PROBLEM 11-9

Problem Statement - Compare the clean-bed head loss at 15 ºC through a rapid filter
with a filtration rate of 15 m/h to that through a slow sand filter with a filtration rate of
0.15 m/h for media with the following specifications: effective size 0.5 mm, density 2650
kg/m3, depth 1 m, and porosity 0.42. What implications do these calculations have on
the significance of clean-bed head loss in the design of rapid and slow sand filters?

Instructors Note: This problem is similar to Example 11-2. Because neither pilot nor
site-specific information is given in the problem statement, midpoint values are selected
from Table 11-3. Values of ρW and µ are available in Table C-1 in Appendix C.
Calculate the clean bed head loss through the rapid filter at 15 m/h using Eq. 11-13.

1. Select values for permeability and porosity from Table 11-3 and for density and
dynamic viscosity from Table C-1 in Appendix C.
κV = 112, κI = 2.2, and ε = 0.42
At 15 °C, ρW = 999 kg/m3 and µ = 1.14 x 10-3 kg/m·s
2. Calculate the first term in Eq. 11-13.
(1 − ε)2 µLv
hL,1 = κ V
ε3 ρW gd2

(112 ) (1 − 0.42 )2 (1.14 × 10-3 kg/ms ) (1.0 m )(15 m/h )

=
( 0.42 ) ( 999 kg/m3 )( 9.81 m/s2 ) ( 0.5 mm ) (10-3 ) (3600 s/h)
3 2 2
m/mm
= 0.985 m
3. Calculate the second term in Eq. 11-13.
(1 − ε) Lv 2
hL,2 = κI
ε3 gd

( 2.2 ) (1 − 0.42 )(1.0 m )(15 m/h )2

=
( 0.42 ) ( 9.81 m/s2 ) ( 0.5 mm ) (10−3 m/mm ) ( 3600 s/h )
3 2

= 0.061 m
4. Add the two terms together.
hL = hL,1 + hL,2 = 0.985 m + 0.061 m = 1.046 m.

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
5. Calculate the clean bed head loss through the slow sand filter at 15 m/h using Eq.
11-13. Use the first term for Eq. 11-13 calculated in Part a., step 2 above.
Calculate the second term in Eq. 11-13 and solve the equation.
(1 − ε) Lv 2
hL,2 = κI
ε3 gd

( 2.2 ) (1 − 0.42 )(1.0 m )( 0.15 m/h )2

=
( 0.42 ) ( 9.81 m/s2 ) ( 0.5 mm ) (10−3 m/mm ) ( 3600 s/h )
3 2

= 6.10 × 10 −6 m
hL = 0.00985 m + 6.10×10-6 m = 0.00985 m = 0.985 cm.
6. The total available head for rapid filters is typically 1.8 to 3.0 m (see Table 11-11),
so the clean bed head loss (1.046 m), has a significant impact on the remaining
head available for head buildup during filtration and is an important consideration
in rapid filter design. In contrast, the clean bed head loss of the slow sand filter is
less than 1 cm. Because the total available head for slow sand filters is 0.9 to 1.8
m (see Table 11-11), the clean bed head loss is a negligible portion of the total
available head and can be ignored in slow sand filtration design.

PROBLEM 11-10
Problem Statement - Given a backwash flow rate of 45 m/h and temperature of 20º C,
calculate the largest (a) sand particle (density = 2650 kg/m3) and (b) floc solid
particle (density = 1050 kg/m3) that can be washed from a filter bed.

Solution
1. Determine the largest particle that can be fluidized during backwash.
The largest particle that can be fluidized at a particular backwash velocity can be
calculated by rearranging Eq. 11-14.

 g ( ρP − ρW ) d1.6 
0.714

v= 
 13.9ρW µ
0.4 0.6

is rearranged to:
0.625
 13.9ρ0.4
W µ
0.6 1.4
v 
d= 
 g (ρ − ρ )
 P W 
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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
2. Match the velocity units given in the problem statement to the equation developed
in step 1. Convert the velocity from units of m/hr to units of m/s.
45 m/h
=
45 m/h = 0.0125 m/s
3600 s/h
3. Calculate the largest sand and floc particle using the equation from step 1.
a. Calculate the largest sand particle that can be washed from the filter bed.
From Table C-1 in Appendix C at 20 °C, ρW = 998 kg/m3 and µ = 1.002 x 10-3
kg/m·s.

( ) ( )
0.625
 13.9 998 kg/m3 0.4 1.002 × 10 −3 kg/ms 0.6 ( 0.0125 m/s )1.4 
d= 


( )(
9.81 m/s 2650 − 998 kg/m
2 3
) 

=1.105 × 10 −4 m =0.11 mm
b. Calculate the largest floc particle that can be washed from the filter bed.

