Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G.

Sumawang, Phdc 1

Northern Luzon Adventist College

Artacho, Sison, Pangasinan

B.S. Psychology Program

Educational Psychology PSYE1

MODULE 6: Learning Packet: Readings 1 -3

Individual Variations

About this module

How this module is structured:
Course Protocol: Read and subscribe to the directives stated in this module. Study the
materials uploaded to the LMS or Google Classroom and other platforms as suggested by
your course facilitator. Matters of clarification on course-related issues can be
communicated with your course facilitator via Facebook, messenger, email, mobile
phone, and other modes of communication preferred by the student.
Overview of the Module: Intelligence is but one of several main topics in this module.
We also will examine learning and thinking styles, as well as personality and
temperament. For each of these topics, an important theme is students’ individual
variations and the best strategies for teachers to use related to these variations.
Test Yourself: Short tests or activities which you can complete in your own time and at
your own pace, to check or extend your understanding of particular topics. It is highly
recommended that you complete these when suggested, and if you find them difficult or
still don’t understand particular concepts afterwards, re-read the topic covered and try
again. Mastering the essential core concepts covered is a necessity.
Activity: Activities which take place, either as an individual task or as a group activity
with fellow students on your course. For some of the activities, you will receive feedback
from your course facilitator; and these therefore become an important way for you to
check and extend your understanding of the topics covered.

“The very essence of the creative is its novelty, and hence we have no standard by which to
judge it. ”
-- Carl Rogers --

“Creativity is a characteristic given to all human beings at birth.”

-- Abraham Maslow --

I. INTRODUCTION
In this module, You will see that there is spirited debate about whether
people have a general intelligence or a number of specific intelligences. Intelligence is
but one of several main topics in this module. We also will examine learning and
thinking styles, as well as personality and temperament. For each of these topics, an
important theme is students’ individual variations and the best strategies for teachers to
use related to these variations.
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 2

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module you should be able to:
1. Discuss what intelligence is, how it is measured, theories of multiple
intelligence, and some controversies and issues about its use for educators;
2. Describe learning and thinking styles;
3. Characterize the nature of personality and temperament.

III. INTEGRATION OF FAITH AND LEARNING/VALUES

1 Corinthians 5:10 “But by the grace of God I am what I am: and his grace which
was bestowed on me was not in vain”… Apostle Paul knew himself. He did not ignore
self. In his life, as a man and an apostle, he took the proportions of his own personality,
and at the same time confessed that all the operative grace came from God. The "I"
within him was regenerated.
I. EVERY MAN MUST RECOGNISE HIS OWN INDIVIDUALITY. Some say that this
is an intuition, and others say that it is a conviction which comes with experience. But to
us the constituent elements in self are more important. Though there is a generic
likeness among men, yet each person has his own individuality. One is calm, another
explosive; one logical, another intuitional; one prosaic, another poetic.
II. REGENERATION DOES NOT DESTROY THIS INDIVIDUALITY. If Christ be in
you, you are "a new creature." Your features are the same, though sweetened or calmed,
perhaps, by the peace of God; your intellect is the same, though quickened by the new
life of faith and hope. If cheerful, you are still cheerful; and if born with tendencies to
melancholy, you will still contend with the temptation to despondency. Peter was Peter
to the last. The same vehemency that Paul the persecutor exhibited was shown in Paul
the apostle. In the annual regeneration of the visible creation, in the plumage and song
of the bird, and in the renewing verdure of field and garden, we see pictured the unity
yet beautiful variety which prevails in the world which God has made.

IV. TOPIC/ SUGGESTED READINGS

Timing

Time Commitment for this Module

Reading Materials Approximately (15 minutes)
Video Materials N/A
Activities See page 10
Reflection/Feedback See page 10
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 3

Pretest (not applicable in this module)

Test your knowledge/understanding of the topic before you start (this will help you
where to focus your efforts). Check the web link below for the online quiz/ survey/
exercise. Web link:

