26 - Fluid Transportation

Fluid Transportation
Copyright (c) 2005 - Boyun Guo

11.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on design and

operations of natural gas pipelines in
onshore and offshore fields.

11.2 Pipeline Design
Many factors must be considered in the

design of long-distance gas pipelines.
These include the nature and volume of
the gas to be transmitted, the length of the
line, the type of terrain to be crossed, and
maximum elevation of the route.

11.2.1 Sizing Pipelines
The capacity of gas transmission of a

pipeline is controlled mainly by its size.

11.2.1.1 Definition of Friction Factor
Under steady-state fluid and heat flow

conditions, the conservation of energy
gives the expression for the pressure
gradient due to viscous shear or frictional
losses as (Ikoku 1984; Katz and Lee 1990):

⎛ dp ⎞ d (lw)
⎜ ⎟ ≡ρ
⎝ dL ⎠ f dL (11.1)
where
p = pressure, lbf/ft2
ρ = fluid density, lbm/ft3
lw = mechanical energy (loss of work)
converted to heat, ft-lbf/lbm
L = pipe length, ft

The equation that relates lost work per unit
length of pipe and the flow variables is
(Ikoku 1984; Katz and Lee, 1990):
2
d (lw) fu
= (11.2)
dL 2gc D
where
u = flow velocity, ft/sec
gc = gravitational conversion factor =
32.17 lbm ft/lbf
D = pipe diameter, ft
f = Moody friction factor
Substituting equation (11.2) into equation
(11.1) gives:
⎛ ⎞
dp f ρ u 2
⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dL ⎠ f 2 g c D (11.3)
A similar equation, using the Fanning
fraction factor, f’, is
⎛ dp ⎞ 2 f ' ρu 2
⎜ ⎟ = (11.4)
⎝ dL ⎠ f gc D

11.2.1.2 Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number can be expressed as

a dimensionless group defined as:
Duρ
N Re = (11.5)
Where
μ
D = pipe ID, ft
u = fluid velocity, f/sec
ρ = fluid density, lbm/ft3
μ = fluid viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
If U.S. field units of ft for diameter, ft/sec
for velocity, lbm/ft3 for density and
centipoises for viscosity are used, the
Reynolds number equation becomes
Duρ
N Re = 1,488 (11.6)
μ

If a gas of specific gravity γg and viscosity
μ (cp) is flowing in a pipe with an inner
diameter D (in.) at flow rate q (Mcfd)
measured at base conditions of (oR) and
(psia), the Reynolds number can be
expressed as:
711 pb qγ g
N Re = (11.7)
Tb Dμ

For all practical purposes, the Reynolds number
for natural gas flow problems may be expressed
as:
20qγ g
N Re =
μD (11.8)
where
q = gas flow rate at 60 oF and 14.73 psia, Mcfd
γ g = gas-specific gravity (air = 1)
μ = gas viscosity at in-situ temperature and
pressure, cp
D = pipe diameter, in
11.2.1.3 Relative Roughness
Relative roughness, eD, is defined as the ratio

of the absolute roughness to the pipe internal
diameter:
ε
eD =
D (11.9)

11.2.1.4 Equations for Friction
Factor
Fluid flow ranges in nature between two
extremes: laminar or streamline flow and
turbulent flow.
Figure 11.1 is a Moody friction factor chart
covering the full range of flow conditions.

0.1
Relative Roughness
0.09 0
0.000001
0.08 Turbulent Flow 0.000005
0.00001
0.07 0.00005
0.0001
Friction Factor
0.0002
0.06
0.0004
0.0006
0.05
0.001
0.002
0.04
0.004
0.006
0.03
Laminar 0.01
Flow 0.015
0.02 0.02
0.03
0.01 0.04
0.05
0
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08
Reynolds Number
Figure 11.1 Moody friction factor chart (after Moody 1944).

