Cobot Welding Welding Automation: OCTOBER 2020

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OCTOBER 2020
WELDING JOURNAL • VOLUME 99 NUMBER 10 • OCTOBER 2020
Cobot
Welding
Welding
Automation
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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October 2020 • Volume 99 • Number 10 CONTENTS

FEATURES
29 Welding Automation Technologies Join the
Old and New 29
How automation can help the experienced welder
J. Heikonen
32 Cobot Welding Offers the Spark to Overcome

Labor Shortages
Learn how using this method benefited a solar
mounting equipment manufacturer — J. Campbell
and J. Pawley
38 Understanding Fixed Automation Welding

An overview of this process and considerations
32
to optimize productivity and quality
U. Okwuagwu
42 Programming Your Robot is Easier Than You Think

Advanced technologies dispel the myth that
welding robots are too difficult to program
and run — C. Adams
WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

255-s Solidification Cracking Susceptibility of 271-s Effects of Filler Wire Intervention on Gas
Stainless Steels: New Test and Explanation Tungsten Arc: Part II — Dynamic Behaviors
The Transverse Motion Weldability test exhibits of Liquid Droplets
advantages over the Varestraint test for assessing Part II studies droplet behavior and its effect on the
the susceptibility of various stainless steels to gas tungsten arc to test a novel arc-sensing method
solidification cracking — K. Liu et al. for monitoring and controlling weld quality
S. Zou et al.
At the American Welding Society (AWS), we are actively following the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. The welding and
fabrication industries have been determined to be an essential business, especially as it relates to repair and maintenance
of key infrastructure. The content of the October 2020 issue of the Welding Journal is intended to be accurate when
published, but we recognize that we are in a rapidly changing situation. For AWS’s official statement on COVID-19, as well as
the latest updates and frequently asked questions, please visit aws.org.
OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

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DEPARTMENTS
6 Editorial 45 Certification Schedule
7 Press Time News 46 Welding Workbook
8 Washington Watchword 47 Society News
10 News of the Industry 49 Tech Topics
14 Arc-Tist Corner 55 Section News
16 Aluminum Q&A 61 Guide to AWS Services
18 Brazing Q&A 62 Personnel
20 Education Inspiration 67 Classifieds
23 Letters to the Editor 68 Advertiser Index
24 Product & Print Spotlight
On the cover: A cobot lends a hand
to boost weld shop productivity.
(Credit: Universal Robots USA and
Vectis Automation.)
OFFICERS WELDING JOURNAL

President Robert W. Roth Publisher/Editor Annette Alonso
RoMan Manufacturing Inc.
Editorial
Vice President W. Richard Polanin
Managing Editor Kristin Campbell aws.org
WRP Associates
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
Vice President Dennis K. Eck Associate Editor Katie Pacheco (305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Praxair Distribution Inc. Associate Editor Alexandra Quiñones
Education Editor Roline Pascal
Peer Review Coord. Brenda Flores AWS Promotes Diversity
Vice President Michael A. Krupnicki
Airgas USA Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
AWS values diversity, advocates equitable and inclusive
practices, and engages its members and stakeholders in
Treasurer Carey Chen Design and Production establishing a culture in the welding community that
Incodema Inc. and Newcut Inc. Managing Editor, Digital and Design Carlos Guzman welcomes, learns from, and celebrates differences
Production Manager Zaida Chavez among people. AWS recognizes that a commitment to
Executive Director & CEO Gary Konarska II Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores diversity, equity, and inclusion is essential to achieving
American Welding Society excellence for the Association, its members, and
employees.
Advertising
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Copyright © 2020 by American Welding Society in both
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4 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

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EDITORIAL
The AWS Foundation Supports Future Welders

as Need for Reindustrialization Grows
The election for president of the United to further their education and training in the
States will take place next month, and it field.
comes at a most challenging time. We have Our Welding Workforce Grant program
tragically lost many lives to COVID-19, but continues to help schools expand training ca-
our country has also shown resilience and a pabilities to create more welders to support
dedication to forging a new path forward. local businesses and the economy. More than
Included in that path forward must be a $850,000 in grants have been awarded since
renewed focus on manufacturing in the Unit- the program began in 2017.
ed States. The COVID-19 pandemic has un- One of our newest initiatives, the Light a
covered the impact from decades of off- Spark Grant, provides starter welding equip-
shoring critical manufacturing and supply ment packages for high schools that did not
chains. Our inability to manufacture impor- previously offer welding. This grant will al-
William Rice tant medical devices, pharmaceuticals, and low hundreds of students each year to expe-
Chair, AWS Foundation protective equipment have put our country rience welding for the first time and open
at greater risk. More importantly, it revealed their eyes to the many opportunities avail-
that a reliance on offshore production by able in the profession.
“Welding many industries can send damaging ripples One of our flagship programs to expose
professionals and through an entire supply chain during a young people to welding, the Careers in
businesses will be global disruption. Welding Mobile Exhibit, has unfortunately
essential to the The two men vying to become president been sidelined this year with the cancellation
reindustrialization have different views on nearly every issue, of most events due to the pandemic. Howev-
but one area of common ground is the need er, the AWS Foundation and partner Lincoln
of America, and it is to reindustrialize America, both to maintain Electric remain committed to this important
critical that we put our resilience and to grow our economy. In- endeavor and look forward to having the
a focus on training vestments need to be made at every level of trailer back on the road in 2021.
and educating the government and throughout the private sec- While we may not have been able to meet
next generation of tor to increase our competitiveness and self- everyone face-to-face this year, we increased
leaders for our reliance. our ability to engage digitally. Articles, blog
A national prioritization of innovation, posts, and videos related to careers in weld-
industry.” manufacturing, and infrastructure will mean ing have regularly been featured on
further demand for skilled tradespeople, in- weldingdigest.com and AWS social media
cluding welders. The need for welding pro- channels, some with views reaching in the
fessionals was high before the pandemic and tens of thousands.
will be even higher if we, as a country, can Careersinwelding.com remains the go-to
commit to this reindustrialization. source for information on careers, salaries,
Aside from the prospects of future de- educational opportunities, and more. We
mand, a career in welding has become an in- continue to add additional content, such as a
triguing option for young people and career page devoted to veterans, and resources for
changers during this pandemic, as most welding educators, a few specifically to assist
states deemed welding organizations as “es- with remote learning. Continued improve-
sential businesses.” Many engineers, techni- ments to the site, as well as new digital ini-
cians, technical sales staff, and other person- tiatives, are planned for 2021.
nel experienced less disruption than their Our country will re-emerge from this pan-
counterparts in industries such as tourism demic under a new normal. Exactly what it
and hospitality. The pandemic has highlight- will look like is yet to be determined. But we
ed the importance of these jobs in keeping do know that it will include a new apprecia-
our country running. tion and commitment to making things with
The American Welding Society (AWS) our own hands here in the United States.
Foundation (aws.org/foundation) remains a Welding professionals and businesses will
driving force to encourage people to see the be essential to the reindustrialization of
opportunity of a career in the welding indus- America, and it is critical that we put a focus
try and to support their path in achieving on training and educating the next genera-
that goal. tion of leaders for our industry. As welders
Last year, we awarded scholarships total- remain essential, so too is the work of the
ing $1.5 million to more than 1000 students AWS Foundation. WJ

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PRESS TIME NEWS
Secure Your Spot for the AWS Education 2020 They are providing trade school students scholarship fund-
Virtual Summit ing while teaming up to launch two special-edition boots in-
spired by the legendary rock band. The Wolverine  Metallica
Though FABTECH, originally set to take place November Scholars 1000 Mile Axel and Hellcat UltraSpring™ boots are
18–20 in Las Vegas, Nev., has been canceled, interested indi- available, with 100% of the proceeds benefitting AWMH
viduals may take part in the American Welding Society’s Metallica Scholars recipients to support the skilled trades.
(AWS’s) welding education programs during this same The 1000 Mile Axel limited-edition boot is based on the
timeframe. Wolverine 1000 Mile boot silhouette with a Metallica Key
Register to save your seat for AWS Education 2020, the logo-inspired metal heel plate, an AWMH metal toe kicker,
Society’s virtual summit, at aws.org/virtual2020. metal-tipped laces, and a metal guitar pick tag. It uses Chica-
Included among its highlights will be the following features: go-based Horween Chromexcel leather, silver hardware,
• AWS Professional Program, educational programs, and and a Vibram lugged outsole.
seminars The Hellcat UltraSpring boot combines traditional work
• Opportunity to earn professional development hours boot durability with the Wolverine UltraSpring™ cushioning.
for attending educational programs and workshops Its features include a custom-molded Metallica Key logo
• Access to the best of AWS programs stitched on the boot and a custom metal Metallica Scholars
• Live streams of award ceremonies, presentations, and guitar pick tag.
other events. Both boots are sold exclusively on wolverine.com.
The partnership will benefit three community college
DOE Awards Millions to EPRI for Advancing trade programs across the country — Grand Rapids Com-
munity College, Grand Rapids, Mich.; Lone Star College,
Modular-in-Chamber Electron Beam Houston, Tex.; and WSU Tech, Wichita, Kans. — with each
Welding Capabilities receiving a $100,000 joint grant from Wolverine and Metal-
lica Scholars, as well as Wolverine boots to help students get
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Washington, D.C., started in their career.
has presented an award of $5.1 million to Electric Power Re-
search Institute Inc. (EPRI), headquartered in Palo Alto, Calif.,
for developing modular-in-chamber electron beam welding ca-
Kawasaki Introduces K-EDU Virtual Training
pabilities. These advanced capabilities will be used for a future The Kawasaki Training Center, Wixom, Mich., has made
reactor demonstration project. some of its most popular courses accessible from any loca-
The award came through the Office of Nuclear Energy’s tion using an online training platform. With K-EDU virtual
funding opportunity announcement, U.S. Industry Opportuni- training, students may attend courses such as standard op-
ties for Advanced Nuclear Technology Development. erations and programming (T and E controllers), AS lan-
The project will demonstrate a 10-ft-diameter, 4.375-in.- guage, Cubic-S safety configuration and setup, plus more in
thick vessel electron beam weld in less than 90 min of welding development.
time. Additionally, it will establish the capability of modular- The company’s K-ROSET simulation software is used to
in-chamber electron beam welding to perform major reactor give remote students a realistic robot programming experi-
pressure vessel girth welds for a NuScale Power reactor presence. Through the virtual teaching platform, trainers explain
sure vessel design and develop manufacturing process plans concepts using collaborative white boards and utilize virtual
based on technology and required postweld inspection/heat breakout rooms for individualized attention.
treatment. Contact training@kri-us.com for course dates and availabil-
ity, or visit https://robotics.kawasaki.com/userAssets1/pdf/
Wolverine and Metallica Release Boots to Training_Calendar.pdf.
Provide Funding for Trade Programs
MFG Day 2020 Goes Online
Manufacturing (MFG) Day, and the industry’s month-long
celebration it kicks off, will be different this year. In lieu of stu-
dents touring factories, technical schools, and more in person,
they will have the opportunity to do so virtually. Manufactur-
ers will show parents, teachers, and students what careers in
today’s advanced manufacturing industry look like thanks to
virtual programming.
In advance of this year’s MFG Day, which is October 2, The
All proceeds from the Wolverine  Metallica Scholars collab- Manufacturing Institute, the workforce and education partner
oration boots will be used to educate trade students
through the Metallica Scholars Initiative.
of the National Association of Manufacturers, Washington,
D.C., held a webinar to help manufacturers plan virtual events.
It detailed what manufacturers should do, such as reach out to
Wolverine, Rockford, Mich., the 137-year-old boot brand, local associations and regional groups to see if there is an ex-
and heavy metal band Metallica’s nonprofit All Within My isting event they can co-host or participate in; offered advice
Hands (AWMH) are partnering to help build the future Ameri- on how to host their own virtual event; and provided examples
can workforce. from the field. Visit creatorswanted.org to acces the recording. WJ

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WASHINGTON WATCHWORD
Tariffs Reinstated on Canadian Aluminum • Increase the standard R&D tax credit from 20 to 40%;
• Increase the alternative simplified credit from 14 to 28%;
The United States has renewed 10% tariffs on imports of • Increase the credit for firms with no history of R&D in
nonalloyed aluminum from Canada. In 2019, the United the past 3 years from 6 to 14%; and
States removed all tariffs on steel and aluminum imports • Increase the startup credit against payroll taxes from
from Canada as part of the United States-Mexico-Canada $250,000 to $500,000.
Agreement (USMCA). However, under the USMCA, if surges
in imports of these steel or aluminum products occur, the
United States may re-impose tariffs on those products. In SEC Revises Proxy Advisory Firm Rule
recent months, that is exactly what has occurred. Canadian
imports of nonalloyed aluminum have increased substan- Responding to long-standing complaints of an outsized
tially and U.S. aluminum consumption has decreased signifi- role played by proxy advisory firms in corporate elections
cantly. In light of this surge, and in keeping with the terms and other matters subject to shareholder votes, the Securi-
of the USMCA, the United States re-imposed the 10% ad ties and Exchange Commission (SEC) has amended its rules
valorem additional duty on imports of nonalloyed aluminum to ensure that clients of proxy voting advice businesses have
from Canada. reasonable and timely access to more transparent, accurate,
and complete information on which to make voting deci-
sions. The amendments aim to facilitate the ability of those
OSHA Announces Final Beryllium Standard for who use proxy voting advice (i.e., investors and others who
General Industry vote on investors’ behalf) to make informed voting deci-
sions.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has published a final rule revising the beryllium
standard for general industry. The final rule includes White House Releases Fiscal Year 2022
changes designed to clarify the standard and simplify or R&D Priorities
improve compliance. Additionally, it amends the following
paragraphs of the beryllium standard for general industry: The White House Office of Management and Budget and
definitions, methods of compliance, personal protective the Office of Science and Technology Policy have issued their
clothing and equipment, hygiene areas and practices, house- annual memorandum describing priorities for R&D for fiscal
keeping, medical surveillance, hazard communication, and year 2022. The memorandum is intended to direct federal
recordkeeping. The standard also has a new addendum — agencies as they develop their fiscal year 2022 budget pro-
Appendix A: Operations for Establishing Beryllium Work Ar- posals. The following lists the
eas. The compliance date of this final standard as modified areas of focus.
was September 14, 2020. • Advanced manufacturing: Priorities include smart and
digital manufacturing and advanced industrial robotics, es-
pecially systems enabled by the industrial internet of things.
OSHA Issues Updated FAQs on Masks An area of particular importance is the development of nano
and advanced materials and processes in the biomedical arena.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration • Advanced military capabilities: The focus is on meeting
(OSHA) has updated its series of frequently asked questions emerging threats and protecting American security into the
(FAQs) regarding the use of masks in the workplace. The FAQs future, including offensive and defensive hypersonic
now indicate that OSHA “generally recommends that em- weapons capabilities, resilient national security space
ployers encourage workers to wear face coverings at work” systems, and modernized and flexible strategic and non-
but does not mandate it. The FAQs further state that “face strategic nuclear deterrent capabilities.
coverings are intended to prevent wearers who have COVID- • Semiconductors: Agencies are asked to prioritize invest-
19 without knowing it (i.e., those who are asymptomatic ments to ensure government access to trusted and assured
or presymptomatic) from spreading potentially infectious microelectronics and continued American leadership in
respiratory droplets to others. This is known as “source semiconductor technologies. This includes the underlying
control.” materials, devices, designs, and software, as well as the fab-
rication and characterization tools and facilities, required
for advanced microelectronics.
R&D Tax Credit Bill Introduced for Business • American space leadership: R&D investments should
Startups continue to leverage efforts underway at American universi-
ties and in the private sector. These investments should
Legislation (H.R. 7766) has been added in the House that also focus on ensuring American leadership in space, includ-
would double the R&D tax credit and allow more small busi- ing a return to the Moon’s surface by 2024 for long-term
ness startups to access this credit. In particular, the bill exploration and utilization, as well as future human mis-
would do the following: sions to Mars. WJ
HUGH K. WEBSTER, AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE — Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747
Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; email hwebster@wc-b.com; fax (202) 835-0243.

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NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
The Cobot Expo Brings Virtual Booth Visits and was free to attend and attracted 7500 registrants. It not
Keynote Sessions to Its Audience only offered American manufacturers flexible automation
solutions but also played host to more than 30 booths,
keynote sessions, interactive Q&As, and live chats.
The COVID-19 pandemic’s social constraints were an im- After connecting to the online event, participants en-
petus for Universal Robots (UR), headquartered in Odense, tered a virtual lobby with the following features:
Denmark, to debut America’s largest virtual collaborative ro- • Welcome Desk. This space was surrounded by interac-
bot expo and conference. Held July 28–30, The Cobot Expo tive guests who moved around and conversed.
Upon joining The Cobot Expo online, attendees could see and This screenshot shows UR’s cobot welding booth. Collabora-
hear a virtual lobby filled with guests, then go to various ex- tive robots can handle gas tungsten arc, laser, gas metal arc,
hibit halls and keynote sessions. ultrasonic, plasma arc, and spot welding.

