by the ground. For example, a long restrained concrete section is allowed to drop in
temperature.
● As the temperature drops, the concrete tends to shorten, but cannot as it is
restrained along its base length. This causes the concrete to be stressed, and
eventually crack.
In steel structures-
● Heat causes metals to expand; cooling causes them to contract. Therefore, uneven
heating causes uneven expansion, and uneven cooling causes uneven contraction.
JOINTS
● Under such conditions, stresses are set up within the metal. These forces must be
relieved, and unless precautions are taken, warping or buckling of the metal takes
place.
SOLUTIONS-
Creating joints will help to prevent contractions in the structural elements of the building:

● A contraction joint is formed, sawed, or tooled groove in a concrete structure to create a weakened plane to regulate the location
of cracking resulting from the dimensional change of different parts of the structure.

● An isolation joint is a separation between adjacent sections of a concrete structure to allow relative movement in three directions
and through which all of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted.

● An expansion joint in a concrete structure is a separation provided between adjacent sections to allow movement due to
dimensional increases and reductions of the adjacent sections and through which some or all of the bonded reinforcement is
interrupted. In pavements slabs on ground it is a separation between slabs filled with a compressible filler material.

● A construction joint is the interface between concrete placements intentionally created to facilitate construction.

● A cold joint is a joint or discontinuity resulting from a delay in placement of sufficient duration to preclude intermingling and
bonding of the material, or where mortar or plaster rejoin or meet.
3.Moisture effects
In concrete structures -
● Increased moisture levels reduce the concrete’s compressive strength and durability.
● As concrete’s surface area increases, particularly with the addition of fine aggregates, so
does the demand for water. The increased water leads to a higher water-to-cement ratio.
● When excess water creates greater spaces between aggregate materials, the voids fill with
air after the moisture evaporates.
● The resulting inadequate compaction reduces the concrete’s strength.

In steel structures- CRACKS DUE TO MOISTURE IN CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
● The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the
simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen.
● Essentially, the iron in the steel is oxidised to produce rust, which occupies approximately six
times the volume of the original material. The rate at which the corrosion process
progresses depends on a number of factors, but principally the 'micro-climate' immediately
surrounding the structure.The sum of these reactions can be represented by the following
equation:
Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O = 2Fe2O3H2O
(Steel) + (Oxygen) + (Water) = Hydrated ferric oxide (Rust)

RUSTING DUE TO MOISTURE IN STEEL

STRUCTURES
SOLUTIONS-
In concrete structures
● A Low-permeance vapor Barrier or retarder can effectively keep below-slab moisture from reaching the flooring system. In this
technique, a layer of sand with certain thickness is placed, after that, a strong and highly durable plastic such as polyethylene is
laid, then another layer of sand is installed above the plastic sheet. After that, the construction of concrete floor can be carried out.
Any material used below slab to prevent the movement of moisture from ground into slab fall in this category of moisture prevention
method.
● Keep below grade excavations free of water to prevent potential reservoirs of moisture that can migrate upward through slabs.
Excessive moisture below concrete slabs can cause structural degradation of soil bearing strengths, and swelling and shrinkage of
soil. These can adversely affect a concrete slab on grade.
● Use damping agents, the damping agent creates an impermeable layer and hence keep moisture in concrete slab.

In steel structures
● Applying multiple layers of rust-inhibiting primer. Here’s possibly the most important of the measures one can take to prevent the
onslaught of corrosion. Also, this is certainly a job that’s best left to a professional, since they know the remedy for removing the rust
that already exists on your steel structure. After removing the rust that has developed on the structure, the professional will proceed
to add the protective coating imperative for the long-term well-being of your steel structure.
● It’s easy for the excess moisture to escape from insulation and blend with oxygen. This speeds up the process of corrosion. The
solution is an installation with a radiant barrier, which is capable of reducing heat transfer that ultimately leads to condensation.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

The types of structures used for high-rise buildings must meet the lateral load
performance criteria outlined above, and they must be reasonably efficient in the
use of material and of reasonable cost. The most efficient high-rise structure would
meet the lateral load criteria using no more material than would be required for
carrying the building gravity load alone.