( ) ( )
0.625
 13.9 998 kg/m3 0.4 1.002 × 10 −3 kg/ms 0.6 ( 0.0125 m/s )1.4 
d= 


( )(
9.81 m/s 1050 − 998 kg/m
2 3
) 

9.59 × 10 −4 m =
= 0.959 mm

Comment
The largest sand particle that will be washed from the bed is a sand grain 0.11 mm in
diameter. Thus, sand media larger than 0.11 mm will stay in the filter while floc particles
as large as 0.959 mm will be washed from the bed.

PROBLEM 11-11
Problem Statement - Calculate and plot the size of particles that will be washed from a
filter as a function of backwash velocity ranging from 10 to 100 m/h at 20º C for (a) sand
particles (density = 2650 kg/m3), (b) anthracite particles (density = 1650 kg/m3), and (c)
floc solid particles (density = 1050 kg/m3). In addition, calculate the minimum fluidization
velocities for 0.5-mm sand (porosity 0.40) and 1.0-mm anthracite (porosity 0.50) and
indicate these velocities on your graph. What is an appropriate range for the backwash

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
velocity for dual-media filters? Assuming the backwash troughs are placed high enough,
will any media be lost with backwash velocities in this range?

Instructors Note: Because neither pilot nor site-specific information is given in the
problem statement, midpoint values are selected from Table 11-3. Values of ρW and µ
are available in Table C-1 in Appendix C.

Solution
1. Determine the largest particle that can be fluidized during backwash.
The largest particle that can be fluidized at a particular backwash velocity can be
calculated by rearranging Eq. 11-14.

 g ( ρP − ρW ) d1.6 
0.714

v= 
 13.9ρW µ
0.4 0.6

is rearranged to:
0.625
 13.9ρ0.4
W µ
0.6 1.4
v 
d= 
 g (ρ − ρ )
 P W 
2. Convert the backwash velocity of 10 m/h to units of m/s:
10 m/h
=
10 m/h = 0.00278 m/s
3600 s/h
3. Calculate the largest sand, anthracite and floc particle using the equation from
step 1. From Appendix C-1 at 20 °C, ρW = 998 kg/m3 and µ = 1.002 x 10-3 kg/m·s.
a. Calculate the largest sand particle that can be washed from the filter bed at
10 m/h.

 13.9 ( 998 kg/m3 )0.4 (1.002 × 10 −3 kg/ms )0.6 ( 0.00278 m/s )1.4 
0.625

 103 mm 
d=   m 
 ( 9.81 m/s2 )( 2650 − 998 kg/m3 )   
−2
= 2.96 × 10 mm

b. Calculate the largest anthracite particle that can be washed from the filter
bed at 10 m/h.

 13.9 ( 998 kg/m3 )0.4 (1.002 × 10 −3 kg/ms )0.6 ( 0.00278 m/s )1.4 
0.625

 103 mm 
d=   m 
 ( 9.81 m/s2 )(1650 − 998 kg/m3 )   

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
 −2
= 5.29 × 10 mm

c. Calculate the largest floc particle that can be washed from the filter bed.

 13.9 ( 998 kg/m3 )0.4 (1.002 × 10 −3 kg/ms )0.6 ( 0.00278 m/s )1.4 
0.625

 103 mm 
d=   m 
 ( 9.81 m/s2 )(1050 − 998 kg/m3 )   
−1
= 2.57 × 10 mm

4. Repeat step 3 a, b and c for increments of velocity between 10 m/h and 100 m/h.
The results are summarized in the following table:

Velocity, m/h Velocity, m/s Sand size, mm Anthracite size, mm Floc. size, mm
10 0.00278 0.0296 0.0529 0.2570
15 0.00417 0.0422 0.0755 0.3670
20 0.00556 0.0543 0.0971 0.4720
25 0.00694 0.0660 0.1180 0.5730
30 0.00833 0.0774 0.1380 0.6720
35 0.00972 0.0886 0.1580 0.7690
40 0.01111 0.0996 0.1780 0.8650
45 0.01250 0.1100 0.1970 0.9590
50 0.01389 0.1210 0.2160 1.0500
55 0.01528 0.1320 0.2350 1.1400
60 0.01667 0.1420 0.2540 1.2300
65 0.01806 0.1520 0.2720 1.3200
70 0.01944 0.1620 0.2910 1.4100
75 0.02083 0.1730 0.3090 1.5000
80 0.02222 0.1830 0.3270 1.5900
85 0.02361 0.1930 0.3440 1.6700
90 0.02500 0.2020 0.3620 1.7600
95 0.02639 0.2120 0.3800 1.8400
100 0.02778 0.2220 0.3970 1.9300