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• Access to Exhibit Halls from UR and Its Partners. • The New Normal in Manufacturing with Collabora-
Clicking on the exhibit hall screens allowed attendees to tive Robots. Led by Joe Campbell, head of marketing in
view booths overhead and up-close to gain insights on the North America for UR, this lecture looked at fundamental
most common cobot applications, such as machine tending, features of collaborative robots, how they are shaping the
packaging and palletizing, product inspection, assembly, factory automation playing field, and connecting those fea-
welding, dispensing, and finishing. Other offerings included tures to the challenge presented by COVID-19.
company descriptions, one-on-one chats with representa- He pointed out three areas of demand, as quoted below.
tives, video vaults for watching products in action, and re- “Companies are struggling to figure out how to deploy
sources with PDFs, which could be added to a “swag bag.” manufacturing lines to ensure worker safety and social dis-
• Admission to Keynote Sessions. Via an auditorium, tancing,” Campbell said. “We see a number of companies
showing more interactive guests, the speeches for each day that are trying to accelerate their reshoring efforts to make
were listed with countdown clocks until their start times. sure they don’t have a single supply chain that can be sev-
The following lists the highlights from two captivating ered by a global issue, such as the COVID crisis. Then we see
talks delivered during the virtual event. many companies that are recognizing that manufacturing
• Keynote from the UR President: Cobot Effective- flexibility is critically important.”
ness. Jürgen von Hollen shared visions and facts about He also detailed recent case studies, including one at All
UR, including its belief that robot automation, especially Axis Machining, Dallas, Tex. To socially distance manual la-
collaborative automation, should be made accessible to all bor and not turn away orders, it deployed eight UR10 cobots
types of companies (small, medium, and large). He re- for machine-tending tasks.
viewed its history and technologies, too. “Their employees feel comfortable going to work with the
“For Universal Robots, one of the most significant dif- social distancing that was enabled by the high productivity
ferences over the last years has been that we’ve moved of the cobots,” Campbell explained.
from being a pure product company to much more of an ap- Additional talks centered on choosing the right cobot
plications company,” von Hollen said. model and peripherals, deciding whether to take a do-it-
He also went over its belief concerning humans. “Our yourself approach or go with an integrator, and more.
human brain is stimulus seeking, so we want to learn, we In conclusion, carrying on during this time hasn’t been
want to discover, and we want to adapt,” von Hollen said. easy, but thanks to modern technology and hardworking
Therefore, not wasting potential is important. staff, certain events have been able to continue virtually.
Later, he touched on increased political/economic volatil- Visit universal-robots.com to learn more about The Cobot
ity and the COVID-19 crisis. “One of the most important Expo and read blogs, including a series on manufacturing in
things we can do is ensure flexibility,” von Hollen said. the age of COVID-19. — Kristin Campbell, managing editor

AWS Launches Professional Development and keep up with advances in their fields by learning from
Training, Debuts New Podcast Episode, and industry experts. They can enroll in a live, in-person semi-
nar or log into a webinar from their home/office while
Certifies Lakeshore Technical College as an ATF earning PDHs and CEUs upon course completion.
Is welding aluminum difficult . . . or just different? This
The American Welding Society (AWS), Miami, Fla., has
is the topic the first training program, Aluminum Welding
unveiled Professional Development Training, released the
for Fabricators, Inspectors, and Engineers, addresses
second episode of “Weld Wednesday with AWS,” and certi-
(aws.org/aluminum). Its six one-hour sessions over two
fied Lakeshore Technical College (LTC), Cleveland, Wis., as
weeks focuses on ways attendees can conduct aluminum
an Accredited Test Facility (ATF).
welding projects.
• AWS has developed a series of webinars. This ef-
“As part of our continuing efforts to address the needs
fort will help participants remain active and earn profes-
of our members, we are developing new, more specialized
sional development hours (PDHs) or continuing education
training opportunities for welders, inspectors, and engi-
units (CEUs). With the AWS Professional Development
neers,” said Alicia Garcia, AWS director of education and
Training sessions, attendees can broaden their skill sets
training. “We are excited to begin offering webinars and
seminars on a variety of topics that will allow industry per-
sonnel to stay current in their field of work and earn PDHs
and CEUs to meet the training requirements of their pro-
fessional certifications and licenses.”
Additional webinars and live seminars will be added
throughout the year (awo.aws.org).
• Listen to the new Weld Wednesday with AWS
podcast. This series, recently launched by AWS and the Arc
Junkies podcast, is accessible at aws.org/podcasts.
Episode 2 has the title “It’s Okay to Screw Things Up.”
Tune in as host Jason Becker interviews Nate Bowman, an
AWS Certified Welding Inspector, Certified Welding Educa-
Schaus Mechanical Welders Tyler Loeh and Trevor Giesler were tor, and Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS). They talk
reported to be among the first welders to become nationally about the process of becoming a CWS, its advantages,
certified at Lakeshore Technical College, Cleveland, Wis. and more.

• AWS has certified LTC as an ATF (aws.org/

certification/accreditedtestfacilities). The college is re-
ported to be one of only three testing facilities in Wisconsin.
Area employers wanting their welders to demonstrate and
document their expertise, or any individual wanting to earn
AWS certification, can now use LTC for testing. This new cer-
tification also benefits current and future LTC students, who
have access to the college’s multiple welder education oppor-
tunities, including the welding-fabrication technician and
welding-industrial technical degree programs.
“By becoming an AWS Accredited Test Facility, we can
conveniently serve local and regional manufacturers and
other companies who want their welders to become certi-
fied, as well as any individuals seeking this certification,”
said LTC Welding Program Coordinator and Instructor
David Saunders. “These companies previously spent time
and money sending their welders hours away, even to other
states, to become certified.” Recently, Ingalls Shipbuilding moved destroyer USS Delbert
D. Black (DDG 119) to Pier Four on the east bank of the
Pascagoula River. (Photo by Derek Fountain/Huntington In-
galls Industries.)
Ingalls Shipbuilding Marks the Reopening
of a Facility Devastated by Hurricane Katrina mize ship assembly, and a restored pier where ships will
dock upon returning from sea trials.
Huntington Ingalls Industries’ Ingalls Shipbuilding divi- “This restoration and modernization project demon-
sion moved destroyer USS Delbert D. Black (DDG 119) to Pier strates our commitment to continuously enhancing our
Four on the east bank of the Pascagoula River in Mississippi. shipbuilding facilities to increase capability and ensure
This signified the reopening of a facility decimated by Hurri- future growth,” said Ingalls Shipbuilding President Brian
cane Katrina in 2005. Cuccias.
The reactivated, 187-acre east bank features storage facil-
ities, covered construction areas to improve safety and opti- — continued on page 65

Arc 2 Art Column.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 2:11 PM Page 14
ARC-TIST CORNER
Metal Artists Raise Their Torches to Recreate the

Statue of Liberty
Barbie the Welder and Stephanie Hoffman showcase the artistic opportunities in the weld-
ing industry as part of AWS’s Arc 2 Art project
The artists are joining forces from a distance, each work-

ing on a different part of the statue in their separate shops.
Once their respective components are finished, they will
meet at Exit 74 Fabrications, Whiting, N.J., to join their
sections and complete the final part of the sculpture: an
American flag that will be draped across the figure’s body.
It will be the first time either woman has made art with
someone else.
Join the Journey

During the process, the two artists will keep a video diary
of their progress and post their footage at aws.org/arc2art
for a total of eight episodes. For more behind-the-scenes
details, follow the women on Instagram @underground_
metal_works and @barbiethewelder.
In August, the first episode of Arc 2 Art featured Hoff-
AWS’s Arc 2 Art project pairs Barbie the Welder (left) and
Stephanie Hoffman in a creative venture to craft a smaller
version of the Statue of Liberty.
The Statue of Liberty stands tall in the New York Harbor,

a beacon of freedom that historically greeted immigrants ar-
riving to the United States by sea.
Now, thanks to welding and fabricating artists Barbie the
Welder and Stephanie Hoffman, a smaller version of Lady Lib-
erty will stand just as proud, if not as tall. The estimated 6-ft
sculpture, outfitted with a welding torch held high in her right
hand, welding helmet, and code book cradled in her left hand,
will be a symbol of artistic expression, inviting people of all
backgrounds to consider welding as a career option — Fig. 1.
Lighting the Way from Across the Miles

The sculpture’s fabrication is part of the American Weld- Fig. 1 — Hoffman’s sketch for the welder Lady Liberty, where
ing Society’s (AWS’s) Arc 2 Art project, which highlights her decorative details may be viewed.
welding as a creative profession.

Arc 2 Art Column.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 2:12 PM Page 15
man and Barbie enthusiastically discussing the project on “I come from a much more technical, standards-style
Instagram Live — Fig. 2. The event attracted participants background. A lot of pipework, different codes and stan-
from around the world. Hoffman revealed her sketch for the dards. So my art still sometimes has a lot of fabrication in-
sculpture, which was inspired by the artwork on a sticker fluence,” said Hoffman. Her portion of the project includes
she had designed. The two artists also covered technical de- making the base, which will contain the AWS logo; AWS
tails, answered questions, and mused on what the statue D1.2 Structural Welding Code — Aluminum book and welding
means to them. helmet. She plans to try new-to-her techniques such as acid
“I think this sculpture really symbolizes coming together, etching and sculpting aluminum.
and the fact that at our core, [we], as Americans, are strong,” “I’m only going to be using two materials: aluminum and
Hoffman said. “We’re going to get through anything.” copper,” Hoffman said. “I thought it was really important
Barbie’s sentiments also reflected a popular national val- that we incorporate different types of material within this
ue. “[The statue] represents freedom to me. Welding gave project . . . So I wanted to make sure I contributed some-
me the freedom to do so much with my life. It’s given me so thing that is my personal favorite material to work with, and
many opportunities,” she said. that is aluminum.”
Barbie the Welder, as she’s commonly known, is a metal
sculptor from Erin, N.Y., who has been welding for 13 years. A Reveal to Remember
She’s created commissioned artwork for individual and cor-
porate clients, including a sculpture made completely out of The unveiling of the sculpture is planned for mid-Novem-
scrap for Harley Davidson’s 115th anniversary. Her diverse ber. Afterward, it is hoped the welder Lady Liberty will be a
repertoire includes figures of otherworldly creatures with centerpiece inside the Careers in Welding Trailer during its
humanoid bodies. This part of her work lends itself to her 2021 tour across the United States, showing visitors that
role in the project: crafting the body of the statue. The fig- welding goes beyond construction and pipelines.
ure will be framed out in ¼-in. round bar and covered with “Welding is an art before you do anything else with it,”
11-gauge steel sheet. Barbie concluded. “A person can pick up a torch and create
“If you think about a chocolate Easter bunny, how it’s hol- something. Whether it’s from a blueprint or not, they’re
low inside, it’s the same concept but 5 ft tall,” Barbie ex- artists. Fabrication is literally just a creation of art.” WJ
plained. “It’s going to push my skills past anything I’ve ever
done.”
She will also use 1⁄8-in. ER70S filler rod for welder Lady ALEXANDRA QUIÑONES (aquinones@aws.org) is associate editor of
Liberty’s hair, which will be in a ponytail. the Welding Journal.
Hoffman has been welding since her freshman year in
high school and spent her early career working in a shipyard
doing hydraulic pipe repair and anodized aluminum
pipework. She then took her experience from the dock to
the classroom, becoming a vocational school welding in-
structor. These days, she creates metal art from her New
Jersey shop and works as program manager of workforce
development for AWS.
Fig. 2 — Hoffman (top) looks on as Barbie jokingly shares her

version of the sketch (bottom) in episode one of Arc 2 Art.

Aluminum Oct 20 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 9/9/20 3:39 PM Page 16
ALUMINUM Q&A
BY TONY ANDERSON
Q: I have put together a quiz that

provides an opportunity for you
to test your knowledge of alu-
minum and aluminum welding
technology.
All respondents with the cor-
rect answers will be entered in a
drawing where six prize winners
will be selected. The deadline for
receiving answers and entering
the drawing is October 31. There
is only one correct answer to
each question.
Anyone interested in entering
the prize drawing should send
me an email to tony.anderson@
millerwelds.com with their an-
swers. Simply list the question
number along with the letter of
your selected answer.
The answers to these ques-
tions will be published in the De-
cember Aluminum Q&A column,
along with the names of the six
respondents selected at random Fig. 1 — All six winners will receive a signed copy of the AWS publication Welding
from all respondents who answer Aluminum — Questions and Answers (2nd edition) along with their choice of a Dri
every question correctly. Duck fleece pullover or a Digital Elite™ series welding helmet.
All six winners will receive a
signed copy of the American c) -T6 5. After gas metal arc welding
Welding Society (AWS) publica- d) -T8 (GMAW) a complete joint penetra-
tion Welding Aluminum — Ques- e) -T10 tion double-V-groove weld in base
tions and Answers (2nd edition) metal 6061-T6 using a welding pro-
along with their choice of a Dri cedure qualified to D1.2/D1.2M:2014
Duck fleece pullover or a Digital 3. When plasma cutting aluminum Structural Welding Code — Alu-
Elite™ series welding helmet — on a water table, what gas can be minum, and an ER5183 filler metal,
Fig. 1. created through a reaction of the what would be the expected as-
water and molten aluminum, be- welded condition of the weld heat-
come trapped, and potentially affected zone (HAZ)?
1. What is the most suitable 5xxx cause an explosion?
series filler metal to be used for a) Higher strength than the weld metal
welding a structure made from a) Hydrogen b) Lower strength than the weld metal
5454 base metal that will see pro- b) Nitrogen c) Naturally aged to the -T4 temper
longed exposure to temperatures c) Ozone d) Overaged and partially annealed
between 150° and 350°F? d) Acetylene e) Both b and d above
e) Propane
a) ER5356
b) ER5554
4. When compared to steel, resist- 6. What is the primary cause of
c) ER5556
ance spot welding (RSW) of alu- porosity in aluminum welds?
d) ER5183
e) ER5087 minum typically requires welding
schedules and equipment that a) The absorption of oxygen during
deliver: welding
2. The statement “solution heat b) The absorption of hydrogen during
treated, cold worked, and then arti- a) Lower currents but much longer welding
ficially aged” describes which of weld times c) The absorption of nitrogen during
the following tempers used for a b) Higher currents but much shorter welding
heat-treatable aluminum alloy? weld times d) The absorption of carbon dioxide
c) Alternating current (AC) only during welding
a) -T2 d) Direct current (DC) only e) All of the above because they are all
b) -T5 e) Both a and c in the atmosphere.

Aluminum Oct 20 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 9/9/20 3:40 PM Page 17
7. In accordance with AWS D1.2/ e) There is no limit specified for this are used to describe the changes in
D1.2M:2014, Structural Welding Code weld. mechanical properties from expo-
— Aluminum, welding shall not be sure to specific heating processes.
performed in a wind exceeding Physically, the changes in the alu-
what speed? 9. Stress-corrosion cracking is a minum metal contributing to the
common issue in 5xxx series alu- strength during heat treating are:
a) 5 mph minum when alloys over 3% Mg are
b) 10 mph exposed to elevated service tem- a) Changes to the aluminum grain
c) 15 mph peratures (between 150° and structure
d) 20 mph 350°F). In the case of 5xxx series b) Precipitate formation and growth
e) Wind speed is not addressed in the weldments, this phenomenon is c) Solute segregation
code. caused by: d) Temperature-induced strain
hardening
a) Galvanic cells between the bulk Al e) None of the above
8. In accordance with AWS and the dissolved Mg
D1.2/D1.2M:2014, Structural Welding b) Secondary phases forming on metal TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum
Code — Aluminum, when welding grain boundaries technology, ITW Welding North America.
5086 with 5356 using a welding c) Secondary phases forming in metal He is a Fellow of the British Welding
procedure specification (WPS) grain interiors Institute (TWI), is a Registered Chartered
Engineer with the British Engineering
qualified to D1.2, what is the maxi- d) Residual stress on welded joints Council, and holds numerous positions on
mum allowable increase in preheat e) Both a and d AWS technical committees. He is chair of
from that specified on the WPS? f) Both b and d the Aluminum Association Technical
Advisory Committee for Welding and author
of the book Welding Aluminum — Questions
a) An increase of > 25°F and Answers currently available from AWS.
b) An increase of > 50°F 10. When considering 2xxx, 6xxx, Questions may be sent to Tony Anderson
c) An increase of > 100°F and 7xxx series aluminum, the c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., #130,
Miami, FL 33166-6672, or via email at
d) An increase of > 150°F terms “aging” and “heat treatability” tony.anderson@millerwelds.com.