Structural types
Classified into two groups:
1. Those subject to bending, which have both tensile and compressive forces
2. Funicular structures, which experience either pure tension or pure
compression.
Timber structures
● Glue-laminated timber can be used as a long-span material.
● It can be prefabricated using metal connectors into trusses that span up to
45 metres (150 feet).

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Steel structures
● Bending structures originally developed for bridges, such as plate girders and trusses
● Plate girders are welded from steel plates to make I beams that can span up to 60 metres (200 feet).

Concrete structures
● its inherent strength in compression, is primarily used for long spans in funicular compression forms, including vaults, shells, and domes.
● Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up to about 90 metres (300 feet).

Environmental control systems

● Atmosphere systems in long-span buildings must handle the considerable heat and odour generation from population densities of less
than one square metre (11 square feet) per person.
● Air must be moved fairly rapidly through the population zone to maintain an acceptable air-change rate.

Concrete system
 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

1.Braced frame structural system 2. Rigid frame structural system 3. Wall-frame system 4. Shear wall system
(Dual system)

5. Core and outrigger structural system 6. Infilled frame structural system 7. Flat plate and flat slab structural system
8. Tube structural system 9. Coupled wall system 10. Hybrid structural system

11. Diagrid structural system 12. Space truss structural system

INTERIOR STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

1. Braced frame structural system

● Braced frames are cantilevered vertical trusses resisting lateral loads primarily
diagonal.
● Members that together with the girders, form the “web” of the vertical truss,
with the columns acting as the “chords”.
● Bracing members eliminate bending in beams and columns.
● Used in steel construction.
● Suitable for multistory building in the low to mid height range.
● Efficient and economical for enhancing the lateral stiffness and resistance of
rigid frame system.
● Permits the use of slender members in a building.

Advantage: It can be repetitive up the height of the building with obvious

economy in design and fabrication.

Disadvantage: It might obstruct internal planning and the location of doors

and windows. That is why it shall be incorporated internally along with lines of
walls and partitions.
Braced frame structural system
2. Rigid frame structural system

● Beams and columns are constructed monolithically to withstand moments

imposed due to loads.
● The lateral stiffness of a rigid frame depends on the bending stiffness of the
columns, girders and connections in-plane.
● Suitable for reinforced concrete buildings.
● Used in steel construction as well, but the connections will be costly.
● Members of rigid frame system withstand bending moment, shear force, and
axial loads.
● 20 to 25 storey buildings can be constructed using rigid frame system.
● Maximum beam span is 12.2m and larger span beams would suffer lateral
deflection.
● Example: Burj Al Khalifa, the tallest structure in the world is constructed using
rigid frame system.

Advantage: Likelihood of planning and fitting of windows due to open

rectangular arrangement, ease of construction, labors can learn construction
skills easily, construct rapidly, and can be designed economically.
Rigid frame structural system
Disadvantage: The self-weight is resisted by the action from rigid frames.
3. Wall-frame system (dual system)

● Consists of wall and frame that interact horizontally to provide stronger and
stiffer system.
● The walls are usually solid (not perforated by openings) and they can be
found around the stairwells, elevator shafts, and/or at the perimeter of the
building.
● The walls may have a positive effect on the performance of the frames
such as by preventing a soft storey collapse.
● Suitable for buildings with storey number ranges from 40 - 60 storey which is
greater than that of shear or rigid frame separately.
● Advantage: Horizontal interaction. Wall-frame system

4. Shear wall system

● Continuous vertical wall constructed from reinforced concrete or masonry wall.

● Shear walls withstand both gravity and lateral loads, and it acts as narrow deep
cantilever beam.
● Commonly, constructed as a core of buildings.
● Highly suitable for bracing tall buildings either reinforced concrete or steel
structure because shear walls have substantial in plane stiffness and strength.
● Use: for hotel and residential buildings where the floor-by floor repetitive
planning allows the walls to be vertically continuous. Serves as excellent
acoustic and fire insulators between rooms and apartments.
Shear wall system
5. Core and outrigger structural system

● Outrigger are rigid horizontal structures designed to improve building

overturning stiffness and strength by connecting the core or spine to closely
spaced outer columns.
The central core contains shear walls or braced frames.
● Functions by tying together two structural systems (core system and a
perimeter system), and render the building to behave nearly as composite
cantilever.
● The outriggers are in form of walls in reinforced concrete building and
trusses in steel structures.
● Multilevel outrigger systems can provide up to five times the moment
Core and Outrigger structural system
resistance of a single outrigger system.
● Used for buildings up to 70 stories.
● Declines building deformations resulting from the overturning moments and
also greater efficiency is achieved in resisting forces.
6. Infilled frame structural system