11.2.1.4.1 Laminar Single-Phase
Flow
The friction factor for laminar flow can be
determined analytically. The Hagen-
Poiseuille equation for laminar flow is
⎛ dp ⎞ 32μu
⎜ ⎟ = (11.10)
⎝ ⎠ f gc D
2
dL

Equating the frictional pressure gradients
given by equations (11.3) and (11.10)
gives
fρu 2 32 μu
=
2gc D gc D 2 (11.11)
which yields
64 μ 64
f = =
duρ N Re (11.12)

11.2.1.4.2 Turbulent Single-Phase
Flow
For smooth wall pipes in the turbulent flow
region, Drew, Koo, and McAdams (1930)
presented the most commonly used
correlation:
0.5
f = 0.0056 + 0.32 (11.13)
N Re

Nikuradse (1933) friction factor correlation
is still the best one available for fully
developed turbulent flow in rough pipes:
= 1.74 − 2 log(2e D )
1
(11.14)
f

The correlation that is used as the basis for
modern friction factor charts was proposed
by Colebrook (1938):
1 ⎛ 18 . 7 ⎞
= 1.74 − 2 log⎜ 2e D + ⎟
⎜ ⎟ (11.15)
f ⎝ N Re f ⎠

An explicit correlation for friction factor
was presented by Jain (1976):
⎛ ⎞
= 1.14 − 2 log⎜ e D + ⎟
1 21 .25
⎜ 0.9 ⎟ (11.16)
f ⎝ N Re ⎠

11.2.1.5 Theoretical Pipeline
Equations
Based on the first law of thermal dynamics,
the total pressure gradient is made up of
three distinct components:
dp g fρu 2 ρudu
= ρ sin θ + + (11.17)
dL g c 2 g c D g c dL

where
g
ρ sin θ is the component due to elevation
gc
or potential energy change;
fρu 2
2g c D
is the component due to frictional
losses; and
ρudu
g c dL is the component due to
acceleration or kinetic energy
change.

Consider steady-state flow of dry gas in a
constant-diameter, horizontal pipeline. The
mechanical energy equation, equation
(11.3), becomes
dp fρu 2 p ( MW ) a fu 2
= = (11.18)
dL 2 g c D zRT 2 g c D

The difference in these equations
originated from the methods used in
handling the z-factor and friction factor.
Integrating equation (11.18) gives
2
( MW ) a fu p
∫ dp = 2 Rg c D ∫ zT dL (11.19)

Equation (11.19) can be evaluated over a
distance L between upstream pressure, p1,
and downstream pressure, p2:
25γ g q T z fL
2
p −p =
2
1
2
2 5 (11.20)
D

where
γ g = gas gravity (air = 1)
q = gas flow rate, MMscfd (at 14.7
psia, 60 oF)
−
= average temperature, oR
T−
z = gas deviation factor at and
−
p = ( p1 + p2)/2
L = pipe length, ft

D = pipe internal diameter, in
F = Moody friction factor
Equation (11.20) may be written in terms

of flow rate measured at arbitrary base
conditions (Tb and pb ):
q=
CTb (p 2
1 )
− p 22 D 5
pb γ g T z fL (11.21)

11.2.1.5.1 Weymouth Equation for
Horizontal Flow
Equation (11.21) takes the following form
when the unit of scfh for gas flow rate is
used:
qh =
3.23Tb 1 (p 2
1 )
− p 22 D 5
pb f γ g T zL (11.22)

If flow conditions are in the fully turbulent
region, equation (11.16) degenerates to
1
f =
[1.14 − 2 log(eD )]2
(11.23)
When flow conditions are not completely
turbulent, f depends on the Reynolds
number also:
0.48q h γ g
N Re ≈
μD (11.24)
To eliminate the trial-and-error procedure,
Weymouth proposed that f vary as a
function of diameter in inches as follows:
0.032
f = 1/ 3 (11.25)
D
With this simplification, equation (11.22)
reduces to
qh =
18.062Tb (p 2
1 )
− p 22 D16 / 3
pb γ g T zL (11.26)
On the other hand, should p1 and p2 lie in
the range where z is not linear with
pressure (double-hatched lines), the
proper average would result from
determining the area under the z-curve
and dividing it by the difference in
pressure:
p2
z=
∫p1
zdp
( p1 − p 2 )
(11.27)
Also, can be evaluated at an average
pressure given by
2 ⎛⎜ p1 − p 2 ⎞
3 3
p= ⎜ 2 ⎟
3 ⎝ p1 − p 2 2 ⎟ (11.28)
⎠