BRAZING Q&A OCT 20.qxp_Layout 1 9/9/20 3:53 PM Page 18
BRAZING Q&A
BY DAN KAY
Q: We use brazing paste for our

brazing processes. On each of
the brazing alloy paste cartridges
there is a warning label stating
the paste must be refrigerated
prior to use. Why should the
paste be refrigerated? Is this
necessary?
A: Refrigeration of brazing paste is

only recommended if the paste is go-
ing to be stored out in the open in very
warm/hot brazing shop locations. It is Fig. 2 — A paste dispenser used to ex-
strictly designed to keep the paste trude BFM paste onto parts that will
from getting overheated and then be brazed. (Photo courtesy of Nordson
breaking down (i.e., when the binder EFD, Westlake, Ohio.)
separates from the brazing filler metal
[BFM] powder being held in suspen- Over time, refrigerators replaced ice
sion in the gel binder). boxes, and it became convenient for
Many brazing shops receive BFM brazing shop personnel to use them
pastes in containers (from small car- for storing and protecting those braz-
tridges up to large buckets) on which a Fig. 1 — A typical mini fridge used by ing paste containers. Paste manufac-
label says that the BFM paste must be brazing shops to store brazing paste turers realized the benefits of such
refrigerated prior to use. Without cartridges. storage (it kept their pastes from get-
proper explanation, such a statement ting hot and breaking down if left out
can lead to significant misunderstand- turn, can extrude the cold paste out of in hot shops). Some of these manufac-
ings about what is meant by such a the cartridge tip. turers began to place notices on the la-
phrase. In actual fact, it has caused a Many years ago, brazing was done bels of those containers about the ben-
lot of difficulties for brazing personnel in very hot heat treating shops be- efits of such cool storage. Over time,
who have erroneously believed that cause those were the shops that had those notices got briefer, finally wind-
brazing paste, according to that warn- furnaces that were hot enough to al- ing up simply as “Brazing paste must
ing, should be “cold” when it is being low brazing to be done. These furnaces be refrigerated prior to use.” But shops
used in the shop. Thus, before they used to be heated with gas-fired burn- actually got cooler over the years as
use the brazing paste, they place it in a ers; the furnaces and the shop were lit- more efficient furnaces became avail-
small refrigerator, such as that shown erally “sweat shops” (this was long be- able and much more so when cold wall
in Fig. 1, and then remove it the next fore vacuum furnaces were developed vacuum furnaces came on line. Addi-
day for use in their shop. Such a proce- for brazing). Because these shops were tionally, a lot of the braze prep was
dure is completely wrong. very hot, brazing pastes used in them able to be moved into environmentally
I’ve been involved in the manufac- would likewise become very warm —
ture and testing of brazing pastes for so much so that the gel binders in
many years, and I will categorically those pastes could break down, i.e.,
state there is nothing inherent in the couldn’t suspend the heavy metal
chemistry of brazing pastes that re- powder any longer, and the binder and
quires the paste to be cold when it is the BFM powder would separate..It
being used. Cold brazing paste is much was discovered that when those paste
stiffer (has a significantly higher vis- containers were placed inside an ice
cosity) and will be, therefore, much box in the office of the heat treat shop
more difficult to extrude from paste (Fig. 3), those paste containers were
cartridges. Trying to extrude cold able to remain cool and more stable
brazing paste can actually create a dan- over time. Those paste containers also
gerous situation if the pressure re- did not break down.
quired to extrude the paste becomes Consequently, it became customary
too high. People often dispense braz- to require that the brazing paste be
ing paste using a dispenser such as the placed in a cold box for storage to pre-
one shown in Fig. 2. They have to keep vent the gel binder from breaking
increasing the pressure of the air that down prematurely due to the excessive
goes through the clear tubing to the shop heat. Then, when the paste was
cartridge until there is finally enough needed, the containers were brought Fig. 3 — Photo of an old ice box used
air pressure to slowly move the rub- out into the shop where they warmed to keep items cool. It literally used
blocks of ice inside its insulated box
ber/plastic piston in the back end of up and were then able to be extruded
to cool things down.
the hand-held cartridge so that it, in from cartridges without any difficulty.

BRAZING Q&A OCT 20.qxp_Layout 1 9/9/20 3:54 PM Page 19
controlled rooms, rather than out on

the hot shop floor.
These environmentally controlled
rooms allow the boxes of brazing paste
cartridges to be stored in simple cabi-
nets above the work benches.
It is unfortunate, in my opinion,
that some BFM paste manufacturers
Bottleneck, Blockage,
still place the refrigeration warning on
Pressure Build-up
their paste containers without further
explanation.
A number of years ago, I was visit-
Same Tip-Size Opening
ing a brazing company for a few days
to help with its brazing operations.
The company did a lot of brazing but
was having some issues with its braz-
ing paste and asked me to investigate.
The company’s brazing prep was
done in a nice, clean, environmentally
controlled room. As I audited prep
processes, I noticed that the shop
leader, at the end of the work day, Smoother Flow with
went over to one of the wooden stor- Minimal Blockage
age cabinets on the back wall of the
room over one of the work benches
and removed a box of BFM paste car-
tridges. These were relatively small Fig. 4 — Tapered plastic tips can significantly reduce the amount of pressure
cartridges, each one holding approxi- needed to extrude BFM paste from a cartridge.
mately 8 oz (225 g) of BFM paste. He
opened the box and removed all of the way that the pressure setting on the brazing pastes can actually be slowly
paste cartridges and placed them in a paste dispenser does not need to be removed by steady refrigeration, even
small refrigerator that was sitting on a higher than about 20 lb/in.2 (135 kPa). though the paste is stored in plastic
low bench near the door to the brazing To achieve this, you may need to cartridges (the front and back of car-
shop. The next morning, he took all switch to using the preferred tapered tridges may not be perfectly sealed).
the paste cartridges from the refriger- plastic cartridge tips, as shown in Fig.
ator and placed them at each of the 4, rather than the thin, straight stain- Conclusion
brazing stations out on the shop floor. less steel needles commonly seen
I observed some of the shop workers today. It is not necessary to refrigerate
trying to extrude this cold paste and The thin stainless steel needles BFM paste in the vast majority of
watched as they had to keep increasing were actually designed to be used with brazing shops today. Specs and labels
the air pressure shown on the dis- thin oils and adhesives and not to ex- requiring refrigeration should be elim-
penser (similar to the one shown in trude thick pastes. That’s why the inated or changed to give “the rest of
Fig. 2) until the paste finally began to caulk cartridges you buy in the store the story.” Note: If you want to use a
move slowly out of the cartridge tip. always have tapered plastic tips. refrigerator to store BFM paste, that’s
Instead of only about 20 lb/in.2 (135 All that is actually needed for BFM fine. Just unplug it. Then it makes a
kPa), they had to keep raising the pres- paste storage today is that it be pro- fine storage cabinet! WJ
sure until it was almost 90 lb/in.2 (620 tected from any dirty/oily shop atmos-
kPa). This can be dangerous! At that phere and from excessive heat. Thus,
point, I asked the leader to call all his by keeping the BFM paste cartridges
workers together to discuss this con- in a storage cabinet, at ambient tem-
cept of using paste properly and why perature, in the room where the BFM
paste refrigeration was not necessary is applied to the parts, or in an insulat- DAN KAY (dan.kay@kaybrazing.com), with
45 years of experience in the industry,
in their shop. ed cabinet (such as the yellow safety operates his own brazing training and
Please note, again, that there is ab- cabinets in use today) out on the shop consulting business. This column is written
solutely nothing about refrigeration floor (if the BFM paste is applied to sequentially by TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER
that helps the BFM paste’s inherent the parts out in the shop), you will E. SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and
brazing performance in any way. Such achieve all the desired level of protec- Shapiro are members of and Kay is an
advisor to the C3 Committee on Brazing
practice is merely a carry over from tion to the paste that is needed. and Soldering. All three have contributed to
the past, designed to keep brazing Also note that a refrigerator can the 5th edition of the AWS Brazing
pastes from breaking down when actually dehumidify objects placed in Handbook. Readers are requested to email
stored in high-heat environments. them (you may already have noticed their questions for use in this column to
the authors, cweihl@aws.org, or send to
As a recommendation, brazing this with vegetables that are stored their attention at Welding Journal,
paste should be held at a comfortable unprotected in refrigerators at home). 8669 NW 36 St. #130, Miami, FL 33166.
room temperature and used in such a The water content of the gel binders in

Edu Insp Oct 2020.qxp_Layout 1 9/8/20 7:10 PM Page 20
EDUCATION INSPIRATION
BY JIM GALLOWAY
Welding Robotics and Automation Take Center Stage at

Conestoga College
This college launched two programs to fulfill the increasing demand for welding automation
technicians and technologists
The college offers a range of programs from apprentice-

ships to short certificates to four-year baccalaureate de-
grees. It currently has more than 20,000 full-time students
and more than 3000 apprenticeship seats. Programs in the
technical division include one-year certificates (techniques),
two-year diplomas (technician), three-year advanced diplo-
mas (engineering technologist), and four-year accredited en-
gineering degrees. In the welding field alone, Conestoga of-
fers various programs and pathways for students — Fig. 1.
Manufacturing Engineering Technology —

Welding & Robotics Program
Conestoga developed the manufacturing engineering
technology — welding & robotics (MET-W&R) program to
fulfill the increasing demand for welding automation tech-
nologists. Graduates of this program are primarily recruited
by robotic integrators, robotic or welding original equip-
ment manufacturers (OEMs), and end users into their man-
ufacturing engineering teams.
The three-year MET-W&R program shares the first two
years with the welding engineering technology — inspection
(WET-I) program. Both groups learn basic welding along with
fabrication theory and practice in the first year. The second
year focuses on the fundamental science and technology as-
pects of the field, including welding metallurgy, procedure
development and qualification, codes and standards, and
welding process laboratories. The basics of welding inspec-
tion and automation and robotics are taught in common
A student programs an arc welding robot at Conestoga College.
Conestoga College, a polytechnic college based in Kitchen-

er, Ontario, Canada, has established two programs focused
on the field of welding robotics and automation. These
unique programs are built upon a solid foundation of welding
skills and process knowledge, followed by significant hands-
on activities in a welding robotics lab supported by a welding
technician or welding engineering technologist. The welding
robotics and automation programs complement other pro-
grams at the college focused on welding skills development,
metal fabrication and fitting training, and welding inspec-
tion and nondestructive examination. Fig. 1 — Welding programs offered at Conestoga College.

Table 1 — Welding Robotics and Automation Equipment List

Two Yaskawa/Motoman robots with Miller Electric welding ESAB submerged arc column and boom system (with A2-A6
systems PEK controller)
ABB robot equipped with Fronius welding system Centerline mid-frequency direct current resistance spot
welding (RSW) press
FANUC/Lincoln robots with integrated iRvision system, coor-
dinated motion welding positioner, and Servo Torch option for Mawer rocker arm RSW (with MedWeld controller)
soft wire feeding
Fronius gas metal arc welding (cold metal transfer) system
Octopuz offline robotic programming software
Gullco weld cladding system and weld oscillator
Liburdi gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) orbital pipe welding
PLC with hydraulics and pneumatics labs
system
Haco computer numerical control press brake
Lincoln Power Wave® (GTAW) lathe with magnetic oscillator
and cold wire feeder Hypertherm/Koike plasma arc cutting table (with ProNest
CAD/CAM nesting software)
courses in this year. Students have the option of enrolling in courses covering offline programming software, seam track-
a 16-month paid co-op experience and transferring between ing, and vision systems. Support courses such as computer-
these programs up until the end of the second year. aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM),
As its name implies, there is a strong emphasis on au- programmable logic controller (PLC) programming, automa-
tomation in the final year of the MET-W&R program. The tion and tooling, hydraulics and pneumatics, quality assur-
college has invested in six robotic welding cells, in addition ance, and operations management and welding cost analysis
to other fixed automation systems (Table 1). There are in- fill out the specialized curriculum.
troductory courses in robotics and robotic welding in the Another key component of the final year of the MET-
second year, and in the final year there are more advanced W&R program is the technical capstone project, where stu-
dents design, manage, and implement an independent study
project related to the field. These projects are often conduct-
ed in partnership with local employers or other industrial
partners looking for real-world solutions. In this capstone
project, students may implement vision or adaptive control
technologies, develop and qualify a new welding procedure,
or produce and evaluate a product created by wire arc addi-
tive manufacturing in one of the robotic cells — Fig. 2.
Welding Robotics Technicians

In Ontario, there is a clear distinction in the credentials
earned in two-year vs. three-year technical programs. Engi-
neering technologists have completed a three-year program
based upon applied science, mathematics, engineering prin-
ciples, and practices related to their field of study, in this
case manufacturing engineering with a focus on welding and
robotics. Generally, technicians have an education less fo-
cused on the theoretical and designed to develop skills as
practitioners — Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 — A pencil holder 3D printed on a standard arc welding

robot using wire arc additive manufacturing by Conestoga
College students. Fig. 3 — Welding engineering technology education.

Conestoga has responded to the increasing need for quali- welding requires accurate part preparation and fitup, and
fied shop-floor technicians to operate and maintain automat- therefore more end users are seeking skilled welder fitters
ed welding systems by launching a two-year technician level (metal fabricators), as well as robotic welding system opera-
program to support industry. The welding robotics technician tors and support by specialized technologists.
program has been designed to provide a way for one-year Conestoga College has responded by establishing welding
welding technique graduates to continue into the second year programs that are designed to develop a skilled workforce at
with advanced standing using a stacked credential — Fig. 1. all levels. New challenges such as teaching and working in a
This appeals to students seeking a more hands-on entry into COVID-19 environment have appeared in recent months.
the automated welding and fabricaton industry. However, with proper protocols, the most critical aspect of
Although a large part of the program’s focus is on robotic the programs, hands-on labs training, continues.
systems, other forms of welding and fabrication automation Firms implementing welding automation are facing tech-
are also included. Training on the operation of portable arc nological challenges, such as integrating robotic systems
welding and thermal cutting carriages, resistance spot weld- with coordinated motion, seam tracking, vision systems,
ing, orbital gas tungsten arc welding systems, fixed automa- and advanced welding processes; meeting stringent quality
tion such as a column and boom submerged arc welding, and requirements; and dealing with new alloy materials. Added
plasma arc cutting tables is included. This program offers a to this list is the ongoing struggle to recruit competent per-
four-month optional paid co-op term, allowing the students sonnel.
to gain work experience. Institutions developing the workforce to this level, such
This two-year program is appealing to workers seeking a as Conestoga College, require a strong faculty team and a sig-
second career in a field with a more stable future or to nificant investment by the institution in laboratory facilities
experienced welders who have been displaced by automa- and equipment. The ongoing support from industrial part-
tion. The automated system operator may also be expected ners, employers, and the OEM supply base is also critical to
to perform welding visual inspections and repair tasks as maintaining healthy trades and technology programs. WJ
part of the production process.
JIM GALLOWAY (jgalloway@conestogac.on.ca) teaches welding
Conclusion engineering technology at Conestoga College, Kitchener, Ontario,
Canada. He volunteers on several welding technical committees with
the Canadian Standards Association and is a Life Member of the
The undeniable fact is the drive toward welding and fab- American Welding Society.
rication automation is unstoppable. Successful automated