Learning Packet: Reading 1

6.1 Intelligence
Intelligence is one of our most prized possessions. However, even the most
intelligent people have not been able to agree on how to define and measure the
concept of intelligence.
What is Intelligence? What does the term intelligence mean to psychologists?
Some experts describe intelligence as the ability to solve problems. Others describe it as
the capacity to adapt and learn from experience. Still others argue that intelligence
includes characteristics such as creativity and interpersonal skills.
The primary components of intelligence are similar to the cognitive processes
of memory and thinking that are discussed in other chapters. The differences in how
these cognitive processes are described, and how we will discuss intelligence, lie in the
concepts of individual differences and assessment. Individual differences are the
stable, consistent ways in which people are different from one another. Individual
differences in intelligence generally have been measured by intelligence tests designed
to tell us whether a person can reason better than others who have taken the test. We
will use as our definition of intelligence the ability to solve problems and to adapt and
learn from experiences. But even this broad definition doesn’t satisfy everyone.
Intelligence Tests. The two main intelligence tests that are administered to
children on an individual basis today are the Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler
scales. As you will see next, an early version of the Binet was the first intelligence test
that was created.
The Binet Tests. In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist
Alfred Binet to devise a method of identifying children who were unable to learn in
school. School officials wanted to reduce crowding by placing in special schools students
who would not benefit from regular classroom teaching. Binet and his student Theophile
Simon developed an intelligence test to meet this request. The test is called the 1905
Scale. It consisted of 30 questions, ranging from the ability to touch one’s ear to the
abilities to draw designs from memory and define abstract concepts. The Binet test has
been revised many times to incorporate advances in the understanding of intelligence
and intelligence testing. These revisions are called the Stanford-Binet tests (because
the revisions were made at Stanford University). The Stanford-Binet continues to be
one of the most widely used tests to assess students’ intelligence.
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 4

The Wechsler Scales. Another set of tests widely used to assess students’
intelligence is called the Wechsler scales, developed by psychologist David Wechsler.
They include the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–Fourth Edition
(WPPSI-IV) to test children from 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months of age; the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition (WISC-V) for children and
adolescents 6 to 16 years of age; and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth
Edition (WAIS-IV).
Group Intelligence Tests. Students also may be given an intelligence test in a
group setting. Group intelligence tests include the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests
and the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT). Group intelligence tests are more
convenient and economical than individual tests, but they do have their drawbacks.
When a test is given to a large group, the examiner cannot establish rapport, determine
the student’s level of anxiety, and so on. In a large-group testing situation, students
might not understand the instructions or might be distracted by other students.
Theories of Multiple Intelligences. Is it more appropriate to think of a student’s
intelligence as a general ability or as a number of specific abilities? Psychologists have
thought about this question since early in the twentieth century and continue to debate
the issue.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory. According to Robert J. Sternberg’s (2016)
triarchic theory of intelligence, intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative,
and practical. Analytical intelligence involves the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate,
compare, and contrast. Creative intelligence consists of the ability to create, design,
invent, originate, and imagine. Practical intelligence focuses on the ability to use,
apply, implement, and put into practice.
Sternberg stresses that few tasks are purely analytic, creative, or practical.
Most tasks require some combination of these skills. For example, when students write a
book report, they might analyze the book’s main themes, generate new ideas about
how the book could have been written better, and think about how the book’s themes
can be applied to people’s lives. Sternberg argues that it is important for classroom
instruction to give students opportunities to learn through all three types of intelligence.
Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind. Howard Gardner (2002) argues that there
are many specific types of intelligence, or frames of mind. They are described here along
with examples of the occupations in which they are reflected as strengths:
∙ Verbal skills: The ability to think in words and to use language to express
meaning (authors, journalists, speakers)
∙ Mathematical skills: The ability to carry out mathematical operations
(scientists, engineers, accountants)
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 5

∙ Spatial skills: The ability to think three-dimensionally (architects, artists,

sailors)
∙ Bodily-kinesthetic skills: The ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept (surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes)
∙ Musical skills: A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone (composers,
musicians, and music therapists)
∙ Intrapersonal skills: The ability to understand oneself and effectively direct
one’s life (theologians, psychologists)
∙ Interpersonal skills: The ability to understand and effectively interact with
others (successful teachers, mental health professionals)
∙ Naturalist skills: The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand
natural and human-made systems (farmers, botanists, ecologists,
landscapers)
Gardner argues that each form of intelligence can be destroyed by a different
pattern of brain damage, that each involves unique cognitive skills, and that each shows
up in unique ways in both the gifted and idiot savants (individuals who have an
intellectual disability but also have an exceptional talent in a particular domain, such as
drawing, music, or numerical computation).
Emotional Intelligence. Both Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories include one
or more categories related to the ability to understand oneself and other and to get
along in the world. In Gardner’s theory, the categories are interpersonal intelligence
and intrapersonal intelligence; in Sternberg’s theory, practical intelligence. Other
theorists who emphasize interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects of
intelligence focus on what is called emotional intelligence, which was popularized by
Daniel Goleman (1995) in his book Emotional Intelligence. A recent study revealed
that emotional intelligence abilities were linked to academic achievement above and
beyond cognitive and personality factors (Lanciano & Curci, 2014). However, critics
argue that emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence too far and has
not been adequately assessed and researched
Controversies and Issues in Intelligence. The topic of intelligence is surrounded
by controversy. Is nature or nurture more important in determining intelligence? Are
intelligence tests culturally biased? Should IQ tests be used to place children in
particular schooling tracks?
Nature and Nurture. The nature-nurture issue involves the debate about
whether development is primarily influenced by nature or by nurture. Nature refers to
a person’s biological inheritance, nurture to environmental experiences.
Cultural Bias and Culture-Fair Tests. Many of the early tests of intelligence
were culturally biased, favoring urban children over rural children, children from
middle-income families over children from low-income families, and White
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 6