Example Problem 11.1
For the following data given for a

horizontal pipeline, predict gas flow rate in
cu ft/hr through the pipeline.
D = 12.09 in
L = 200 mi
e = 0.0006 in

T = 80 oF
γg = 0.70
Tb = 520 oR
pb = 14.7 psia
p1 = 600 psia
p2 = 200 psia

Solution:
The problem can be solved using equation

(11.22) with the trial-and-error method for
friction factor and the Weymouth equation
without the Reynolds number-dependent
friction factor.
The average pressure is:
p = (200 + 600)/2 = 400 psia

With = 400 psia, T = 540 oR and γg = 0.70,
Brill-Beggs-Z.xls gives:
z = 0.9188
With = 400 psia, T = 540 oR and γg = 0.70,

Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Viscosity.xls gives:
μ = 0.0099 cp
Relative roughness:
eD = 0.0006/12.09 = 0.00005
A. Trial-and-Error Calculation:
First trial:
q h = 500,000 cfh
0.48(500,000)(0.7)
N Re = = 1,403,733
(0.0099)(12.09)

1 ⎛ 21.25 ⎞
⎜
= 1.14 − 2 log 0.00005 + ⎟
⎜ (1, 403, 733) 0.9 ⎟
f ⎝ ⎠
f = 0.01223
qh =
3.23(520) 1 (
600 2 − 200 2 D 5 )
14.7 0.01223 (0.7)(540)(0.9188)(200)
qh = 1,148,450 cfh

Second trial:
qh = 1,148,450 cfh
0.48(1,148,450)(0.7)
N Re = = 3,224,234
(0.0099)(12.09)
1 ⎛ 21.25 ⎞
⎜
= 1.14 − 2 log 0.00005 + ⎟
⎜ (3, 224, 234 ) 0.9 ⎟
f ⎝ ⎠
f = 0.01145

qh =
3.23(520) 1 (
6002 − 2002 D5 )
14.7 0.01145 (0.7)(540)(0.9188)(200)
qh = 1,186,759 cfh
Third trial:
qh = 1,186,759 cfh

0.48(1,186,759)(0.7)
N Re = = 3,331,786
(0.0099)(12.09)
1 ⎛ 21 . 25 ⎞
= 1.14 − 2 log⎜ 0.00005 + ⎟
⎜ (3,331,786) 0.9 ⎟
f ⎝ ⎠
f = 0.01143

qh =
3.23(520) 1 (
600 2 − 200 2 D 5 )
14.7 0.01143 (0.7)(540)(0.9188)(200)
q h = 1,187,962 cfh which is close to

the assumed 1,186,759 cfh

B. Using the Weymouth equation:
qh =
18.062(520) (
600 2 − 200 2 D16 / 3 )
14.7 (0.7)(540)(0.9188)(200)
qh = 1,076,035 cfh
To speed up trial-and-error calculations, a
spreadsheet program, PipeCapacity.xls,
was developed. The solution given by the
spreadsheet is shown in Table 11.1.

Instructions
1. Update input data.