Letter to the Editor - OCT 2020.qxp_Layout 1 9/9/20 7:42 PM Page 23
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
A Historic Look at PAUT sive, tricky to operate and set up, and You are correct in that UT first ap-
there were very few technicians skilled peared as Appendix C in 1969, when the
I would like to comment on the ar- in its application. Like many emerging standard was called Code for Welding in
ticle titled, “Challenges and Opportu- technologies, it was a lab toy for sever- Building Construction. It was moved to
nities for Welding Heavy Structural al years after its inception. Pulse-echo the main body of the code in 1972, when
Steel” by Robert E. Shaw in the April UT took 40 years from its inception it was retitled as Structural Welding
2020 Welding Journal. I would first like and 24 years from the production of Code and included both buildings and
to state that I consider myself a friend practical equipment before it was in- bridges. In the 1969 edition, the num-
of Bob Shaw and immensely respect troduced in the AWS code. bered clauses were considered suitable as
his knowledge and service on the The statement “the acceptance cri- “rules and regulations,” and the appen-
American Welding Society (AWS) D1 teria in AWS D1.1 remain driven by dices were considered as “additional ma-
committee. However, I think he made workmanship and detectability; are terial pertinent to the regulation of weld-
some misstatements in this article limited to scans at 45, 60, and 70 deg; ing.” However, the numbered clauses cited
that merit some commentary and cor- and have not incorporated modern specific appendices with a “shall be,”
rection. structural performance approaches,” making them normative using today’s
In his section on phased array ul- makes it sound like the 13 years of terminology.
trasonic testing (PAUT), “Use of PAUT tireless work of the Inspection Task The improvements to UT in the D1
(and Other Flaw-Sizing Methods) to Group was misdirected and didn’t codes I referenced relate to organization
its Full Potential,” paragraph one, he achieve its goals. and clarity in its application, not to im-
stated the following: “AWS D1.1 The original intent and scope of the provements in acceptance criteria, which
[Structural Welding Code — Steel] intro- inspection language in this code have has remained relatively unchanged for
duced ultrasonic testing to the struc- always been based on workmanship more than 50 years.
tural welding code in 1972 and it has and detectability. Structural perform- I commend the Inspection Task Group
undergone many improvements since ance approaches can be used if there for its work bringing PAUT into the
that time.” Ultrasonic testing (UT) was are a well developed technique and cri- Structural Welding Code. The specific,
actually introduced in the 1969 edi- teria established and the engineer ap- detailed instructions for PAUT have en-
tions of both AWS D1.0 and D2.0 Ap- proves. The code already allows for abled its use on several recent projects
pendix C in both the Building and this and more advanced nondestruc- where its enhanced flaw detection and
Bridge codes so identified at the time. tive testing [examination] techniques, sizing capabilities have enabled engineer-
He is only three years off, no big deal, subject to engineer approval. The In- ing-based decisions to accept, repair, re-
but to say it has undergone many im- spection Task Group’s charge here was place, or reinforce welded joints in critical
provements is debatable. That original to create code language for PAUT that applications. At the same time, it has ex-
indication rating technique is still in could be substituted one-for-one for posed some of the weaknesses and limita-
the code body language today and has the pulse-echo technique in the main tions of using codified UT techniques and
only undergone minor changes over body of the code. We knew we weren’t scan angles, so there is more work to be
the 50 years it has been in the code, using the full capabilities of PAUT and done, as always.
which is a testament of how well it was there was a lot of pushback from many The opportunity I referenced is not di-
developed in the beginning. directions not to. Initial laboratory rected to the Inspection Task Group, but
How do I know this? I was vice testing indicated that more welds rather to those who, as you state, provid-
chair and chair of the Inspection Task would be rejected with this technique ed “pushback from many directions” not
Group for 12 years from 2006–2018. I if we allowed these full capabilities. to use the full capabilities of PAUT. The
also have documentation from previ- This would have rendered the PAUT use of the flaw-sizing capabilities of
ous group leaders during that time language moot and unused in the fab- PAUT, as well as other enhanced UT tech-
that highlighted the few changes that rication community. We didn’t have niques, was first and foremost in our
were made over the years. I can make time or expertise to develop a fitness minds when we introduced flaw-size
these available if needed. for purpose or “modern structural per- based acceptance criteria for moment
In the second paragraph, he stated: formance approach” technique and cri- connection welds in AWS D1.8, Struc-
“Although PAUT has been used suc- teria that would be acceptable to the tural Welding Code — Seismic Supple-
cessfully since its inception, the ac- entire D1 committee that would have ment, first edition in 2005, and they re-
ceptance criteria in AWS D1.1 remain to approve it. main part of that standard today. We
driven by workmanship and de- Please give this due consideration know it can be and has been done.
tectability; are limited to scans at 45, in your deliberations for the next So the opportunity is there, but we
60, and 70 deg; and have not incorpo- actions. should also consider it a challenge to seize
rated modern structural performance this opportunity and use PAUT to its full
approaches.” Here are my issues. Al- Gary Martin potential to build safer and more econom-
though PAUT has been used success- Greenville, SC ical structures. That takes teamwork
fully since its inception, I’m not sure from many, and I hope that the welding
one can say PAUT was successful in its Thank you, Gary, for your thoughtful community, with researchers and design
inception when it took almost 20 years Letter to the Editor. I, too, consider us engineers, will assist in this effort.
to get it in the AWS code. In the begin- friends from our years of service together
ning, the equipment was very expen- on AWS D1 committees. — Bob Shaw

P&P – Oct. 2020.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 12:48 PM Page 24
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three types of welding cells that can be of discolorations that engineers can
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Standard Helps Engineers can Society of Mechanical Engineers cations that utilize wire touch sense,
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pipe rather than polished tube. Al- to .062 in. (1.6 mm) in diameter. The
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oxidation of stainless steel welds made (514) 634-3434

Pemamek Feature.qxp_Layout 1 9/8/20 7:32 PM Page 29
Welding Automation Technologies

Join the Old and New
Learn how humans and robots can work BY JAAKKO HEIKONEN
together to create an adaptive welding process
W
elding automation is not a Getting Ahead with Offline ables a preanalysis of weldments; the
new concept, but the way it is Programming operator can examine which ones will
implemented is constantly be suitable for robotic welding.
evolving. Automation doesn’t elimi- Bottlenecking is a problem that is “The customer can have an addi-
nate the human element or intelli- often experienced in traditional pro- tional license not only for program-
gence — it just uses it in a different gramming. A bottleneck occurs when ming but for the production planning
way. For example, rather than having the capacity of an application or a phase,” Rusi noted. “They can import
the welder climb a scaffolding, balance computer system is limited or slows the piece as a 3D model in the soft-
themselves on a slippery surface, or down. According to Teemu Rusi, robot- ware and see whether the robot can
squeeze into a dangerously tight place ics manager at Pemamek Oy, Loimaa, reach difficult welds or how it should
to fill a groove, he or she can change Finland, the ability to program robotic be attached to the workpiece
the wire feed, heat range, wire diame- applications offline is ideal for low- positioner.”
ter, and much more via a computer volume, high-mix jobs because the The simulation enables collision-
screen while the robot does the physi- next welds are preprogrammed while free paths and an exact-time study al-
cal labor. the robot works on another piece si- ready in the preplanning phase.
This article aims to take the mys- multaneously — Fig. 1. This solves the Large parts and structures can take
tery out of automated welding and bottleneck problems where the opera- time to program and often have irreg-
provide examples of how the process tor needs to be next to the robot to ular groove welds due to the nature of
doesn’t have to be threatening to the control its motions with a teach pen- their geometry and size. Adaptive
welder workforce. dant. Offline programming also en- welding paths can be programmed
offline as well, allowing the software
to adapt those paths to fill grooves of
different depths and sizes. This is
especially suitable when working
with one-off or low-volume jobs in
succession.
“In the case of a ship bulkhead,
which has many intricate parts and
pieces, the first part can be pro-
grammed well before you ever get it to
the point where you can start to weld,”
said Michael Bell, national sales direc-
tor, Pemamek North America. “When
you start to weld the first part, the
second part or section can be pro-
grammed while the first is welding.
You can choose to what degree you
want to program the operation.”
Creating Weld Paths Using

Parametric Inputs and
Scanning
Adaptive welding is practically
A ship component is welded by a robot. tailor-made for the jumbo-sized parts
OCOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 29

grams were created based on these pa-

rameters entered by the operator,”
Rusi explained.
Welding time was reduced from 36
to 6 h, and the welds were spot-on
accurate.
“There were hard-to-reach areas on
that vessel,” Rusi recalled. “The welder
became the operator, preparing the
next pieces while the robot was doing
the tough welding task. I think one of
the biggest advantages here is that the
welder could get away from welding
fumes, arc illumination, and positions
that are hard on the back. The robots
can do these hard tasks.”
Another approach to creating cus-
tom weld paths for tough-to-weld
workpieces is by allowing the robots to
scan the workpieces themselves, then
generate programs based on the
Fig. 1 — Modular robotic systems, such as the one pictured here with Pemamek Ro- scanned data, automatically adapting
botics Manager Teemu Rusi, can be modified according to customer needs. each welding pass to those areas where
the grooves need to be filled. As with
found in wind towers and foundations, cell with two robots on two column- offline and parametric programming,
power, and offshore industries. The and boom-type gantries with three- the operator can take a symmetrical
sheer size of these pieces almost guar- axis movement: X = 5 ft (1500 mm), Y 3D computer-aided design image of the
antees there will be inconsistent = 6 ft (1800 mm), and Z = 10 ft (3000 workpiece and split it down the middle
grooves and measurements that are mm). A 50-ton, two-axis welding posi- to create a mirror image — Fig. 3.
difficult for welders to manually reach tioner sat in the middle, capable of ro- “The operators can use copy and
with the welding torch. tating the part 21 ft (6500 mm) in mirroring tools to create one weld on a
Rusi recalled a challenging job diameter. piece that they can copy or mirror to
brought to him by a Norwegian off- “In this case, we had 59.05-in.-long- the opposite side of the weldment,”
shore customer who was building a reach robotic arms that could weld Rusi said.
large steel winch for vessel anchors — inside the workpiece. Two robots weld- In some cases such as the one de-
Fig. 2. Previously, the customer welded ed simultaneously with the welding scribed above, welders become opera-
these pieces manually using 39.37-in.- positioner. Welding paths were pro- tors by trading in their welding torch
long welding torches. Hard-to-reach grammed using parametric input for a sophisticated software program
sections inside the piece and excep- methods whereby the operator en- that controls robotic welding arms to
tionally thin sections were impossible tered the outer diameter of the piece accurately reach and join those tough-
for a human welder to get to, and they and the inner core diameter and the to-reach spots where manual processes
experienced numerous quality issues number of ribs inside where the robot just won’t do.
as a result. The solution was a welding was welding. Tailor-made welding pro-
Multigenerational Welding
Approach
Younger, newly graduated welders
have had robots in their lives since
birth, and they have most likely used
some sort of basic welding path soft-
ware program. It’s the more experi-
enced welders, those who are nearing
retirement age, who might balk at the
idea that a robot can do a human’s job.
But, what if the two generations com-
bined their experience and knowledge
to create the most optimal adaptive
welding processes around?
According to Bell, software develop-
ers “take that welding knowledge —
metallurgy, speeds, feeds, etc. — put it
in a program and automate it. Welders
Fig. 2 — A robotic welding station with a 50-ton workpiece welding positioner. The still need their education, background,
part shown is for an anchor winch. and understanding of the process but

Fig. 3 — The PEMA WeldControl’s offline copy and mirror functions allow operators to create one weld on a piece and copy or
mirror it to the opposite side of the weldment.
can program the robots to do the work.” products and then determine how big
Robots are especially beneficial for Automated welding the welding stations should be, how
back-bending work. Manual welding long the robot arm reach should be,
can be a physically demanding job with technologies take how much movement for the external
workpieces ranging from manageable advantage of the axis do we need, and what the capacity
sizes like those found in automotive welder’s practical should be of our workpiece welding
applications to those requiring scaf- experience and positioner. All of our robotic systems
folding and precarious positioning to knowledge honed over are modular and can be modified ac-
reach a welding area. At some point, cording to customer needs.”
the welder can be put in a precarious
years on the job and give
position that jeopardizes his or her the physically tough Welding of the Future
safety. Automated welding technolo- tasks to an entity that
gies take advantage of the welder’s can’t really get hurt. In the future, Rusi envisions an
practical experience and knowledge all-automated process, from program-
honed over years on the job and give ming to final weld, for seamless,
the physically tough tasks to an entity cles can result in big savings during collision-free movements, while Mäki-
that can’t really get hurt. the manufacturing process and in- talo looks to the integration of differ-
crease efficiency,” said Pemamek CEO ent types of software such as welding
Onshoring the Production Juha Mäkitalo. “Some of our cus- control programs with enterprise re-
Process tomers have realized more than 50% source planning systems so that every
reduction in cycle times by automating aspect of the manufacturing process is
Manufacturing in the era of the their welding operations. In time, you documented. One thing is for certain,
COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted can add another shift using only auto- if accuracy, efficient welding opera-
the weak links in the supply chain mated processes (think preprogram- tions, and the ability to have absolute
from country to country. There is ming) using the same number of peo- control over the manufacturing
much talk about onshoring manufac- ple on the job. I think there are a lot of process is a priority for your shop,
turing, not just in the U.S. but in other opportunities to increase efficiency.” you’ll be adopting automated welding
countries in Europe and beyond. In- Customization of equipment can technologies quite soon. WJ
vestment in automated technologies help speed along processes even more.
goes a long way toward keeping pro- “We always analyze customer pro-
duction in-house for many companies. duction and the products they are JAAKKO HEIKONEN
“It helps you to keep manufacturing planning to use for robotic welding,” (jaakko.heikonen@pemamek.com) is
close to home. Automating welding cy- Rusi said. “We check their portfolio of owner, Pemamek Oy, Loimaa, Finland.

Campbell Universal Robots Vectis Feature October 20 WJ.qxp_Layout 1 9/8/20 7:49 PM Page 32
Cobot Welding Offers the Spark

to Overcome Labor Shortages
BY JOE CAMPBELL
AND JOSH PAWLEY
To perform various welds, MT Solar

started to use cobot welding, as shown
above. In return, the company has seen
quick changeovers and optimized
production.

A manufacturer achieved reliable repeatability and product

quality by implementing this method
MT Solar, a solar mounting equip- Demand Spikes and when you look at the time and re-
ment manufacturer based in Charlo, sources to get them up and running
Mont., designs and manufactures Labor Shortages Spur and programmed, it was not the route
mounting structures for solar modules Automation Adoption we wanted to take,” Jordan said.
of all sizes. A Vectis Automation Cobot He further noted the company pre-
Welding Tool, powered by Universal MT Solar experiences a 300% jump ferred a solution that wouldn’t require
Robots (UR), now handles a wide in demand for its solar mount prod- safety guarding and that existing oper-
range of MT Solar’s welds (see lead ucts every summer. However, the com- ators could handle.
photo). This move has not only en- pany had been unable to find skilled
abled quick changeovers but also opti- welders workers to handle the season-
mized production. al uptick at its rural manufacturing
Collaborative Robot
To discover even more key details, plant. Takes Center Stage
including how the company conquered Inspired by the welder’s suggestion,
labor shortages and freed current staff Jordan researched conventional weld- The paradigm changed when UR
from repetitive welding tasks, while ing robots, but found them inflexible was found. This provider of robot
successfully handling a 300% surge in and best suited to huge batches of the arms and cobots is headquartered in
demand, continue reading this case same item. Finding a flexible automa- Denmark, with other offices located
study. tion solution was crucial because the worldwide.
company makes many different types “The big difference is the ‘collabora-
of mounting parts, often in high tive robot approach’ of being able to
Unveiling the Unit mix/low volume batches. work with the robot, and it being so
Jordan explained the following: teachable and so easy to run,” Jordan
On the morning MT Solar’s new, “We have many products that go to- said.
do-it-yourself (DIY) Cobot Welding gether — think of us as a ‘Solar IKEA,’ While traditional welding robots re-
Tool arrived at the company’s Charlo if you will — where all the pieces have quire safety cages, cobots offer safe
facility in rural Montana, anticipation to be assembled in the field. If I don’t human-robot collaboration in close
had been building for some time. have all the other parts that go with it, proximity without fences, Jordan not-
“It made for a very interesting first I can’t ship anything.” ed. This helped to increase the appeal
few moments with the robot,” said The cost of conventional automa- of cobot-powered welding solutions.
Travis Jordan, owner and president, MT tion is compounded by the stress asso- “When I zoomed in and discovered
Solar. “The robot shows up on the ciated with programming and setup, Vectis Automation’s Cobot Welding
truck, and of course, I’m all excited he added. Tool, it became obvious that this com-
about it. I walk out of the office, and I’ve “At first, it might look like a good bination was the right way to go,” Jor-
got employees already cutting shrink idea to use traditional robots, but dan said. “You can work right beside
wrap off the robot and getting ready to
set something up. I was like, ‘Hang on! I
want to play!’ We had production parts
running that same afternoon.”
Those first production parts were
the culmination of a process that had
begun some months prior, as the com-
pany was scrambling to deal with sea-
sonal labor shortages. Then one day, a
welder handed Jordan a news article
on welding robots.
“He said, ‘I really think you should
look into this. It would be a good solu-
tion for our team,’” Jordan recalled.
“And I’m like, ‘Well, if you got one of
the operators saying you need to look
into robotics, you’ve got a reason you
should be doing something here.’”
His hiring woes reflect a national
trend. The American Welding Society
predicts a potential shortfall of Fig. 1 — “You can work right beside the cobot as it is moving and welding,” said Travis
400,000 welders by 2025. Jordan, owner and president, MT Solar.