● Consists of beam and column framework that some of the bays infilled with
masonry, reinforced concrete, or block walls.
● Infill walls can be part-height or completely fill the Frame. The walls may or
may not be connected to the Formwork.
● Great in plane stiffness and strength of the walls prevent bending of beams
and columns under horizontal loads. As a result, frame structural
performance will be improved.
● It can build up to 30 storey buildings.
Infilled frame structural system
7. Flat plate and Flat slab structural system

● Consists of slabs (flat or plate) connected to columns (without the use of beams).
● Flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of
uniform thickness, the simplest of structural shapes.
● The flat slab is a two-way reinforced structural system that includes either drop
panels or column capitals at columns to resist heavier loads and thus permit longer
spans.
● Lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of the components and their
connections, with the slab corresponding to the girder of the rigid frame.
Flat plate and flat slab structural system
● Suitable for building up to 25 stories.
8. Tube Structural system

● Consists of exterior columns and beams that create rigid frame, and
interior part of the system is simple frame designed to support gravity
loads.
● The building behaves like equivalent hollow tube.
● It is substantially economic and need half of material required for the
construction of ordinary framed buildings.
● Lateral loads are resisted by various connections, rigid or semi-rigid,
supplemented where necessary by bracing and truss elements.
● Used for the construction of buildings up to 60 storeys.
● Types of tube structure system include framed tube system, trussed
tube system , bundled tube system and tube in tube system.
● Trussed tube system is formed when external bracing added to make a
structure stiffer. This structure type suitable for building up to 100 storeys.
Tube structural system
● Bundled tube system consists of connected tubes and it withstand
massive loads.
9. Coupled wall system

● Composed of two or more interconnected shear walls.

● Shear walls connected at the floor levels by beam or stiff slabs.
● Stiffness of the whole system is far greater than that of its components.
● The effect of the shear-resistant connecting members is to cause the sets of
walls to behave in their partly as a composite cantilever, bending about the
common centroidal axis of the walls.
● Suitable for buildings up to 40 storey height.
● Since planer shear walls support loads in their plane only, walls in two
orthogonal directions need to withstand lateral loads in two directions.

Coupled wall system

10. Hybrid structural system

● Combination of two or more of basic structural forms either by direct

combination or by adopting different forms in different parts of the structure.
● Lacks of torsional stiffness requires that additional measures be taken, which
resulted in one bay vertical exterior bracing and a number of levels of perimeter
vierendeel “Bandages”.
● Used for the buildings of as high as 300m.
● According to chinese code (JGJ3-2002), hybrid system can be used for the
Construction of buildings with maximum 150m height in seismic regions. Hybrid structural system
EXTERIOR STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

11. Diagrid System

● Emerging as a new aesthetic trend for tall buildings in this era of pluralistic
styles.
● Early designs of tall buildings recognized the effectiveness of diagonal
bracing members in resisting lateral forces.
● Most of the structural systems deployed for early tall buildings were steel
frames with diagonal bracings of various configurations such as X, K, and
chevron.

Advantage: Efficiently resists lateral shear by axial forces in the diagonal

members. Structural efficiency of diagrid system helps in avoiding interior
and corner columns, therefore allowing significant flexibility with the floor
plan.
Disadvantage: Have Complicated joints.

Diagrid system
12. Space Truss
● Rigid, lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a
geometric pattern.
● Space truss structures are modified braced tubes with diagonals connecting
the exterior to interior.
● In a typical braced tube structure, all the diagonals, which connect the chord
members – vertical corner columns in general, are located on the plane
parallel to the facades. However, in space trusses, some diagonals penetrate
the interior of the building.
Space truss in Bank of China tower

13. Exoskeleton structure

● Lateral load-resisting systems are placed outside the building lines away from
their facades.
● Due to the system’s compositional characteristics, it acts as a primary building
identifier – one of the major roles of building facades in general cases.
● Fire proofing of the system is not a serious issue due to its location outside the
building line.