2. Run Macro Solution and view results.

Table 11.1 The solution to Example Problem 11.1 Given by the Spreadsheet
PipeCapacity.xls
PipeCapacity.xls
This spreadsheet computes the capacity of gas pipelines.
Input Data
Pipe ID:12.09 in
Pipe roughness:0.0006 in
Pipeline length:200 mi
Average temperature:80 oF
Base temperature:60 oF
Base pressure:14.7 psia

Inlet pressure:600 psia
Outlet pressure:200 psia
Gas properties:
Gas-specific gravity:
0.7 air = 1
Mole fraction of N2: 0
Mole fraction of CO2: 0
Mole fraction of H2S: 0
Solution
A) Use Reynolds number dependent friction factor

Pipeline flow capacity: 1,188,000 cfh
Reynolds number 3,335,270
Friction factor 0.01143
Objective function 0
B) Use the Weymouth equation

Pipeling flow capacity: 1,076,035 cfh

11.2.1.5.2 Weymouth Equation for
Nonhorizontal Flow
Considering gas flow from point 1 to point
2 in a nonhorizontal pipe, the first law of
thermal dynamics gives:
2 2 2
g fu
∫1 vdp +
gc
Δ z + ∫
1
2gc D
dL = 0 (11.29)

Based on the pressure gradient due to the
weight of gas column
dp ρ g
= (11.30)
dz 144
p ( MW ) a 29γ g p
and real gas law, ρ g = = ,
zRT zRT
Weymouth (1912) developed the following

equation:
qh =
3.23Tb (p 2
1 )
− e s p 22 D 5
(11.31)
pb fγ g T z L
where e = 2.718 and
0.0375γ g Δz
s= (11.32)
Tz
A general and more rigorous form of the
Weymouth equation with compensation for
elevation is
qh =
3.23Tb (p 2
1 −e p Ds 2
2 ) 5
pb fγ g T z Le (11.33)
For a uniform slope, Le is defined as
(e − 1) L
s (11.34)
Le =
s

For a nonuniform slope (where elevation
change cannot be simplified to a single
section of constant gradient), an approach
in steps to any number of sections, n, will
yield
i −1
s1 + s2
∑sj
(e − 1) e (e − 1) (e − 1) e j =1 (e si − 1)
s1 s1 s2 s3 n
e
Le = L1 + L2 + L3 + ........ + ∑ Li
s1 s2 s3 i =1 si
(11.35)

where
0.0375γ g Δz i
si =
Tz
(11.36)

11.2.1.5.3 Panhandle A Equation –
Horizontal Flow
The Panhandle A pipeline flow equation
assumes the following Reynolds number
dependent friction factor:
0.085
f = 0.147
N Re (11.37)

The resultant pipeline flow equation is thus
q = 435.87
D 2.6182
⎛ Tb
⎜⎜
⎞
⎟⎟
1.07881
(
⎡ p −p ⎤
2
1
2
2 ) 0.5394
⎢ ⎥
γ 0.4604
g ⎝ pb ⎠ ⎣ T zL ⎦
(11.38)

11.2.1.5.4 Panhandle B Equation –
Horizontal Flow (Modified Panhandle)
Panhandle B equation is the most widely

used equation for long transmission and
delivery lines. It assumes that f varies as:
0.015
f = 0.0392
N Re
(11.39)
and it takes the following resultant form:
( )
0.510
⎡ p −p ⎤
1.02
⎛ Tb ⎞ 2 2
q = 737 D 2.530
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢
1
⎥
2
⎢⎣ T z Lγ
0.961
⎝ pb ⎠ g⎥⎦ (11.40)

11.2.1.5.5 Clinedinst Equation –
Horizontal Flow
The Clinedinest equation rigorously
considers the deviation of natural gas from
ideal gas through integration. It takes the
following form:
zb pb p pc 5
D ⎜ pr⎛ pr 1 pr 2
pr ⎞
q = 3973.0 ∫ dpr − ∫ dpr ⎟
pb − ⎜ z z ⎟
T fLγ g ⎝ 0 0 ⎠
(11.41)
where
q = volumetric flow rate, Mcfd

ppc = pseudocritical pressure, psia
D = pipe internal diameter, in
L = pipe length, ft
pr = pseudoreduced pressure

−
= average flowing temperature, oR
T
γ g = gas gravity, air = 1.0
zb = gas deviation factor at Tb and pb,

normally accepted as 1.0

11.2.1.6 Practical Pipeline Equations
11.2.1.6.1 Pipeline Efficiency
Table 11.2 presents typical values of

efficiency factors.