Cobots are meant for industrial envi-

ronments, and they can bring the ben-
efits of DIY ease of use, flexibility, a
smaller footprint, and a lower all-in
cost to shops of all sizes.”
Pawley pointed out the Cobot Weld-
ing Tool, when compared to traditional
robotic welding cells, can be 25 to 40%
less with freight, time to production,
training, setup, installation, and com-
missioning factored in.
GMAW in 38 Min
Takt Time
Implementing the tool was based on
extensive human-robot collaboration.
Operators set up the cell with jigs,
Fig. 2 — “There’s been a stigma that cobots can’t go into heavy industrial environments, but
supply the parts, and program the sys-
what our customers are saying and seeing is that that’s not true,” said Josh Pawley (left),
cofounder of Vectis Automation. tem through an intuitive 3D interface
directly integrated on the cobot’s teach
pendant through Vectis’ URCap soft-
ware plugin. The pendant includes a
complete weld library developed by
Vectis, providing standard settings for
common weld jobs, including pattern
and tack tools — Fig. 3.
“I am by no means a certified
welder,” Jordan said. “I’ll just grab any
of the guys out of the shop who are
welders, and I’ll say, ‘Okay, I’ll run the
pendant. You go ahead and run the
torch and put it where you want it.
Where do you want the weld to start?
Where do you want it to stop? What
angle do you want it to do?’ And we’ve
thought through some very advanced
welds.”
DIY programming complete, the ro-
bot autonomously runs a full gas met-
al arc welding (GMAW) cycle. The
UR10e collaborative industrial robot
welds six to eight parts in each cycle.
Typically, these are small parts, includ-
ing lock collars, beam clamps, and
weld nuts. The cobot welds these in a
predefined order and completes 4–12
parts per run with no batching.
Fig. 3 — The Vectis Cobot Welding Tool is a ready-to-weld, UR+ certified application kit When welding tasks have been
powered by Universal Robots’ UR10e. It comes with an intuitive interface directly integrated completed, operators can reload parts
to the cobot’s teach pendant (pictured) that allows end users with no robotics experience to and restart the system, if required, or
program the system. quickly program a new welding job
with fresh parts. The cobot is respon-
the cobot as it is moving and welding. some skepticism around cobots and sible for welding specific lists of parts
My guys can have their hood down welding. every 38-min takt time shift. This
and be right there, changing parts out “There’s been a stigma that cobots manufacturing term describes the re-
with no safety guarding and no con- can’t go into heavy industrial environ- quired product assembly duration
cerns about safety. They’ve been very, ments, but what our customers are needed to match the demand (Ref. 1).
very comfortable working with it.” See saying and seeing is that that’s not Operators work collaboratively with
Fig. 1 as a reference. true,” he said — Fig. 2. “They are weld- the cobot, loading and unloading dur-
Josh Pawley, cofounder of Vectis ing thin-gauge materials, all the way ing cycles, maximizing the 51-in. reach
Automation, Loveland, Colo., men- down to 16 gauge, all the way up to of the UR10e cobot arm to cover mul-
tioned his business initially faced half-inch and thicker materials. tiple different fixtures.

Learn about the Low

Barriers to Entry
The system’s benefits continue,
from offering ease of use to a return
on investment (ROI).
You don’t have to be a rocket scien-
tist to use it, which is a factor liked by
MT Solar’s Operations Manager Mike
Gillin, a certified welder at the compa-
ny — Fig. 4.
“I’m a welder by trade, but I didn’t
know anything about robots, and I’m
not very computer savvy. Curiosity at-
tracted me to the robot, and I was real-
ly surprised at how easy it was to fig-
ure it out,” Gillin said.
Meanwhile, flexible financing and
rent-to-own options enabled the com-
pany to test the system without finan-
cial commitment from the outset.
“This is a system that I can rent or Fig. 4 — “Most of our shop probably wouldn’t consider themselves a programmer of any
lease for a very short period. I can af- sort,” said Mike Gillin, operations manager and certified welder, MT Solar. However, just
ford that. If it doesn’t work, I’m not sad- about everybody, out of curiosity, has taken a turn with the cobot.
dled with the thing. That made it really
easy for us to get started,” Jordan said.
The tangible ROI of the system is The intangible ROI is “probably Repeatability, Quality,
recognized because it adds another even more valuable,” Jordan said. This
welder to the team, Jordan specified. is due to the cobot’s net improvement and More Enhanced by
In addition, it provides “a real clean of the shop and a “far-reaching impact the System
one-and-a-half, two-year ROI, just on on both customers and employee
hard number labor savings.” morale.” Human welding can accommodate
Fig. 5 — The system has become a recruitment tool, according to Fig. 6 — “We plan to run six cobots eventually,” Jordan said. They
Jordan. Notice the welds it makes, which can be seen here. will help out in various ways, including new tasks.

and introduce a lot of variance, noted bility with the innovation and the nipulation of heavy and larger parts,
Gillin, especially when it comes to mo- nimbleness of a small company, which which will also alleviate some of the lift-
notonous work as well as relying on we think is an extremely powerful ing performed by employees — Fig. 6.
the calibrated thumb. combination.” “Having a system that’s easy to pro-
“We’ve built up to 7500 small parts gram, very flexible, and doesn’t have to
over a winter. For an operator to sit and Appealing to the Next have guarding and safety restrictions
do that, you can tell where they’ve got- around it is tantamount to being able
ten sick of it, and some of those parts Generation to replace, add to, and work together
end up being scrapped,” Gillin said. with employees,” Jordan concluded. WJ
The cobot currently performs that The cobot stands out to adolescents
as well — Fig. 5.
repetitive work. Reference
Additionally, for Jordan, the system “Attracting younger quality talent is
offers repeatability manufacturers a challenge in rural environments,”
1. Wikipedia. 2020. Takt time.
crave and helps the company maintain Jordan said. “So, it’s really important en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takt_time
consistent product quality. to have things to bring to the table as
“Furthermore, the consistency and an employer, and we find that there’s a
flexibility of the system enables MT real sparkle in people’s eyes when we
tell them we have a robot on the crew.” JOE CAMPBELL (joca@universal-robots.com) is
Solar to compete with large corpora- senior manager of applications development,
tions,” Jordan said. “Having a robot Universal Robots USA, Ann Arbor, Mich. JOSH
that can quickly be transitioned to dif- What’s Next? PAWLEY (josh.pawley@vectisautomation.com)
ferent jobs and different tasks is para- is director of business development and
founding partner, Vectis Automation, Loveland,
mount to our success. It allows us to MT Solar plans to acquire more Colo.
combine industrial quality and scala- cobots soon for new tasks, such as ma-
How Does a Cobot Welding System Work?

The team at Vectis Automation (vectisautomation.com) brings
more than 85 years of combined experience in the robotic weld-
ing industry. The company’s mission is to “provide the lowest-
risk and easiest-to-use automation solutions at an accessible
price.”
Its Cobot Welding Tool arrives as a ready-to-weld package,
including a UR10e cobot from Universal Robots (universal-
robots.com) and an intuitive programming pendant with weld li-
braries and tools. A freedrive jog enable button allows instruc-
tion of the cobot by physically moving it to program points. The
DIY system comes with a starter fixturing set, and can be out-
fitted with an air-cooled, water-cooled, or push-pull welding
package. The unit is mounted on a 3  6 ft mobile Rhino Cart. A
120-V wall outlet is needed for the cobot, while the welding
power supply can run on outlets between 208 and 575 V, in-
cluding 240-V single phase. It’s available as a mobile UR+ Appli-
cation Kit powered by the UR10e; these kits provide hardware,
software, and components to streamline deployment of popular
cobot applications.
To learn about the company’s upcoming events, recently
posted videos, and more, follow them on LinkedIn. An observer witnesses cobot welding taking place.
Watch Cobot Welding

Travis Jordan speak along with Operations Manager Mike
To see sweeping aerial shots of MT Solar (mtsolar.us), in- Gillin, get up-close takes of cobot welding in action, and lis-
cluding external and interior points of view from scenic ten to Cofounder of Vectis Automation Josh Pawley, watch
mountains to inside its job shop, hear Owner and President the nearly 5-min reel at youtu.be/RdSBUR7xMmQ.

Page 9 Hodgson.qxp_FP_TEMP 9/9/20 6:07 PM Page 37
Okwuagwu Tregaskiss Feature Oct 20 WJ w auth corr -- 2 version.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 8:55 AM Page 38
Understanding Fixed
Automation Welding
BY UGO OKWUAGWU
Fig. 1 — Fixed automation

welding is generally used in a
shop environment to join pipes,
structural beams, tanks, and
vessels before they are moved
to the jobsite where they will
be placed into service.
Okwuagwu Tregaskiss Feature Oct 20 WJ w auth corr -- 2 version.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 9:11 AM Page 39
This process is most efficient when

coupled with specific components and
used on welds requiring repeatability
W
hen it comes to automating it desirable from a labor perspective —
the welding process, many particularly given the shortage of
companies opt for robotic skilled welders the industry is facing.
welding systems due to the flexibility A fixed automation welding cell can
they provide and their ability to reach be set up in two ways. The first option
and weld multiple joints. These sys- requires tooling that holds the part in
tems offer the advantages of speed place, while a fixed automatic welding
and accuracy and can be repro- gun moves along the weld joint by way
grammed to manage new projects. of a mechanized seam welding ma-
But these robotic systems aren’t chine or a track and carriage that holds
right for every application. In indus- the gun in place. This option would
tries such as oil and gas, railcar, struc- be viable for a long structural beam,
tural steel fabrication, and shipbuild- for example.
ing, joint configurations are often less In the second scenario, the welding
complex, consisting of a single part to gun may be fixed in a single place by
be welded as opposed to full assem- tooling while the part, such as a pipe,
blies. In this case, fixed automation rotates on a lathe or circumferential
welding is generally preferred. fixture during the welding process. In
today’s marketplace, there is equip-
About Fixed Automation ment that can rotate parts that have a
wide range of diameters and weights.
Welding Tooling for fixed automation weld-
ing offers minimal flexibility and can
Fixed automation welding, some- be expensive to adjust for new parts.
times called hard automation welding, This is true particularly in comparison
is commonly used for joining pipes, to a robotic welding system that can be
structural beams, tanks, and vessels in reprogrammed to articulate and weld
a shop environment prior to them be- in different positions along the X, Y,
ing moved to the jobsite where they and Z axes.
will be placed into service — Fig. 1. It When investing in the tooling for
can also be used for welding steel fixed automation welding, it’s impor-
plates for the general fabrication in- tant for companies to determine up-
dustry or in the manufacturing of hot front what their long-term applica-
water heaters and propane tanks. tions will be. Will they continue to
One common factor in these appli- weld parts that are straight or circular
cations is the need for either longitudi- for the foreseeable future?
nal or circular (inside or outside diam-
eter) welds that require repeatability
as opposed to versatility. Other factors Avoiding Pitfalls
that make applications suitable for in the Process
fixed automation welding include the
following: One very important part of the
• A high volume of similar parts fixed automation welding system is the
with low variety, welding gun. It is not uncommon for
• Large parts with very long welds companies to take a do-it-yourself
or several similar welds, and (DIY) approach to this piece of equip-
• Large parts that would be difficult ment, fixturing a semiautomatic gun in
to weld manually. place with various components to
In some cases, fixed automation mimic the performance of a fixed auto-
welding can help companies meet high matic gun. Sometimes this is done out
production goals at a relatively low of convenience, due to the shop having
cost. It is also easy for a single opera- an abundance of semiautomatic guns
tor to oversee and load parts, making or because of a perceived cost savings.

Okwuagwu Tregaskiss USE THIS ONE.qxp_Layout 1 9/11/20 1:44 PM Page 40
It is important to invest
in a fixed automatic
welding gun that is
designed for the
process. These guns
have consistent
components that can
be sourced from
manufacturers so that
the welds are
repeatable.
water-cooled gun and rely on the am-

bient air to cool them. They are also
more resistant to bending, and re-
placement parts are less expensive.
For higher-amperage fixed automa-
Fig. 2 — Welding gun necks typically Fig. 3 — A water-cooled welding gun
tion welding applications that require
come in varying lengths, from approxi- may be a good choice for higher-am- longer periods of welding on thicker
mately 4 to 12 in. and with either a perage fixed automatic welding appli- material, a water-cooled gun may be a
straight neck or 22-, 45-, or 60-deg. cations requiring longer periods of better choice — Fig. 3. These models
bends. welding on thick material. are typically available in amperages
ranging from 450 to 600 A and offer
100% duty cycle.
Unfortunately, a DIY gun assembly marketplace in varying lengths, from Hybrid water-cooled welding guns
for this process can be time-consum- approximately 4 to 12 in. and with ei- are another option. These fixed auto-
ing to set up and maintain, which ad- ther a straight neck or 22-, 45-, or 60- matic welding guns have a sturdy neck
versely affects productivity. It also is deg. bends — Fig. 2. Companies need similar to an air-cooled model with
not optimized for fixed automation to determine the reach required to water channels running external to it.
welding. Quality may suffer due to off- meet the weld joint, as well as the nec- These channels make the welding
seam welds or other inconsistencies, essary angle for completing a sound guns easier to maintain than standard
leading to rework that further reduces weld. water-cooled guns.
throughput and increases costs. Addi- Cable lengths vary from as short as
tionally, if replacement parts are need- 3 ft to as long as 25 ft. Longer cables Additional Considerations
ed, there could be variations in the as- are ideal for reaching a wire feeder
sembly because it is not set up for this placed further away from the part, in- Along with selecting the appropri-
process. Again, this can lead to quality cluding on a boom. In other situations, ate components for a fixed automatic
issues. a company may mount the feeder di- welding gun, it’s also essential to
Instead, it is important to invest in rectly on the tooling or nearby, in choose high-quality consumables —
a fixed automatic welding gun that is which case a cableless gun is an option nozzles, contact tips, and gas dif-
designed for the process. These guns for air-cooled operations. These guns fusers. This helps minimize downtime
have consistent components that can plug directly into the wire feeder via a for frequent changeovers and supports
be sourced from manufacturers so that power pin and do not require a cable. production goals. They can also reduce
the welds are repeatable. The gun Amperage and duty cycle also need quality issues that could require re-
manufacturers can also provide service to be factored into the selection of a work later in the welding operation.
and technical support. fixed automatic welding gun, and both Consumables can be used across
depend on the thickness of the materi- different types of welding guns, in-
Looking at the Choices al being welded and the amount of arc- cluding semiautomatic ones and fixed
on time required. Air-cooled fixed au- automatic guns. This compatibility can
Welding guns need to be specified tomatic welding guns are typically simplify inventory and prevent errors
or customized for the application ac- available in 300- to 500-A models, of- when installing new consumables on
cording to the available space, taking fering either 60% or 100% duty cycle. either type of welding gun. WJ
into account the distance between the Duty cycle is defined by the amount of
gun and the part and how far away the time within a 10-min cycle the gun can
wire feeder is. These factors impact weld without becoming overly heated. UGO OKWUAGWU (ugo.okwuagwu@
neck length and bend or angle, as well The necks on these welding guns tregaskiss.com) is the Market Segment
as cable choices. are particularly durable since they Manager at Tregaskiss, Windsor, Ontario,
Canada; and Bernard, Beecher, Ill.
Necks are typically available in the have fewer internal channels than a

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Programming Your Robot is

Easier Than You Think
BY CHARLES ADAMS
Addressing the misconception that
robots are difficult to operate
W
elding robots were first intro- many manufacturers are still reluctant the user’s job. This mindset can make
duced to automotive produc- to adopt these machines into their even simple programming tasks seem
tion lines in the 1980s and welding processes. One of the biggest daunting.
quickly grew to support a wide range reasons for this is the misconception The reality is that many smaller
of industries and applications in the that robots are too difficult to pro- shops are turning away jobs because
coming years. gram and run. they cannot keep up with demand.
While originally designed and used With the growing shortage of available
for spot welding on large original Dispelling the Myths welders, these robots should be seen
equipment manufacturer (OEM) as- as a supplement rather than a replace-
sembly lines, a number of significant Part of the myth that surrounds ment to experienced professionals.
technological advancements made programming welding robots is not It’s also important to remember
these robots easier to use and enabled unlike that which every other newer that some welders who have used a
small- and mid-sized manufacturers to technology faces. Most of us can re- particular robot have found it difficult
adopt them into their arc welding member being intimidated by all the to switch over to another brand. This
processes — Fig. 1. features offered by our smart phone, perceived difficulty is, more often than
Yet, despite the many obvious ben- but now we don’t think twice about not, because they are not used to the
efits that welding robots provide, like them. This technology is no different. nuances of the new system.
increased production, better quality, Some of the reluctance is also creat- Thanks to improvements in user in-
and safer conditions for workers, ed by the fear that the robot will take terfaces and other technology, most
welding robots have never been easier
to program and use. With our growing
number of daily electronic interac-
tions, from iPhones to video games,
we have never been more prepared to
program robots.
The Technologies
Teach Pendants
Originally considered a complicated

piece of equipment that took too long
to program robots, today’s teach pen-
dants offer intuitive interactions that
allow even the most inexperienced
users to tackle complex operating
tasks.
Equipped with touch screen dis-
plays and a combination of jog and
status keys, these smart devices allow
the user to quickly teach points and
Fig. 1 — Originally the domain of large OEMs, welding robots now support a variety of
program the robot — Fig. 2.
processes and industries.