children over minority children. The standards for the early tests were almost
exclusively based on non-Latino White, middle-socioeconomic-status children.
Contemporary intelligence tests attempt to reduce such cultural bias.
Between-Class Ability Grouping (Tracking) Between-class ability
grouping ( tracking). consists of grouping students based on their ability or
achievement. Tracking has long been used in schools as a way to organize students,
especially at the secondary level. The positive view of tracking is that it narrows the
range of skill in a group of students, making it easier to teach them. Tracking is said to
prevent less-able students from “holding back” more talented students.

Learning Packet: Reading 2

6.2 Learning and Thinking Styles
Intelligence refers to ability. Learning and thinking styles are not abilities but,
rather, preferred ways of using one’s abilities (Sternberg, 2015). In fact, teachers will tell
you that children approach learning and thinking in an amazing variety of ways.
Teachers themselves also vary in their styles of learning and thinking. None of us has
just a single learning and thinking style; each of us has a profile of many styles.
Individuals vary so much that literally hundreds of learning and thinking styles have
been proposed by educators and psychologists.
Impulsive/reflective styles, also referred to as conceptual tempo, involve a
student’s tendency either to act quickly and impulsively or to take more time to respond
and reflect on the accuracy of an answer. Impulsive students often make more mistakes
than reflective students.
Research on impulsivity/reflection shows that reflective students are more
likely than impulsive students to do well at the following tasks : remembering
structured information; reading comprehension and text interpretation; and problem
solving and decision making.
In thinking about impulsive and reflective styles, keep in mind that although
most children learn better when they are reflective rather than impulsive, some
children are simply fast, accurate learners and decision makers. Reacting quickly is a
bad strategy only if you come up with wrong answers. Also, some reflective children
ruminate forever about problems and have difficulty finishing tasks. Teachers can
encourage these children to retain their reflective orientation but arrive at more timely
solutions.
Deep/surface styles involve how students approach learning materials. Do they
do this in a way that helps them understand the meaning of the materials (deep style)
or as simply what needs to be learned (surface style)? Students who approach learning
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 7

with a surface style fail to tie what they are learning into a larger conceptual
framework. They tend to learn in a passive way, often rotely memorizing information.
Deep learners are more likely to actively construct what they learn and give meaning to
what they need to remember. Thus, deep learners take a constructivist approach to
learning. Deep learners also are more likely to be self-motivated to learn, whereas
surface learners are more likely to be motivated to learn because of external rewards,
such as grades and positive feedback from the teacher.
Optimistic/pessimistic styles involve having either a positive (optimistic) or
negative (pessimistic) outlook on the future. In The Optimistic Child, Martin Seligman
(2007) described how parents, teachers, and coaches can instill optimism in children,
which he argues helps to make them more resilient, less likely to become depressed, and
more likely to succeed academically.
A study of adolescents found that having an optimistic style of thinking
predicted a reduction in suicidal ideation for individuals who had experienced negative
and potentially traumatic life events. Another study revealed that adolescents with an
optimistic thinking style had a lower risk of developing depressive symptoms than their
pessimistic counterparts.