Table 11.2 Typical Values of Efficiency Factors
Liquid Content
Type of Line (gal/MMcf) Efficiency E
Dry-gas field 0.1 0.92
Casing-head gas 7.2 0.77
Gas and condensate 800 0.6

11.2.1.6.2 Transmission Factor
Table 11.3 presents some transmission

factors that are the most significant and
have either best stood the test of usage or
have strong foundations in basic flow
theories.

Table 11.3 Transmission Factors for Pipeline Flow Equation
Flow Equation Transmission Factor
Smooth pipe (laminar flow) 2 log ( f N Re )+ 0 .3

Weymouth
1.10 × 5.6 D 0.167
Panhandle A 0.92 × 3.44 N Re
0.073
Panhandle B 0.90 × 8.25 N Re

0.0196
⎛ 3.7 ⎞
Rough pipe (fully turbulent flow) 2 log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ eD ⎠

11.2.1.6.3 Empirical Pipeline
Equation
A general noniterative pipeline flow equation
is be written as
( )
a4
⎞ ⎡ p −p ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
a2 a3
⎛ Tb 2 2
q = a1 E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ 1 ⎜ ⎟2a5
⎥ ⎜ ⎟ D (11.42)
⎝ pb ⎠ ⎣ T zL ⎦ ⎝ γ g ⎠
The values of the constants are given in

Table 11.4 for the different pipeline flow
equations.
Table 11.4 Constants for Empirical Pipeline Flow
Equations
Equation a1 a2 a3 a4 a5
Weymouth 433.5 1 0.5 0.5 2.667
Panhandle A 435.87 1.0788 0.5394 0.4604 2.618
Panhandle B 737 1.02 0.51 0.49 2.53

11.2.1.7 Series, Parallel, and Looped
Pipelines
It is often desirable to increase the
throughput of an existing pipeline by
gathering gas from new gas wells……

11.2.1.7.1 Pipelines in Series
Consider a three-segment pipeline in a

series of total length L depicted in Figure
11.2(a). Applying the Weymouth equation
to each of the three segments gives:
γ g T z L1 ⎛ q h pb
2
⎞
p −p =
2
1
2
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (11.43)
D116 / 3 ⎝ 18.062Tb ⎠
γ g T z L2 ⎛ q h p b
2
⎞
p −p =
2 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 3
D216 / 3 (11.44)
⎝ 18.062Tb ⎠
γ g T z L3 ⎛ q h pb
2
⎞
p −p =
2
3
2
4
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
D316 / 3 ⎝ 18.062Tb ⎠ (11.45)
Adding equations (11.43), (11.44), and

(11.45) gives:

2
⎛ L1 L2 L3 ⎞⎛ q h pb ⎞
p − p = γ g T z ⎜⎜ 16 / 3 + 16 / 3 + 16 / 3 ⎟⎟⎜⎜
2
1
2
4
⎟⎟
⎝ D1 D2 D3 ⎠⎝ 18.062Tb ⎠
(11.46)
or
18.062Tb p12 − p 42
qh =
pb ⎛ L1 L2 L3 ⎞
γ g T z ⎜⎜ 16 / 3 + 16 / 3 + 16 / 3 ⎟⎟
⎝ D1 D2 D3 ⎠ (11.47)

Capacity of a single-diameter (D1) pipeline is
expressed as:
⎛ L ⎞
⎜⎜ 16 / 3 ⎟⎟
qt
= ⎝ D1 ⎠
(11.48)
q1 ⎛ L1 L2 L3 ⎞
⎜ 16 / 3 + 16 / 3 + 16 / 3 ⎟⎟
⎜D
⎝ 1 D2 D3 ⎠