This eliminates the need to pro-

gram lines, enabling the operator to
focus on the process parameters while
controlling the welding process and
power source.
Software
Most of the time, it’s best to give

your robot high-volume, low-mix jobs
and leave the more complicated jobs
with part variance to experienced
welders. This can be difficult if you do
not have enough workers or they are
inexperienced.
That’s why most companies that
manufacture welding robots also offer
a full suite of software to support
whatever type of application you are
looking to do. From multipass welding
to seam tracking, each of these pack-
Fig. 2 — The teach pendant allows the operator to quickly teach points and program
ages provides all of the functions the robot.
required for easy operation and
programming.
These packages come in handy ing parts. Offline programming elimi- Intuitive Programming
when you are dealing with part vari- nates needless downtime when
ance, like large, heavy welding applica- switching over parts and fixtures since Once thought to be a territory re-
tions where the fixtures are usually all you have to do is load the new pro- served for collaborative robots, intu-
not precise. The software can allow gram with a touch up. itive, or hand guiding, programming
your robot to handle part compensa- Nearly all robot manufacturers of- is now finding its way into traditional
tion and save time compared to manu- fer some type of variation of simula- robots. This is beneficial with robotic
ally welding them. tion software, most of which is mod- welding.
No matter what robot or software eled after their products and services. Intuitive programming allows the
you use, there is no substitute to pre- If you have different robots from mul- operator to guide the welding robot to
senting the robot with quality parts. tiple providers, it is better to select a a desired location, where he or she
Just like with manual welding, no third-party option that features CAD pushes one button on the teach pen-
amount of automation or software will models from all the different robotic dant and it saves the point. The robot
save you from garbage in, garbage out. manufacturers. follows the trajectory saved into its
Simulation
In recent years, manufacturers of

all types and sizes have increasingly
turned toward simulation software
and offline programming. This sophis-
ticated approach allows you to take
different components, like your robot,
positioner, fixtures, and parts, and im-
port computer-aided design (CAD)
files into a simulated world where you
can do all of your programming from
your computer — Fig. 3.
This method’s efficiency drastically
reduces the time it takes to set up your
system and program your robot. Run-
ning the simulation once you are fin-
ished helps verify cycle times and
detect reachability and collision poten-
tials to verify the viability of your
application.
It also saves time and money after
your initial system is installed by al-
lowing you to load your next program Fig. 3 — Simulation software and offline programming are changing the way manu-
while the robot is welding and produc- facturers look at programming their welding robots.

standing of the subject. Most classes

are generally made up of students of a
wide range of job titles and industries.
This means the curriculum has to
meet the individual needs of each at-
tendee, including those who have nev-
er worked with a robot before. For
welding classes, this may require meet-
ing the needs of both programmers
and welders.
These courses are usually a day
long, with hands-on training that con-
sists of making some of the basic
moves that do not involve any com-
plex programming. From there, stu-
dents learn how to do straight-line
welds, which make up the majority
of the welds when starting out with
Fig. 4 — All major robot OEMs offer classes designed to get you the most out of a robot.
your robots, including welding.
Getting Started
For those manufacturers looking

to supplement their production with
robotic welding, there is no magic
wand. There are, however, a number
of ways they can get started and pro-
gram their robots without a lot of
experience.
The answers to their problems are
as unique as their individual needs.
The only constant is that as technolo-
gy advances, programming a robot will
continue to get easier. The important
thing is taking the first step.
It’s crucial to remember that robots
are not a replacement for skilled
welders; they are a complement. No
matter how evolved the technology,
the robot cannot tell a good weld from
a bad weld like a human with experi-
ence. Once this is understood, it takes
Fig. 5 — Robots are ideal for jobs that require straight-line welds. They are not a a lot of the anxiety out of the equation
replacement for skilled welders.
and makes it easier to learn how to
program robots.
system, making programming much Classes
easier without having to learn complex Conclusion
software or processes. Just like the other options that
Intuitive programming can be done make programming easier, several ro- Robots are perfect for high-volume,
in a shorter time since there are fewer bot OEMs offer a wide range of classes low-mix jobs that require straight-line
buttons to push. Programs can also be either online or in physical locations. welds — Fig. 5. This means welders
quickly modified when needed. These schools provide expert training can work more efficiently and tackle
This also allows the programmer to designed to get you the most out of different projects.
visualize and incorporate the robot’s full the robotic automation products and If you do need robots to take on
range of motion into the trajectory services you have purchased from more complicated welds with part
since he or she is using its natural mo- them — Fig. 4. variance, there are technologies avail-
tion to guide it. This method requires From individual robot models to able to support you there as well. Pro-
no knowledge of programming and simulation software, each of these gramming has come a long way since
makes it easy for the operator to get courses is taught by an experienced the 1980s. It’s just a matter of opening
started. instructor with an in-depth under- up to the possibilities. WJ
CHARLES ADAMS (charles.adams@kuka.com) is a welding sales application engineer, KUKA Robotics, Shelby Township, Mich.

Cert Schedule - OCT 2020.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 9:49 AM Page 45
CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS
Note: The 2020 schedules for all certifications are posted online at Certified Resistance Welding Technician
awo.aws.org/instructor-led-seminars/seminar-exam-schedule. (CRWT)
A comprehensive two-day seminar to arm attendees with
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) the knowledge needed to take the exam with confidence.
Seminar covers Parts A, B, and C of the CWI exam. Only Part B More information at awo.aws.org/crwt.
of the exam is taken following the conclusion of the seminar. Location Seminar Dates
Parts A and C are given at Prometric testing centers. Nashville, TN Oct. 27–28
Location Seminar Dates Part B
Exam Date
Orlando, FL Nov. 1–6 Nov. 7
Indianapolis, IN Nov. 1–6 Nov. 7 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Reno, NV Nov. 1–6 Nov. 7 CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More infor-
Dallas, TX Nov. 1–6 Nov. 7 mation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-supervisor.
Sacramento, CA Nov. 8–13 Nov. 14
Syracuse, NY Nov. 8–13 Nov. 14
Cleveland, OH Nov. 8–13 Nov. 14
Waco, TX Nov. 15–20 Nov. 21
Norfolk, VA Nov. 15–20 Nov. 21
San Diego, CA Dec. 6–11 Dec. 12 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Miami, FL Dec. 6–11 Dec. 12 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or
St. Louis, MO Dec. 6–11 Dec. 12 can exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification. More
information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-
radiographic-interpreter.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) Part B

Course covers only Part B of the CWI exam. The Part B exam
follows the conclusion of the three-day course. Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
OTC Daihen Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
Location Seminar Dates Part B Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-4723
Exam Date Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7667
Louisville, KY Dec. 9–11 Dec. 12 Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee, WI;
(414) 456-5454
College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, CA; (661) 259-7800,
ext. 3062
9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI Ogden-Weber Applied Technology College, Ogden, UT;
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education (801) 627-8448
requirements without taking the exam. Genesis Systems IPG Photonics Co., Davenport, IA;
(563) 445-5688
Location Seminar Dates
St. Louis, MO Nov. 1–6 IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify
New Orleans, LA Nov. 8–13 your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status
Miami, FL Dec. 6–11 before making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six
weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that
Phoenix, AZ Dec. 6–11 time will be assessed a $395 Fast Track fee. Please verify application
deadline dates by visiting our website at aws.org/certification/docs/
schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs,
or to register online, visit aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353,
ext. 273 for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)

Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Change of Address? Moving?

Certified Welding Sales Representative Make sure delivery of your Welding Journal is not
(CWSR) interrupted. Contact Kim Hugley in the Membership
Department with your new address at (800) 443-9353,
CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More ext. 262, or by email to khugley@aws.org.
information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
sales-representative.

Workbook Layout.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 10:01 AM Page 46
WELDING WORKBOOK
DATASHEET 400
Advantages and Disadvantages of GMAW

8. Minimal postweld cleaning is required due to the absence
of heavy slag;
9. It is a low-hydrogen process, making it a good choice
for welding materials that are susceptible to hydrogen em-
brittlement; and
10. Process skills are readily taught and acquired.
These advantages make the process particularly well suited
to high-production and automated welding applications. This
has become evident with the increased use of robotics, for
which GMAW is the predominant process choice — Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 — The GMAW process.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process

that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode
and the weld pool. The process incorporates shielding from an
externally supplied gas and is used without the application of
pressure — Fig. 1.
Gas metal arc welding can be implemented in semiauto-
matic and automated operations. All commercially important
metals — including carbon steel, high-strength low-alloy steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, copper, titanium, and nickel alloys
— can be welded in all positions with this process by choosing
the appropriate combination of shielding gas, electrodes, and
welding variables.
Advantages
Because of its versatility, GMAW has become more widely
used and has replaced shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) for
many applications. This increased usage of GMAW can be at- Fig. 2 — Pictured is a typical robotic GMAW installation.
tributed to its many advantages, the most important of which
include the following:
1. It is an efficient consumable-electrode process that can Disadvantages
be used to weld all commercial metals and alloys;
2. It overcomes the restriction of limited electrode length As with any welding process, certain limitations restrict the
encountered with SMAW; use of GMAW. The welding equipment required for GMAW is
3. Welding can be performed in all positions, a capability more complex, more costly, and less portable than that for
submerged arc welding does not have; SMAW, for example. GMAW is also difficult to use in hard-to-
4. Deposition rates are significantly higher than those reach places because the welding gun is larger than a SMAW
obtained with SMAW; electrode holder, and the welding gun must be close to the
5. Welding speeds are higher than those attained with joint (i.e., between 10 and 19 mm [38⁄ and 34⁄ in.] to ensure the
SMAW because of the continuous electrode feed and higher weld metal is properly shielded. Additionally, the welding arc
filler metal deposition rates; must be protected against air drafts in excess of 5 mph, which
6. Long welds can be deposited without intermediate stops may disperse the shielding gas. This limits outdoor applica-
and starts because the electrode (wire feed) is continuous; tions unless protective shields are placed around the welding
7. When spray transfer is used, a deeper penetration is pos- area. Another limitation of GMAW involves the relatively high
sible with GMAW than with SMAW, often permitting the use levels of radiated heat and arc intensity, which can contribute
of smaller-sized fillet welds for equivalent joint strengths; to an operator’s resistance to accept the process. WJ
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Ninth Edition, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Part 1.

FINAL Society News w all corrections.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 11:19 AM Page 47
BY KATIE PACHECO — kpacheco@aws.org

SOCIETY NEWS
Amendment to the Bylaws of the American Welding Society
The members of the American indicated with the proposed amend- Treasurer, and Article IX Section 2
Welding Society will consider any ment in red boldface. — National Nominating Committee
amendments to the Society’s Bylaws at shall not be considered as the board
the Annual Meeting, to be held virtu- service, and calendar year 2020
ally on Monday, November 16. Article IX. Nomination and shall be extended by 12 months to
These Amendments were approved Election of National Officers end on December 31, 2021. In addi-
by the Board of Directors on August and Directors tion, any other Bylaw provision that
11 and are recommended for adoption could prevent, or would be contrary
by the members. The amendment will Section 8. Date to Assume Office to, this 12-month extension of
expire on December 31, 2021, and the terms is hereby suspended.
original language to the Bylaws will For the purposes of terms of
supersede. service, nominations and elections The terms of all officers and Direc-
The Bylaws require that the text of for members of the Board of Direc- tors shall begin on January 1. Officers
any amendment be published in the tors and Committees as defined in and Directors shall continue in their
Welding Journal and mailed at least 30 these Bylaws Article V Section 3 — respective offices or positions until
days before the members take action. Directors-at-Large, Article V Sec- their successors have been elected and
Members are encouraged to vote on tion 4 — District Directors, Article V qualified. Officers’ and Directors’
the proposed amendment at the afore- Section 5 — Past Presidents, Arti- terms of office may be extended/de-
mentioned virtual meeting or through cle VIII Section 2 — President, Arti- creased by the Board of Directors to
the exercise of the proxy published on cle VIII Section 3 — Vice Presi- accommodate any change in the Soci-
the next page. The present wording is dents, Article VIII Section 4 — ety’s fiscal year.
Nominations for National Offices Postponed
The Nominations Sought for Na- 2022 National Offices. Those individu- serve in 2021, and the National Nomi-
tional Offices notification was previ- als who were to take office and join the nating Committee will convene at a
ously posted in the July and August Board in 2021 will start on January 1, date to be determined between Janu-
Welding Journal. As stated on this 2022. AWS members who wish to ary and April of 2021 to allow ample
page, the American Welding Society nominate candidates for 2023 Presi- time for AWS members to nominate
(AWS) Board of Directors has amend- dent, Vice President, Treasurer, and candidates for President, Vice Presi-
ed the Bylaws to allow the 2020 Board Director-at-Large may do so by July dent, Treasurer, and Director-at-Large
to extend their current terms of serv- 31, 2021, for the National Nominating on the AWS Board of Directors for the
ice for 12 months into 2021. This Committee Meeting to take place dur- term starting January 1, 2022. An ap-
amendment is subject to AWS Mem- ing the September 2021 FABTECH propriate posting with nomination re-
bership approval during the 2020 An- Show in Chicago, Ill. quirements will be provided in the
nual Meeting. If the amendment is ap- In the event that the Bylaw amend- Welding Journal and on the AWS web-
proved by Membership, the 2020 Na- ment is not approved during the 2020 site if the proposed amendment is not
tional Nominating Committee will not Annual Meeting of Members, the orig- approved and the National Nominat-
hold nominations in 2020 for the inally nominated 2021 Board will ing Committee is to convene.

FINAL Society News w all corrections.qxp_Layout 1 9/11/20 3:18 PM Page 48
SOCIETY NEWS
TECH TOPICS
New Standards Projects for the Design, Manufacture, and Exami- approved by ANSI, require that all
nation of Critical Brazed Components. standards be open to public review for
Development work has begun on This standard lists the necessary steps comment during the approval process.
the following new or revised stan- to assure the suitability of brazed com- This column also advises of ANSI ap-
dards. Affected individuals are invited ponents for critical applications. Al- proval of documents.
to contribute to their development. though such applications vary widely, A5.10/A5.10M:20XX (ISO 18273:
Participation in AWS technical com- they have certain common considera- 2015 MOD), Specification for Bare Alu-
mittees is open to all persons. tions with respect to materials, design, minum and Aluminum-Alloy Welding
A5.8M/A5.8:20XX, Specification for manufacture, and inspection. It is the Electrodes and Rods. Revised Standard.
Filler Metals for Brazing and Braze Weld- intent of this document to identify and $36.00. ANSI public review expires
ing. This specification prescribes the explain these common considerations 10/5/2020. Contact: G. Gupta, ext. 301,
requirements for the classification of and the best techniques for dealing with gupta@aws.org.
brazing filler metals for brazing and them. It is beyond the scope of this D8.1M:20XX, Specification for Auto-
braze welding. The chemical composi- document to provide specific details motive Weld Quality Resistance Spot
tion, physical form, and packaging of on these techniques, which the user Welding of Steel. Revised Standard.
more than 120 brazing filler metals must adapt to fit each particular appli- $25.00. ANSI public review expired
are specified. The brazing filler metal cation. Stakeholders: brazing engineers, 9/14/2020. Contact: M. Diaz, ext. 310,
groups described include aluminum, educators, and general interest groups. mdiaz@aws.org.
cobalt, copper, gold, magnesium, nick- Revised Standard. Contact: K. Bulger, D8.9M:20XX, Test Methods for Eval-
el, palladium, silver, titanium, and kbulger@aws.org, ext. 306. uating the Resistance Spot Welding Be-
brazing filler metals for vacuum service. C3.15M/C3.15:20XX, Standard havior of Automotive Sheet Steel Materi-
Information is also provided concern- Method for Evaluating the Strength of als. Revised Standard. $40.00. ANSI
ing the liquidus, solidus, brazing tem- Solder Joints. This document establish- public review expired 9/7/2020. Con-
perature range, and general areas of es common methodologies for testing tact: M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org, ext. 310.
application recommended for each the strength of structural solder joints
brazing filler metal. Additional re- and the interpretation of strength
quirements are included for manufac- data. The document addresses the fol-
ture, sizes, lengths, and packaging. A lowing: test sample configurations, Opportunities to Contribute to
guide is appended to the specification sample fabrication, test methods, and AWS Technical Committees
as a source of information concerning data interpretation. Stakeholders:
the classification system employed Those involved with structural solder- The following committees welcome
and the intended use of the brazing ing applications as well as those in the new members. Some committees are
filler metals for brazing and braze electronics industry. New Standard. recruiting members with specific
welding. Stakeholders: brazers, manu- Contact: K. Bulger, kbulger@aws.org, interests in regard to the committee’s
facturers, and consumers. Revised ext. 306. scope, as marked below: Producers (P),
Standard. Contact: K. Bulger, ext. 306, D3.9/D3.9M:20XX, Specification for General Interest (G), Educators (E),
kbulger@aws.org. the Classification of Weld-Through Paint Consultants (C), and Users (U). For more
C3.2M/C3.2:20XX, Standard Method Primers. This specification prescribes information, contact the staff member
for Evaluating the Strength of Brazed the requirements for the classification listed or visit aws.org/library/ doclib/
Joints. This standard describes the test of weld-through paint primers. The Technical-Committee-Application.pdf.
methods used to obtain brazed strength classification is based on paint film S. Borrero, sborrero@aws.org, ext.
data of the short-time testing of single- thickness and welding procedure. 334. Definitions and symbols, A2
lap joints in shear, butt-tension, stress- Manufacturers may classify their prod- Committee (E). Titanium and zirco-
rupture, creep-strength, four-point- ucts to different film thicknesses or nium filler metals, A5K Subcommit-
bending, and ceramic-tensile-button welding procedures if they provide tee. Piping and tubing, D10 Com-
specimens. It details specimen prepa- their test details. Stakeholders: marine mittee (C, E, U). Welding practices
ration methods, brazing procedures, construction community. Revised and procedures for austenitic
testing techniques, and methods for Standard. Contact: K. Bulger, ext. 306, steels, D10C Subcommittee. Alu-
data analysis. Sample forms for kbulger@aws.org. minum piping, D10H Subcommittee.
recording data are also presented. A Chromium molybdenum steel pip-
graphical method of data presentation ing, D10I Subcommittee. Welding of
relates shear stress to overlap dis- Standards for Public Review titanium piping, D10K Subcommit-
tance. Stakeholders: brazing engi- tee. Purging and root pass welding,
neers, educators, and general interest AWS was approved as an accredited D10S Subcommittee. Low-carbon
groups. Revised Standard. Contact: K. standards-preparing organization by steel pipe, D10T Subcommittee. Or-
Bulger, kbulger@aws.org, ext. 306. the American National Standards In- bital pipe welding, D10U Subcom-
C3.3:20XX, Recommended Practices stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as mittee. Duplex pipe welding, D10Y