Exoskeleton in Office building, Dubai

EXAMPLE: BURJ KHALIFA, DUBAI

The world’s tallest building.828m tall

Time span:- 6 years , 4th Jan 2010
Construction :- Reinforced concrete tower structure.
Location:- Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
The tower comprises 2,80,000 m2 area with 160 + storey tower.
Concrete Used = 250000 cubic meter Mat foundation

Curtain Walls = 83,600 sq.m of glass and 27,900 sq.m of metal

Steel Rebars Used = 39,000 tones
Man-Hours = 22 million man-hours
Concrete structure

Structural Components Of Burj Khalifa:

● The superstructure is supported by a large reinforced concrete mat, which is in turn

supported by bored reinforced concrete piles.
● The design was based on extensive geotechnical and seismic studies.
● The mat is 3.7 metres thick and was constructed in four separate pours totaling 12,500
cubic meters of concrete.
● The 1.5-metre diameter x 43 meter long piles represent the largest and longest piles
conventionally available in the region. A high density, low permeability concrete was
used in the foundations, as well as a cathodic protection system under the mat, to
minimize any detrimental effects from corrosive chemicals in local groundwater. Stage-4 construction
Podium -
● The podium provides a base, anchoring the tower to the ground, allowing on grade
access from three different sides to three different levels of the building.
● Fully glazed entry pavilions constructed with a suspended cable-net structure provide
separate entries for the Corporate Suites at B1 and Concourse Levels, the Burj Khalifa
residences at Ground Level and the Armani Hotel at Level 1.
Exterior Cladding -
● The exterior cladding is comprised of reflective glazing with aluminum and textured
stainless steel spandrel panels and stainless steel vertical tubular fins. Entrance

● Close to 26,000 glass panels, each individually hand-cut, were used in the exterior
cladding. Over 300 cladding specialists from China were brought in for the cladding
work on the tower.
● The cladding system is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer heat and to
ensure its integrity further, a World War II aeroplane engine was used for dynamic wind
and water testing.
Mechanical Floors -
● Seven double-storey height mechanical floors house the equipment that brings Burj
Khalifa to life. Glass facade
● Distributed throughout the 30 storeys, the mechanical floors house the electrical
1, Aluminium vertical mullion 2. Clear
Cladding system detail
substations, water tanks and pumps, air-handling units and other components that are reflective insulating glass 3. Stainless
steel vertical fin 4. Horizontal spandrel
essential for the operation of the tower and the comfort of its occupants. panel 5. Concrete slab
Window Washing Bays -
● Access for the tower's exterior for both window washing and façade maintenance
is provided by 18 permanently installed track and fixed telescopic, cradle
equipped, building maintenance units.
● The track-mounted units are stored in garages, within the structure, and are not
visible when not in use.
● The manned cradles are capable of accessing the entire facade from tower top
down to level seven.
● The building maintenance units jib arms when fully extended will have a maximum
reach of 36 meters with an overall length of approximately 45 meters.

Mechanical, Electrical & Plumbing -

● In order to achieve the greatest efficiency, the mechanical, electrical and
plumbing services for Burj Khalifa were developed in coordination during the
design phase with the cooperation of the architect, structural engineer and other
consultants.
● The tower's water system supplies an average of 946,000 litres (250,000 gallons) of
water daily
● At peak cooling, Burj Khalifa will require about 10,000 tons of cooling, equal to the
cooling capacity provided by about 10,000 tons of melting ice
Fire Safety -
● Fire safety and speed of evacuation were prime factors in the design of Burj
Khalifa.
● Concrete surrounds all stairwells and the building service and fireman's
elevator will have a capacity of 5,500 kg and will be the world's tallest service
elevator.
● Since people can't reasonably be expected to walk down 160 floors, there
are pressurized, air-conditioned refuge areas located approximately every 25
floors. Fire safety plan

Elevators & Lifts -

● Burj Khalifa will be home to 57 elevators and 8 escalators The building
service/fireman's elevator will have a capacity of 5,500 kg and will be the
world's tallest service elevator.
● Burj Khalifa will be the first mega-high rise in which certain elevators will be
programmed to permit controlled evacuation for certain fire or security
events.
● Burj Khalifa Observatory elevators are double-deck cabs with a capacity for
12-14 people per cab. Travelling at 10 metres per second, they will have the
world's longest travel distance from lowest to highest stop.
THANK YOU!