11.2.1.7.2 Pipelines in Parallel
Consider a three-segment pipeline in

parallel as depicted in Figure 11.2(b).
Applying the Weymouth equation to each
of the three segments gives:
( p − p )D
2 2 16 / 3
Tb
q1 = 18.062 1 2 1
(11.50)
pb γ g T zL

( p − p ) D2
2 2 16 / 3
Tb
q 2 = 18.062 1 2
pb γ g T zL
(11.51)
( p − p ) D3
2 2 16 / 3
Tb
q3 = 18.062 1 2
pb γ g T zL
(11.52)
Adding equations (11.50), (11.51), and

(11.52) gives:
T ( p12 − p 22 ) ⎛ 16 / 3 ⎞
qt = q1 + q 2 + q3 = 18.062 b ⎜ 1 + + ⎟
16 / 3 16 / 3
D D D
pb γ g T zL ⎝ 2 3
⎠
(11.53)
Dividing equation (11.53) by equation (11.50)
yields:
+ D2 + D3
16 / 3 16 / 3 16 / 3
qt D1
=
q1 D1
16 / 3
(11.54)

L
(a) p1 q D1 p2 D2 p3 D3 p4
L1 L2 L3
p2 L
q1 D1
(b) qt p1 q2 D2 p2 qt
q3 D3
Figure 11.2 Sketch of (a) series pipeline and (b) parallel pipeline.

11.2.1.7.3 Looped Pipelines
Consider a three-segment looped pipeline

depicted in Figure 11.3. Applying equation
(11.53) to the first two (parallel) segments
gives:
Tb ( p12 − p 22 ) ⎛ 16 / 3 ⎞
qt = q1 + q 2 = 18.062 ⎜ D1 + D2 ⎟
16 / 3
pb γ g T zL ⎝ ⎠
(11.55)

or
γ g T z L1
2
⎛ qt pb ⎞
p −p =
2
1
2
3
⎜
2 ⎜
⎟⎟
⎛⎜ D 16 / 3 + D2
16 / 3 ⎞ ⎝ 18.062Tb
(11.56)⎟ ⎠
⎝ 1
⎠
Applying the Weymouth equation to the
third segment (with diameter D3) yields:
γ g T z L3 ⎛ qt pb
2
⎞
p −p =
2
3
2
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
D316 / 3 ⎝ 18.062Tb ⎠
(11.57)

Adding equations (11.56) and (11.57)
results in:
⎛ ⎞
⎛ qt pb ⎞
2 ⎜ L L ⎟
p − p = γ g T z ⎜⎜
2 2
⎟⎟ ⎜ 1
+ 3 ⎟
⎜⎛ D316 / 3 ⎟
1 2 2
⎝ 18.062Tb ⎠ 16 / 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎜ D1 + D2 ⎟
16 / 3
⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
(11.58)
or
qt =
18.062Tb (p2
1 − p 22 )
pb ⎛ ⎞
⎜ L L ⎟
γ gT z⎜ 1
+ 16 / 3 ⎟
3
⎜⎛ 16 / 3 ⎞
2
D3 ⎟
⎜ + ⎟
16 / 3
⎜ D D ⎟
⎝⎝
1 2
⎠ ⎠ (11.59)
Capacity of a single-diameter (D3) pipeline
is expressed as:
18.062Tb p12 − p 22
q3 =
pb ⎛ L ⎞
γ g T z ⎜⎜ 16 / 3 ⎟⎟
(11.60)
⎝ D3 ⎠
Dividing equation (11.59) by equation
(11.60) yields:
⎛ L ⎞
⎜ 16 / 3 ⎟⎟
⎜D
qt
= ⎝ 3 ⎠
q3 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ L L ⎟
⎜ 1
+ 16 / 3 ⎟
3
⎜⎛
⎜ ⎜ D1
16 / 3
+ D2
16 / 3 ⎞
⎟
2
D3 ⎟
⎟
(11.61)
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
Let Y be the fraction of looped pipeline
and X be the increase in gas capacity,
equation (11.61) can be rearranged as:
1
1−
Y=
(1 + X )2
1
1−
(1 + R )
2.31 2
D
(1.62)
where RD is ratio of the looping pipe
diameter to the original pipe diameter.
Equation (11.62) can be rearranged to
solve for X explicitly:
1
X = −1
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜
1−Y 1− ⎟
⎜
⎝ 1 +(R 2.31
D )2 ⎟
⎠ (11.63)
The effects of looped line on the increase

of gas flow rate for various pipe diameter
ratios are shown in Figure 11.4.