Lerning Packet: Reading 3

6.3 Personality and Temperament
We have seen that it is important to be aware of individual variations in
children’s cognition. It also is important to understand individual variations in their
personality and temperament.
Personality refers to distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that
characterize the way an individual adapts to the world. Think about yourself for a
moment. What is your personality like? Are you outgoing or shy? Considerate or
caring? Friendly or hostile? These are some of the characteristics involved in
personality. How stable are personality traits in adolescence? Some researchers have
found that personality is not as stable in adolescence as in adulthood. The greater
degree of change in personality during adolescence may be linked to the exploration of
new identities.
The “Big Five” Personality Factors. As with intelligence, psychologists are
interested in identifying the main dimensions of personality. Some personality
researchers argue that they have identified the “Big Five” factors of personality, the
“supertraits” thought to describe personality’s main dimensions: openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability).
Notice that if you create an acronym from these trait names, you get the
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 8

word OCEAN.
The Big Five factors can give you a framework for thinking about your
students’ personality traits. Your students will differ in their levels of emotional
stability, extraversion or introversion, open-ness to experience, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness.
Person-Situation Interaction. In discussing learning and thinking styles, we
indicated that a student’s style can vary according to the subject matter the student is
learning or thinking about. The same is true for personality characteristics. According
to the concept of person-situation interaction, the best way to characterize an
individual’s personality is not in terms of personal traits or characteristics alone, but
also in terms of the situation involved.
Suppose you have an extravert and an introvert in your class. According to
the theory of person-situation interaction, you can’t predict which one will show the
best adaptation unless you consider the situation they are in. The theory of person-
situation interaction predicts that the extravert will adapt best when asked to
collaborate with others and that the introvert will adapt best when asked to carry
out tasks independently.
Temperament is a person’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of
responding. Some students are active; others are calm. Some respond warmly to people;
others fuss and fret. Such descriptions involve variations in temperament.
Another way of describing temperament is in terms of predispositions
toward emotional reactivity and self-regulation. Reactivity involves the speed and
intensity with which an individual responds to situations involving positive or negative
emotions. Self-regulation involves the extent to which an individual controls his or her
emotions.
Temperament Classifications Scientists who study temperament seek to
find the best ways to classify temperaments. The most well-known classification was
proposed by Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas (Chess & Thomas, 1977; Thomas &
Chess, 1991). They conclude that there are three basic styles, or clusters, of
temperament:

∙ An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular

routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.

∙ A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular

daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

∙ A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and

displays a low intensity of mood.
Mary Rothbart and John Bates (2006) emphasize that three broad dimensions
Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 9

best represent what researchers have found to characterize the structure of

temperament. Here are descriptions of these three temperament dimensions:
∙ Extraversion/surgency includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and
laughter.
∙ Negative affectivity consists of “fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort.”
These children are easily distressed; they may fret and cry often.
∙ Effortful control (self-regulation) is an important dimension of temperament.
Infants who are high in effortful control show an ability to keep their
arousal from getting too intense and have strategies for soothing
themselves. By contrast, children who are low in effortful control are often
unable to control their arousal; they are easily agitated and become
intensely emotional.
Goodness of Fit. The match between an individual’s temperament and the
environmental demands the individual must cope with, called goodness of fit, can be
important to his or her adjustment. In general, the temperament characteristics of
effortful control, manageability, and agreeableness reduce the effects of adverse
environments, whereas negative emotionality increases their effects.

Suggested Readings and Weblinks

1. Cline, T., Gulliford, A., & Birch, S. (Eds). (2015). Educational psychology: Topics
in applied psychology. (2nd ed). London & New York: Routledge.
2. Gallard, D., & Cartmell, K. M. (2015). Psychology and education. New York, NY:
Routledge.
3. Kalat, J. W. (2019). Biological psychology.(13th ed). Bostion, MA: Cengage
Learning Inc.
4. McInerney, D. M. & Putwain, D. W. (2017). Developmental and educational
psychology for teachers: An applied approach. (2nd ed). London & New York:
Routledge.
5. Ormrod, J. E. (2016). Human learning. (7th ed). Essex, England: Pearson
Education Limited.
6. Ormrod, J. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Big ideas to guide effective
teaching. (4th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Educationa, Inc.
7. Santrock, J. W. (2018). Educational psychology: Theory and application to fitness
and performance. (6th ed). New York, NY: Mc Graw-Hill Education.
8. Slavin, R. E. (2018). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. (12th ed). New
York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.
9. Woodward, J. E. & Gills, J. P. (2012). The mysterious genome: What lies beyond
DNA. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications.

Post-test (not applicable)

V. ACTIVITIES (Check your LMS)

Course: Educational Psychology PSYE1 Course Facilitator: Alvin G. Sumawang, Phdc 10

VI. ASSESSMENT (Check your LMS)

VII. FEEDBACK (Check your LMS)