5. Calculate the minimum fluidization velocity for sand using Eq. 11-21.
a. Calculate the backwash calculation factor, β, using Eq. 11-20.
gρW ( ρP − ρW ) d3 ε3
β=
µ2

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
 =
( 9.81 m/s )(998 kg/m )( 2650 − 998 kg/m ) (0.5 mm ) (0.40 )
2 3 3 3 3

(1.002 × 10 kg/ms ) (10 mm/m )

2 3
−3 3

= 128.9
b. Calculate the Reynolds Number using Eq. 11-21. Select values for
permeability and porosity from Table 11-3: κV = 112 and κI = 2.2.
−κ V (1 − ε ) 1
κ2V (1 − ε ) + 4 κIβ
2
=Re +
2κI 2κI

−112 (1 − 0.40 ) 1
(112 ) (1 − 0.40 ) + 4 ( 2.2 )(128.9 )
2 2
= +
2 ( 2.2 ) 2 ( 2.2 )
= 1.81
c. Calculate velocity using Eq. 11-8.
ρW vd
Re =
µ
is rearranged to:

=
µ Re
v =
(1.002 × 10 kg/ms ) (1.81) (10
−3 3
mm/m )
= 0.00364 m/s
ρW d ( 998 kg/m ) ( 0.5 mm )3

= =
v 0.00364 m/s ( 3600 s/h ) 13.1 m/h

6. Calculate the minimum fluidization velocity for anthracite using Eq. 11-21.
a. Calculate the backwash calculation factor, β, using Eq. 11-20.

β=
( 9.81 m/s )(998 kg/m )(1650 − 998 kg/m ) (1.0 mm ) (0.50 )
2 3 3 3 3

(1.002 × 10 kg/ms ) (10 mm/m )

2 3
−3 3

= 794.6
b. Calculate the Reynolds Number using Eq. 11-21. Select values for
permeability and porosity from Table 11-3: κV = 228 and κI = 4.4.
−228 (1 − 0.50 ) 1
( 228 ) (1 − 0.50 ) + 4 ( 4.4 )(=
2014 ) 5.71
2 2
=Re +
2 ( 4.4 ) 2 ( 4.4 )

c. Calculate velocity using Eq. 11-8.

=
µ Re
v =
(1.002 × 10 kg/ms ) ( 5.71) (10
−3 3
mm/m )
= 0.00573 m/s
ρW d ( 998 kg/m ) (1.0 mm )3

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
= =
v 0.00573 m/s ( 3600 s/h ) 20.6 m/h

7. The appropriate range for backwashing velocity is such that the media is fluidized
but cannot be washed out of the filter box. To achieve fluidization for both types of
media, the velocity has to be above the fluidization velocity for each type, hence,
the minimum backwash flowrate for this installation would be 20.6 m/h. At the limit
of this graph (100 m/h), the sand size that would be washed from the filter would
be 0.222 mm and the anthracite size that would be washed from the media would
be 0.397 mm. These values are below the effective sizes of 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm
for sand and anthracite, respectively, so the media would not be expected to be
washed from the filter at this rate. Thus, the appropriate range of backwash
velocity, based solely on this graph, would be 20.6 to 100 m/h, and media would
not be lost if the backwash troughs were above the height of the expanded media.

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
PROBLEM 11-12

Problem Statement - A monomedia anthracite filter is designed with the following

specifications: effective size 1.1 mm, uniformity coefficient 1.4, and density 1650 kg/m3.

a. Calculate backwash rate to get a 25 percent expansion at the design summer

temperature of 22º C.

b. Calculate the expansion that occurs at the backwash rate determined in part a at
the minimum winter temperature of 3º C.

c. Discuss the implications of these results on backwash operations for plants that
experience a large seasonal variation in water temperature.

Instructors Note: Calculations for the backwash velocity needed to achieve a certain
amount of bed expansion are shown in Example 11-4. Calculations for the backwash
velocity needed to achieve a certain amount of bed expansion are shown in Example
11-5. Because neither pilot nor site-specific information is given in the problem
statement, midpoint values are selected from Table 11-3. Values of ρW and µ can be
interpolated from Table C-1 in Appendix C.