L1 L3
q1 D1
qt p1 p3 D3 qt p2
q2 D2
Figure 11.3 Sketch of a looped pipeline.

200
RD = 0.4
180
RD = 0.6
160 RD = 0.8
Increase in Flow Rate (%)
RD = 1.0
140 RD = 1.2
RD = 1.4
120
RD = 1.6
100 RD = 1.8
RD = 2.0
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Looped Line (%)
Figure 11.4 Effects of looped line and pipe diameter ratio on the
increase of gas flow rate.
Example Problem 11.2
Consider a 4-in pipeline that is 10 miles long.

Assuming that the compression and delivery
pressures will maintain unchanged, calculate
gas capacity increases by using the following
measures of improvement: (a) Replace three
miles of the 4-in pipeline by a 6-in pipeline
segment; (b) Place a 6-in parallel pipeline to
share gas transmission; and (c) Loop three
miles of the 4-in pipeline with a 6-in pipeline
segment.
Solution:
(a) This problem can be solved with

equation (11.49).
L = 10 mi
L1 = 7 mi
L2 = 3 mi
D1 = 4 in
D2 = 6 in

⎛ 10 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 416 / 3 ⎟
qt
= ⎝ ⎠ = 1.1668, or 16.68%
q1 ⎛ 7 3 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ increase in flow
⎜ 416 / 3 616 / 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ capacity

(b) This problem can be solved with
equation (11.54).
D1 = 4 in
D2 = 6 in
qt 4 16 / 3
+ 6 16 / 3
= = 3.9483, or 294.83%
q1 416 / 3
increase in flow capacity

(c) This problem can be solved with
equation (11.61).
L = 10 mi
L1 = 7 mi
L2 = 3 mi
D1 = 4 in
D2 = 6 in

⎛ 10 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 416 / 3 ⎟
qt
= ⎝ ⎠
= 1.1791,
q3 ⎛ L3 ⎞⎟
⎜ L1
+ 16 / 3
⎜
⎝ (4 16 / 3
+ 6 16 / 3
)
2
4 ⎟
⎠
or 17.91% increase in flow capacity

11.2.2 Pipeline Wall Thickness
Wall thickness design for steel pipelines is

governed by U.S. Codes ASME/ANSI
B32.8.

11.2.2.1 Design Procedure
In this chapter we recommend the

following procedure for designing pipeline
wall thickness:
Step 1: Calculate the minimum wall thickness

required for the design-internal pressure.
Step 2: Calculate the minimum wall thickness
required to withstand external pressure.

Step 3: Add wall thickness allowance for
corrosion, if applicable, to the maximum of the
proceeding.
Step 4: Select next highest nominal wall
thickness. Note: In certain cases, it may be
desirable to order a nonstandard wall. This can
be done for large orders.
Step 5: Check selected wall thickness for
hydrotest condition.
Step 6: Check for handling practice, that is,
pipeline handling is difficult for D/t larger than 50;
welding of wall thickness less than 0.3 in (7.6
mm) requires special provisions.
11.2.2.2 Design Codes
11.2.2.2.1 Pipeline Design for Internal

Pressure
The nominal pipeline wall thickness (tNOM)

can be calculated as follows:
Pd D
t NOM = + ta
2 E wησ y Ft (11.64)