SOCIETY NEWS
Subcommittee. Joining metals and B1 Committee (C, E). Brazing and S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org, ext. 305.
alloys, G2 Committee (E, G, U). Reac- soldering, C3 Committee (C, E, G). Metric practice, A1 Committee (C, E).
tive alloys, G2D Subcommittee (G). Welding in marine construction, Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Com-
R. Gupta, gupta@aws.org, ext. 301. D3 Committee (C, E, G, U). High en- mittee (E, G, P). Joining of plastics
Filler metals and allied materials, ergy beam welding and cutting, C7 and composites, G1 Committee (C, E,
A5 Committee (E). Magnesium alloy Committee (C, E, G). Hybrid weld- G). Safety and health, SHC Commit-
filler metals, A5L Subcommittee. ing, C7D Subcommittee (G). Welding tee (E, G). Welding in sanitary appli-
P. Portela, pportela@aws.org, ext. of machinery and equipment, D14 cations, D18 Committee.
311. Additive manufacturing, D20 Committee (C, E, G, U). J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org, ext.
Committee (C, E, G). Titanium M. Diaz, mdiaz@aws.org, ext. 310. 308. Procedure and performance
structural welding, D1N Subcom- Resistance welding, C1 Committee qualification, B2 Committee (E, G).
mittee (C, E, G, P, U). (C, E, G, U). Friction welding, C6 Thermal spraying, C2 Committee (C,
J. Molin, jmolin@aws.org, ext. 304. Committee (C, E). Automotive E, G, U). Oxyfuel gas welding and
Structural welding, D1 Committee welding, D8 Committee (C, E, G, U). cutting, C4 Committee (C, E, G).
(E). Sheet metal welding, D9 Com- Resistance welding equipment, J1 Welding iron castings, D11 (C, E, G,
mittee (C, G, P). Committee (C, E, G, U). Welding in P, U). Railroad welding, D15 (C, E, G,
K. Bulger, kbulger@aws.org, ext. the aircraft and aerospace indus- U). Robotic and automatic welding,
306. Methods of weld inspection, try, D17 Subcommittee (C, E, G). D16 Committee (C, E).
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Welding Distributor Members Goodhart Sons Inc.

AWS Member Counts 2515 Horseshoe Rd.
September 1, 2020 Lock 8 Equipment Inc. Lancaster, PA 17601
266 Killaly St. W.
Sustaining...........................................587 Port Colborne, ON Kemikon Sdn. Bhd.
Supporting ........................................355 L3K 6A6 Canada 1471 Lorong Perusahaan Maju 8,
Educational ......................................834 Kawasan Perindustrian Perai 4,
Affiliate...................................................617 Perai, Penang
Welding Distributor..........................64 Malaysia 13600
Total Corporate ...........................2457
Sustaining Members
Individual .....................................56,050 Arrow Acquisition LLC McNICHOLS Co.
Student + Transitional .................9,954 16000 W. 108 St. 2502 N. Rocky Point Dr., Ste. 750
Total Members .....................66,004 Lenexa, KS 66219 Tampa, FL 33607
Beijing Bo Tsing Tech Co. Ltd. Vectis Automation LLC

C3 Zhongguancun Collaborative 6387 Aviation Circle
New AWS Supporters Innovation Smart Park Loveland, CO 80538
Baohe District, Hefei
Supporting Company Members China 230041
Educational Institution
Aztec Welding Services LLC Froehling & Robertson Inc. Members
2051 Hill Rd. 3015 Dumbatron Rd.
Homedale, ID 83628 Richmond, VA 23228 Hopkins County Career and
The company’s core services include Technology Center
GPR Co. Inc. structural inspection and testing using 320 S. Seminary St.
8 Spielman Rd. nondestructive examination (NDE) Madisonville, KY 42431
Fairfield, NJ 07004 capabilities. Its experience expands
to nearly all types of modern construc- IMS Cochin
Morgan Corp. tion projects, including NDE of shop Chittoor Rd., Pullepady,
1800 E. Main St. fabrication and field erection Near Mymoon Theater, Eranakulam
Duncan, SC 29334 procedures. Kerala, India 682018

SOCIETY NEWS
Jüergen Egly Nondestructive Testing Sapigao Construction Inc. District and Section Awards
Services 94-1007 Puia St.
Siemensstrasse 33 Waipahu, HI 96797 District No. — Awardee — Section
Frankenthal, Rheinland Pfalz
Germany 67227 Transportation Technology Center
Inc.
Section Meritorious Award
Muscle Shoals Career Academy 55500 DOT Rd.
1 Phillip C. Witteman, Green and
321 Jim Holland Dr. Pueblo, CO 81001
White Mountain
Muscle Shoals, AL 35661
2 Alex Duschere, Long Island
Twin City Hose Inc.
2 Steve Dagnall, New Jersey
Northeast Mississippi Community 20615 Commerce Blvd.
2 Frank Simone, Philadelphia
College Rogers, MN 55374
2 Frank Srogota, Philadelphia
101 Cunningham Blvd.
2 Kyle Hardy, Philadelphia
Booneville, MS 38829 Zealous Welding and Fabrication
2 Vincent Murray, New Jersey
LLC
3 Dino Forst, Lehigh Valley
Pro-Weld Services LLC 74252 Lovern Rd.
3 Dave Hibshman, Reading
667 Melville Brown Rd. Pearl River, LA 70452
4 James Bowen, Triangle
Williamson, GA 30292
4 Christopher G. Gitthens, Triangle
4 David Shinault, SW Virginia
Texas House of Welds Welding 2020 Membership 4 Edward Campbell, SW Virginia
Academy
1720 Preston Ave., Ste. L Challenge 4 Kristie Miller, Tidewater
5 Robert A. Trudelle, Atlanta
Pasadena, TX 77503
Listed here are the members who 6 Brandilyn Gage, Rochester
participated in the 2020 Membership 7 Randy Coates, Cincinnati
Challenge — point standings as of 7 Jason J. Sherman, Pittsburgh
Affiliate Corporate Members 7 Michael B. Finney, Dayton
Aug. 18. The campaign runs from Jan.
1 to Dec. 31, 2020. Members receive 5 7 Uwe W. Aschemeier, Cincinnati
Adams Steel Erecting Consultant 7 Bryan H. Lyons, Columbus
points for each Individual Member
LLC 7 George Bodnar, Tri-State
and 1 point for every Student Member
10810 Charmwood Dr. 8 Curtis Duncan, Nashville
they recruit.
Riverview, FL 33569 8 Gerald Austin, Nashville
For more information, please see
page 57 of this Welding Journal or call 8 Bob O’Neal, Nashville
Alpha Industrial Construction LLC 8 Scott Bradley, Nashville
the AWS Membership Dept. at (800)
3310 NW Loop 338 9 Marcie Jacquet, Acadiana
443-9353, ext. 480.
Odessa, TX 79764 9 Travis G. Moore, New Orleans
J. W. Fregia, Houston — 95
A. D. Dillon, Detroit — 38 9 Donald J. Berger, New Orleans
Coast Metal Works Inc. 9 Chris Pawlowicz, Mobile
S. A. Milner, San Francisco — 36
2710 Woodland Dr. 10 Harry Sadler, Cleveland
B. J. Cain, Los Angeles/Inland
Coos Bay, OR 97420 10 Robert Fugate, Drake Well
Empire — 34
J. P. Theberge, Boston — 31 10 Dakota J. Urey, Drake Well
Conner Industries 10 Erick D. Speer, NW Pennsylvania
A. D. Stute, Madison-Beloit — 30
118 Bunton St. 13 Mike Merriman, Illinois Valley
Borger, TX 79007 J. C. Durbin, Tri-River — 30
D. L. Galiher, Detroit — 29 13 Dave Rodden, Blackhawk
T. A. Uff, Lehigh Valley — 29 13 Bruce Brummel, J.A.K.
Ensayos No Destructivos y 14 Tom Medina, St. Louis
Contratista Ltda. D. P. Thompson, SW Virginia —29
A. P. Duris, NW Ohio — 26 14 Rebecca McDonald, St. Louis
Edificio Terra, Depto. 73 14 Gabriella Bettegnies, Indiana
Antofagasta 1138002 Chile R. Young, Iowa — 24
T. Edwards, Tulsa — 20 14 Kelsey Eaton, Tri-River
H. J. Merrill II, Louisville — 20 14 John F. Helfrich, Tri-River
Environmental Air Systems LLC 14 Philip L. Young, Tri-River
250 Swathmore Ave. W. H. Wilson, New Orleans — 17
B. A. Cheatham, Columbia — 17 14 Rusty Shelden, Tri-River
High Point, NC 27263 14 Colten Conroy, Tri-River
O. Ortiz, Los Angeles/Inland
Empire — 16 14 Rick Richardson, Tri-River
Maxsteel Fabrication LLC 14 Electronics Research Inc., Tri-River
1240 Hwy. 70 Bypass G. J. Smith, Lehigh Valley — 15
C. W. Gilbertson, Northern Plains — 14 14 Southern Indiana Career and
Camden, TN 38320 Technical Center, Tri-River
C. Consentino, Pittsburgh — 13
V. O. Harthun, Northern Plains — 13 14 Coy A. Hall, Lexington
Quantum North America 14 Robert W. Mitchell, Lexington
T. A. Harris, Johnstown-Altoona — 13
5001 Rondo Dr., Ste. 100 14 Karl Watson, Louisville
S. Silverstein, Milwaukee — 12
Fort Worth, TX 76106 14 Gary Marx, Tri-River
M. D. Stein, Detroit — 11

SOCIETY NEWS
14 Bud Merrill, Louisville Section Educator Award 22 Aleda M. Vaughn, Sacramento Valley
14 Robert Lee, St. Louis 22 James D. Stucker, San Francisco
14 Travis Jumper, St. Louis 1 Mark A. Legel, Maine 22 Dave C. Vetrano, San Francisco
15 Bob G. Renner, Northwest 3 Leroy H. Begay, York-Lancaster 22 William Johnson, San Francisco
16 Michell R. Joynt, Nebraska 3 Dale J. Roberts, Reading
16 Sam Newhouse, Kansas City 4 Charles Bell, Triangle
17 Jeremy Cooper, Tulsa 4 David C. Myers, Triangle District Educator Award
18 Sri Krishna Chimbli, Houston 4 Doug P. Thompson, SW Virginia
18 Daniel Davenport, Houston 5 Carrie L. Pazolt, Atlanta 1 James R. Kein, Maine
18 J. W. Fregia, Houston 7 Tim Moore, Columbus 1 Fay Butler, Boston
18 Cindy Lindsay, Houston 7 Russ Shurtz, Dayton 3 Jamie Kotarski, Central Pennsylvania
18 Ernest G. Peltier, Houston 8 Jeff Cheek, Holston Valley 3 Daniel Millan, Reading
18 Alfredo Pena, Houston 9 Derrick O. Lett, Mobile 4 Charlie Chockley, SW Virginia
18 Edward Peterson, Houston 9 Paul Richardson, Mobile 4 Steve Gore, Charlotte
18 Terry Wells, Houston 9 Michael P. Stuchlik, Central Louisiana 7 Tim Moore, Columbus
18 Scott Witkowski, Houston 9 William H. Wilson, New Orleans 7 Russ Shurtz, Dayton
20 Matthew Q. Johnson, New Mexico 10 Mark Cyphert, NW Pennsylvania 8 Brian Keeton, Greater Huntsville
20 Timothy M. Donovan, New Mexico 10 Michael J. Swansiger, Stark Central 8 Jon Cookson, Holston Valley
20 Rodney Stubblefield, New Mexico 10 Julio J. Martinez, Cleveland 9 Paul Richardson, Mobile
20 James Berry, New Mexico 10 Travis Crate, Drake Well 10 Travis Crate, Drake Well
20 Estevan Ortega, New Mexico 12 John T. Roach, Madison-Beloit 11 Mark Stein, Detroit
20 Erik Pfeif, Colorado 13 Tony Sondgeroth, Illinois Valley 11 Charles Hunt, Northern Michigan
20 William Norton, Colorado 13 Jason Smith, Chicago 12 Kyle Worzala, Racine-Kenosha
20 Clay Christensen, Utah 13 Mike Merriman, Illinois Valley 13 Anthony L. Sondgeroth, Illinois
20 Woody Cook, Utah 14 Robert Lee, St. Louis Valley
20 Larry Zirker, Utah 14 Karl Watson, Lexington 13 Tim Bias, Illinois Valley
22 Jack E. Golub, Sacramento Valley 14 Coy Hall, Lexington 14 Dave McCoy, Tri-River
14 Bob Richwine, Indiana 14 Joe Candela, St. Louis
14 Charles D. House, Indiana 15 Jeremy Hall, Northwest
District Meritorious Award 14 Eric R. Cooper, Indiana 16 Christian R. Beaty, Nebraska
14 John C. Durbin, Tri-River 16 Jeffrey W. Jones, Kansas City
2 George Sheehan, New Jersey 14 Gilbert Morales, Tri-River 17 Rodney Riggs, Tulsa
2 Steve Catherman, Philadelphia 14 Rusty Shelden, Tri-River 18 James Tolar, Houston
3 Francis Butkus, Reading 14 Kevin R. Carter, Tri-River 18 Margaret Noble, Sabine
3 Jerry Jacobson, Reading 14 Christopher S. Rose, Tri-River 20 Trenton Moore, New Mexico
4 Wayne Smith, Tidewater 15 Ross Skattum, Northwest 20 Hunter Reynolds, Utah
4 Gary Cleveland, Triangle 15 Jason Eastling, Northwest 21 Ashley Wolters, San Diego
6 Paul Swatland, Niagara Frontier 15 David Otto, Northwest 22 Dale R. Phillips, San Francisco
7 Randy Dull, Columbus 16 Christian R. Beaty, Nebraska
7 Jim Sekely, Pittsburgh 16 Jeffrey W. Jones, Kansas City
8 Richard Mitchell, Greater Huntsville 16 Eric W. Vannoy, Kansas Section Dalton E. Hamilton
8 Gerald Austin, Nashville 16 Charles Friedrichs, Kansas Memorial CWI of the Year Award
9 Thomas S. Malo, Central Louisiana 16 Darin D. Owens, Nebraska
9 Michael J. Magazzu, Mobile 17 Rodney Riggs, Tulsa 2 Brian Cassidy, Long Island
10 Tom W. Kostreba, NW Pennsylvania 17 Brian Bennett, North Texas 4 William Muller, SW Virginia
10 Erick D. Speer, NW Pennsylvania 17 Aaron Obermann, Ozark 5 Jeffrey Green, Florida West Coast
12 Jim Potter, Racine-Kenosha 18 Earl R. Simon Jr., Houston 8 Donnie A. McCray, Nashville
13 Costica Iftimie, Chicago 18 Leslie Crnkovic, Houston 9 Rudy Roy, Acadiana
13 Joe Piano, Illinois Valley 18 J. W. Fregia, Houston 9 Tyson A. Patin, Acadiana
14 Jerry N. Burke, Louisville 18 Christopher A. Young, Houston 9 Michael Stuchlik, Central Louisiana
15 Pamela Lesemann, Northwest 18 Jaime Escamilla, Corpus Christi 9 Joe Carbo, New Orleans
16 Michell R. Joynt, Nebraska 18 Margaret Noble, Sabine 9 Anthony J. DeMarco, New Orleans
16 Sam Newhouse, Kansas City 18 Tommy Gordon, Sabine 10 Frank M. Dragolich, Cleveland
17 Jeremy Cooper, Tulsa 18 John M. McKeehan, Sabine 10 Charlie Cross, Cleveland
18 Jason K. Trosen, Houston 18 Dusty Green, Sabine 10 Mike P. Andrzejewski, NW
18 Drew Fontenot, Lake Charles 20 Clay Sewell, New Mexico Pennsylvania
18 Eric Pesak, Houston 20 Anna Wilson, New Mexico 10 Dan Weidler, NW Pennsylvania
20 Alexyia Barraza, New Mexico 20 Zhenzhen Yu, Colorado 10 Donna J. Bastian, NW Pennsylvania
20 Mario D. Edmonds, Southern 20 Taylor Smith, Utah 13 Tony Sondgeroth, Illinois Valley
Colorado 21 Ashley Wolters, San Diego 14 Daniel Williamson, Louisville
21 Jeff Davis, San Diego 22 Tim Foster, Central Valley 14 Ashley Applegate, Lexington