Solution - Part a.
1. Calculate the expanded bed porosity, εE, that corresponds to 25 percent
expansion using Eq. 11-15. From Table 11-3, the fixed bed porosity is εE = 0.50.
L   1.0  
εE = 1 −  F (1 − εF )  = 1 −   (1 − 0.5 ) = 0.60
 LE   1.25  
2. Calculate β using Eq. 11-20. From Table C-1 in Appendix C at 22 °C, ρW = 997.8
kg/m3 and µ = 9.55 x 10-4 kg/m·s.
gρW ( ρP − ρW ) d3 ε3
β=
µ2

β=
( 9.81 m/s )(997.8 kg/m )(1650 − 997.8 kg/m ) (0.0011 m ) ( 0.60 )
2 3 3 3 3

( 9.55 × 10 kg/ms )
2
-4

= 1165

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
3. Calculate Re using Eq. 11-21. Select the values for κV and κI from Table 11-3. κV
= 228 and κI = 4.4
−κ V (1 − ε ) 1
κ2V (1 − ε ) + 4 κIβ
2
=Re +
2κI 2κI

−228 (1 − 0.60 ) 1
( 228 ) (1 − 0.60 )2 + 4 ( 4.4 )(=
1165 ) 13.40
2
=Re +
2 ( 4.4 ) 2 ( 4.4 )

4. Calculate v using Eq. 11-8.

=
µ Re
v =
( 9.55 × 10 kg/ms ) (13.40 )(3600 s/h
−4

=
)
42.0 m/h
ρW d ( 997.8 kg/m ) (0.0011 m )
3

Part b.
1. Calculate X using Eq. 11-23. From Table C-1 in Appendix C at 3°C, ρW = 1000
kg/m3, µ = 1.62 x 10-3 kg/m·s.
µv  κ ρ vd 
=X κ + I W 
2  V
2g ( ρP − ρW ) d  µ 

  42.0 m/h  
 (
1.62 × 10 −3 kg/ms 

) 
3600 s/h 

X  ×
 3  1.1 mm 
2

( )(
 2 9.81 m/s 1650 - 1000 kg/m  3
2
 
 10 mm/m  
)

 42.0 m/h  1.1 mm  
 ( 4.4 ) 1000 kg/m3 
( )  3 
228 +  3600 s/h  10 mm/m  
 (
1.62 × 10 −3 kg/ms  )
 
= 0.3215
2. Calculate Y using Eq. 11-24.
k V µv
Y=
3g ( ρP − ρW ) d2

 42.0 m/h 
( 228 ) (1.62 × 10−3
kg/ms  )
 3600 s/h 
Y = 2
0.1859
3  1.1 mm 
( )(
3 9.81 m/s 1650 − 1000 kg/m  3
2

 10 mm/m 
 )
3. Calculate porosity using Eq. 11-22.

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration
 ( ) ( )
1 1

=
ε X + X2 + Y 3 + 3 X − X2 + Y 3
2 2
3

1 1

0.3215 + ( 0.3215 ) + ( 0.1859 )  + 3 0.3215 − ( 0.3215 ) + ( 0.1859 ) 

2 3 2 2 3 2
=εE 3
   
εE =0.65
4. Calculate the percent bed expansion using Eq. 11-15.
1 − εF  1 − 0.50 
=LE L= 1.0  =  1.44
1 − εE  1 − 0.65 
F

Part c.
The target backwash velocity of 42.0 m/h caused the bed to expand by 25 percent in
the summer, but by 44 percent in the winter, when the water is cold. An expansion of
44 percent may be excessive and may lead to media loss or other filtration problems.
For plants that experience large seasonal variations in water temperature, it may be
necessary to adjust the backwash velocity to maintain a constant amount of bed
expansion as the water temperature changes.

PROBLEM 11-13
Problem Statement - Using the Yao filtration model, examine the effect of filtration rate
on filter performance for particles with diameters of 0.1, 1.0, and 10 µm. Assume a
monodisperse media of 0.5 mm diameter, porosity 0.42, particle density 1020 kg/m3,
filtration rate 10 m/h, filter depth 1 m, temperature 20º C, and attachment efficiency 1.0.
Plot the results as C/CO as a function of filtration rate over a range from 1 to 25 m/h.
Comment on the effect of filtration rate and particle size on filter performance.

Solution
1. Calculate the transport efficiency due to interception for 0.1 µm particles using Eq.
11-37.
2 2
3  dP  3  0.1× 10-3 mm 
η=
I   =  = 6.0 × 10
-8

2  dC  2  0.5 mm 

2. Develop an expression for the transport efficiency due to sedimentation as a

function of velocity and particle size using Eq. 11-38.

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MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd ed. Version 1
Chapter 11 - Granular Filtration