Table 11.6 Design and Hydrostatic Pressure Definitions
and Usage Factors for Gas Lines
ASME B31.8
Gas 1989 Edition DnV
1990 Addendum 1981
Normal Operations
Pd (1) Pi- Pe Pi- Pe

[A842.221] [4.2.2.2]
η for pipeline 0.72 0.72

[A842.221] [4.2.2.1]
η for riser sections (2) 0.5 0.5

[A842.221] [4.2.2.1]
Ph 1.25 Pi (3) 1.25 Pd

[A847.2] [8.8.4.3]

11.2.2.2.2 Pipeline Design for
External Pressure
As a rule of thumb or unless qualified
thereafter, it is recommended to use
propagation criterion for pipeline diameters
under 16-in and collapse criterion for
pipeline diameters above or equal to 16-in.

11.2.2.2.2.1 Propagation Criterion
Although a large number of empirical

relationships have been published, the
recommended formula is the latest given
by AGA (1990):
2.46
⎛ t NOM ⎞
PP = 33S y ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠ (11.65)

The safety factor of 1.3 is recommended to
account for uncertainty in the envelope of
data points used to derive equation
(11.65). It can be rewritten as:
1
⎛ 1.3Pe ⎞ 2.46
t NOM ≥ D⎜ ⎟
⎜ 33S ⎟
⎝ y ⎠

11.2.2.2.2.2 Collapse Criterion
The nominal wall thickness should be

determined such that:
1.3Pe ε b
+ ≤ gp
PC εB (11.66)

The safety factor on collapse is calculated
for D/t ratios along with the loads (Pe, εb,
Ta) and initial pipeline out-of-roundness
(δo). The equations are:
'
Pel P
PC =
y
'2
Pel + P (11.67)
2
y

⎡ ⎛ Ta ⎞
2 ⎤
⎢
Py = Py 1 − 0.75⎜
' ⎟ −
Ta ⎥
⎢ ⎜T ⎟ 2T y ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎥⎦
(11.68)
3
2E ⎛ t ⎞
Pel = ⎜ ⎟ (11.69)
1 −ν 2
⎝ D⎠

⎛ t ⎞
Py = 2 S y ⎜ ⎟ (11.70)
⎝ D⎠
T y = AS y (11.71)
where gp is based on pipeline

imperfections such as initial out-of
roundness (δo), eccentricity (usually
neglected), and residual stress (usually
neglected). Hence,

1+ p2
gp =
1
p − 2
2
fp
(11.72)
with
Py'
p= (11.73)
Pel
2
⎛ D⎞ D
f p = 1 + ⎜δ o ⎟ − δ o (11.74)
⎝ t ⎠ t

t
εB =
2D (11.75)
Dmax − Dmin
δo =
Dmax + Dmin (11.76)
A Ramberg Osgood relationship can be

used as
*B
K = M + AM
* *
(11.77)
11.2.2.2.3 Corrosion Allowance
A review of standards, rules, and codes of

practices (Hill and Warwick 1986) shows
that wall allowance is only one of several
methods available to prevent corrosion,
and often the least recommended.

11.2.2.2.4 Check for Hydrotest
Condition

26 - Fluid Transportation

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Fluid Transportation

Copyright (c) 2005 - Boyun Guo

This chapter focuses on design and

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Many factors must be considered in the

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The capacity of gas transmission of a

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Under steady-state fluid and heat flow

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The Reynolds number can be expressed as

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Relative roughness, eD, is defined as the ratio

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Figure 11.1 Moody friction factor chart (after Moody 1944).

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Equation (11.20) may be written in terms

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For the following data given for a

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The problem can be solved using equation

p = (200 + 600)/2 = 400 psia

With = 400 psia, T = 540 oR and γg = 0.70,

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q h = 1,187,962 cfh which is close to

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1. Update input data.

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Base pressure:14.7 psia

A) Use Reynolds number dependent friction factor

B) Use the Weymouth equation

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Weymouth (1912) developed the following

where e = 2.718 and

For a uniform slope, Le is defined as

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