SOCIETY NEWS
14 Dane Law, St. Louis 9 Brandon Neely, Mobile 14 David J. Blankenship, Tri-River
14 Anthony C. Shell, Tri-River 9 Brandon G. Dubroc, Central 14 Jason M. Blondin, Tri-River
14 Ross Kazmierzak, Indiana Louisiana 14 Thomas W. Garrett, Tri-River
14 Erin R. Krestakos-Fromson, Indiana 10 Charlie Cross, Cleveland 16 Benjamin D. Sutej, Nebraska
15 Ron Weingartz, Northwest 10 Bryan M. Stempka, NW Pennsylvania 16 Grant E. Von Lunen, Kansas City
16 Jeffrey G. Tyler, Nebraska 12 Dan L. Crifase, Racine-Kenosha 17 Scotty Cline, Ozark
16 Grant E. Von Lunen, Kansas City 13 Paul Leadingham, Illinois Valley 18 Daniel Jones, Houston
16 Brandon Boldt, SE Nebraska 14 Thomas M. Milleville, St. Louis 18 Michale Frazier, Houston
17 Ronnie Summerlin, Tulsa 14 Hope Harp, Louisville 18 Horacio Balli, Corpus Christi
17 Andrew Saltsman, North Texas 15 Michael Hanson, Northwest 18 Dakota J. Stockman, Corpus Christi
17 Dallas Patton, East Texas 16 Grant E. Von Lunen, Kansas City 20 Roy Herrera, New Mexico
18 Sri Krishna Chimbli, Houston 16 Jeffrey G. Tyler, Nebraska 20 Paul Foley, New Mexico
18 Ronald S. Payne, Corpus Christi 17 Dallas Patton, East Texas 20 Jeremy Mowry, Colorado
18 Jesse M. Torres, Corpus Christi 18 Dan Jones, Sabine
20 Roy Herrera, New Mexico 18 Larry A. Wright, Lake Charles
20 Mike Rupert, New Mexico 19 Royce Schuening, Portland District Private Sector Instructor
20 David Ambriz, New Mexico 20 Zachariah Bergstrom, New Mexico
20 Stanely W. Pierce, New Mexico 20 Roger Titus, New Mexico 2 Harry Graham, Philadelphia
20 Rubecca Martinez Dalton, Colorado 20 Mark A. Stadig, Colorado 3 Hugo Garcia, Reading
20 Brad Wilkerson, Utah 21 Lyle J. Palm, San Diego 7 Brett Matthews, Tri-State
20 William G. Payton, Utah 7 William Roth, Cincinnati
21 Lyle J. Palm, San Diego 12 Erik L. Ogren, Racine-Kenosha
22 Bill L. Wenzel, Sacramento Valley Section Private Sector Instructor 12 Bryan R. Hackbarth, Milwaukee
13 Michael G. Bradley, J.A.K.
2 Paul J. Lenox, New Jersey 14 Ashley Applegate, Lexington
District Dalton E. Hamilton 5 Michael Denmark, Florida West Coast 14 Jeremy S. Darnell, Louisville
Memorial CWI of the Year Award 6 Zach Torbell, Rochester 16 Benjamin D. Sutej, Nebraska
9 Albert Theriot, New Orleans 16 Grant E. Von Lunen, Kansas City
2 Jim Dolan, New Jersey 9 Aldo Duron, New Orleans 17 Scotty Cline, Ozark
2 Michael S. Chomin, Philadelphia 10 Lance G. Besse, Stark Central 18 Dan Jones, Sabine
3 Michael Kelly, Reading 10 Benjamin K. Bradbury, Cleveland 18 John Stoll, Houston
3 Stephen Hill, Cumberland Valley 13 Michael G. Bradley, J.A.K. 20 Phil V. Martinez, New Mexico
4 Gary Cleveland, Triangle 14 Adam T. Holt, St. Louis
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Nominate AWS Members to be Profiled
The Welding Journal is celebrating To nominate an AWS member, kpacheco@aws.org.

the diversity of its membership by submit a short statement about what To see member profiles from previ-
profiling AWS members each month in makes the nominee a noteworthy ous issues, visit aws.org/about/page/
its Society News section. Nzinga member, along with the nominee’s diversity-inclusion.
Porter is profiled on the next page. contact information, to Katie Pacheco,

SOCIETY NEWS
AWS Member Profile
Enrolling in the program’s introductory a welding operating engineer, which
welding course, which was taught at a she describes as a “triple threat.”
local fabrication shop, Porter quickly “I would be able to weld, repair, an-
developed a passion for the craft. She alyze specifications, and maintain and
put in extra hours and practiced on operate the machinery and equipment
the weekends to hone her skills in on a jobsite,” she said.
shielded metal arc, flux cored arc, and Despite her excitement for the fu-
gas tungsten arc welding. ture, Porter stresses that the transition
“In the past [as a civil engineer], I from civil engineer to welder hasn’t
worked on a lot of structural steel re- always been easy. However, with the
habilitation projects, which exclusively guidance of family and friends, she
utilized my technical skills,” she recalled. has found the confidence to follow her
“The intro class helped to strengthen heart and confront adversities.
my manual dexterity and hand-eye “Initially, I wasn’t forthcoming about
coordination when working with metals.” my desire to pursue a new career. Fear
Porter also enrolled in the Brooklyn of failure, setbacks, or inadequacies
Metal Partnership Training Program, clouded my mind. I soon realized I
which provides entry-level metalwork- needed support if I wanted to move
ers with the skills required in the field. further. Speaking with my family and
Nzinga Porter She completed 60 h of classroom learn- close friends about my concerns
ing along with 115 h of hands-on shop changed my reservations. I am grateful
training. In addition to various welding for having their continuous support
Before setting her sails for a career processes, the program taught her how and encouragement,” she explained.
in welding, Nzinga Porter flourished to perform oxyfuel and plasma arc cut- “I’ve had hardships with finances, em-
as a civil engineer in New York’s boom- ting, form and finish components for ployment, and health, but I never let
ing construction industry. Throughout architectural fabrication, and utilize setbacks define me. My passion, cre-
her 15-year career, she has worked on various metalworking tools, including ativity, and determination are enough
several vital infrastructure projects, chipping hammers, clamps, stationary to keep me going forward.”
including the Croton Water Filtration and angle grinders, band saws, sanders, As a female in a male-dominated
Plant in the Bronx; the Dey St. Con- drill presses, and files. field, Porter hopes to serve as an ex-
course in Manhattan; the Brooklyn The program also gave her the op- ample that women belong in the weld-
Bridge; and the 151st St. Pedestrian portunity to practice for the American ing industry.
Bridge over the Henry Hudson Parkway. Welding Society shielded metal arc “Despite the misconceptions, weld-
“I’ve always had a strong desire to welding 3G qualification test, which ing can be a great career for women.
become a builder and took pride in my she passed. She also holds qualifica- Women are reliable employees, fast
direct involvement in prominent proj- tions for burning/cutting as well as learners, and exercise excellent dexter-
ects within New York City’s infrastruc- Occupational Safety and Health Ad- ity,” she affirmed. “The future is bright
ture,” she said. ministration credentials. for welding, especially for nontradi-
These demanding projects often Taking her newfound knowledge tional candidates like women.”
required Porter to be available around- and skills, Porter landed a job as a
the-clock, resulting in long work days. welding assistant at two local metal
Over the years, the lack of work-life shops in Brooklyn. However, due to
balance led her to consider leaving the COVID-19 pandemic, she is no
engineering in favor of a career in longer in their employ.
welding. “During the weeknights and week-
“Although I enjoyed and wanted to ends, I would assist in teaching every-
remain in the construction industry, I day people to weld and use tools to
realized I no longer wanted to contin- create functional pieces for the home,”
ue working as a civil engineer. I spoke she said.
with local trades persons who gave in- Despite the setback, Porter is still
sightful and critical feedback about pushing forward with her welding
working in construction,” she recol- career and has been awarded several
lected. “Welding was a skill that could scholarships to help her achieve her
be used by any and all labor trades. I academic goals. In August, she began
felt by choosing welding it would lead the welding program at Lincoln Tech-
me closer to my desired job.” nical Institute, where she is working
Porter welded for the first time at toward a welding certificate. She is
the age of 36 when she participated in slated to graduate in early 2021. Pictured is a hollow metal cube Porter
a pre-apprenticeship training program. created from design to fabrication.
Porter’s future plans are to become

Section News - FNL OCT 2020.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 1:47 PM Page 55
BY CINDY WEIHL — cweihl@aws.org

SECTION NEWS
Desrochers traveled to Canton to pres-
District 1 ent a crystal award to Albert J. Moore District 2
Douglas A. Desrochers, director Jr. The award was presented in honor Harland Thompson, director
(508) 763-8011 of the Connecticut Section Named (631) 546-2903
dadaws@comcast.net Scholarship changing its name to the harland.w.thompson@ul.com
Walter Chojnacki and the Albert J.
CENTRAL MASSACHUSETTS/ Moore Jr. Connecticut Section Schol-
RHODE ISLAND arship. Moore’s family hosted a social-
August 1 ly distanced cookout in honor of him
Location: North Dartmouth, Mass. receiving the award.
Summary: District 1 Director Douglas
A. Desrochers presented a District Di- July 22
rector Award to Kaitlynn Lurie, stu- Location: Waterford, Conn.
dent membership liaison, for her con- Summary: Walter Chojnacki was visit-
tinued involvement with the Section’s ed by District Director Douglas A.
executive committee. Desrochers, who came to present him
with a Crystal Award in honor of the
CENTRAL MASSACHUSETTS/RHODE
CONNECTICUT Connecticut Section Named Scholar-
ISLAND — District 1 Director Douglas A.
July 18 ship changing its name to the Walter Desrochers presented an award to Stu-
Location: Canton, Conn. Chojnacki and the Albert J. Moore Jr. dent Membership Liaison Kaitlynn Lurie.
Summary: District Director Douglas A. Connecticut Section Scholarship.
CONNECTICUT — Albert J. Moore Jr. (third from left) holds an award honoring a Section scholarship in his name. With him are (from left)
son Albert J. Moore III, son-in-law Donald Scott, granddaughter Olivia Scott, daughter Jill Brandon, grandson Gabe Scott (back), grandson
Cole Brandon, daughter Brandie Scott, granddaughter Alena Scott, and his son-in-law’s father Don Scott.
CONNECTICUT — Walter Chojnacki (center) is seen with his family, daughter Jill Patten, wife Sue Chojnacki, granddaughter Erin Patten,
and son Wally Chojnacki, as he received an award for a new Section scholarship bearing his name.

SECTION NEWS
modern piece of metal art by artist Summary: A donation of personal pro-
District 3 David Cerny. The creation consists of tection equipment (PPE) was made
Sean Moran, director 40 stainless steel plates grouped into to Hall County high school Lanier Col-
(717) 885-5039 seven segments, which independently lege & Career Academy for its dual-
sean.moran@phillyshipyard.com rotate 360 deg. When its segments are enrollment program with Lanier Tech-
aligned, the piece becomes a giant nical College. Since the COVID-19
head with water spewing out of its pandemic hit, students can no longer
District 4 mouth into the surrounding pool. share PPE equipment.
Mr. Lynn Showalter, director
(757) 848-8029
lynneshowalter@gmail.com
District 5 District 6
Howard Record, director Ronald Stahura, director
(352) 816-0835 (716) 207-7869
CHARLOTTE howard@rtdtools.com rstahura@esab.com
July 22
Location: Charlotte, N.C. ATLANTA NIAGARA FRONTIER
Summary: Attendees of the nine-year August 12 August 1
American Welding Society Certified Location: Lanier Technical College, Location: Niagara, N.Y.
Welding Inspector seminar viewed a Oakwood Campus, Oakwood, Ga. Summary: Aaron Struzik and Ben-
CHARLOTTE — Attendees of the nine-year Certified Welding Inspector seminar included (from left) Wes DeBruhl, Frank Davis, Ron
Theiss (instructor), John Lacombe, Jerry Sowell, Gary Streeter Sr., Cliff Hartsfield, Eric Dickerson, Brad Arrowood, Jason Gibson, and Joe
Chasteen.
ATLANTA — Seen with donated personal protection equipment for welding students are Courtney Harmon, Lanier Technical high
school coordinator; Christian Tetzlaff, dean of applied technology and transportation; Kevin Reese, Lanier Technical welding instructor;
Section Chair René Engeron; and Caleb Hammond, welding instructor and high school dual-enrollment coordinator.

Page 65.qxp_FP_TEMP 1/14/20 11:07 AM Page 65
American Welding Society®

MEMBERSHIP
SPPA
ARKING CONNEC
CTIONS –
2020 AW
WS MEMBERSHIPP CHALLENGE
What
h it is:
Be the spark
p that ignites
g s the people you know to
beecome AW
WS members, and get rewards.
Ho
ow it woorks:
Buuild up points throug hout the year for each
AWS
W Member you recr uit: 5 Points per Individual
Meembership and 1 Pointt per Student Membership.
What
W you get:
Grand Prize Winnner: $200 gift card
2nd Plaace: $100 gift card
3rd Plaace: $100 gift card
4th Plaace: $100 gift card
Alll other participants earnning 10 or more points will get
WS branded merchandisse based on points accrued
AW
thrroughout 2020.
The Fine Print: All AWS members in good standinng may participate and are eligiblle to receive rewards based on points accrued
Januarry 1 – December 31 31, 2020
2020. Paarticipant eligibillity is determined at the sole discre
retion of AWS program administrators. AWS staff
members and administrators of commercial / corrporate or educational packaagges that inccllude AWS memberships in the pricing
structure are not eligible to participate. Foor more innformation, visit aws.org/be-the-sppark
SECTION NEWS
jamin Woodward were selected as the
two 2020 Niagara Frontier Scholarship District 8 District 11
winners. First-place winner Struzik re- James Thompson, director Phillip Temple, director
ceived $3000 to attend Niagara Coun- (256) 347-6481 (734) 546-4298
ty Community College’s welding tech- jim.thompson@wallacestate.edu nwcllc_ptemple@att.net
nology program in Sanborn, N.Y.
Woodward received $1500 and will be
continuing his studies at Alfred State
College’s welding program. District 9 District 12
Michael Skiles, director Dale Lange, director
(337) 501-0304 (715) 732-3645
dale.lange@nwtc.edu
District 7 michaelskiles@cox.net
Roger E. Hilty, director

(740) 317-9073
rhilty@comcast.net District 10 District 13
Mike Sherman, director Ronald Ashelford, director
(216) 570-9348 (815) 218-8766
mike@shermanswelding.com r.ashelford@rockvalleycollege.edu
CHICAGO
August 12
Location: Mama Luigi’s Restaurant,
Bridgeview, Ill.
Summary: The Section’s board mem-
bers gathered to discuss old and
new business, as well as plan future
gatherings.
District 14
Tony Brosio, director
NIAGARA FRONTIER — Aaron Struzik NIAGARA FRONTIER — Benjamin
(765) 215-7506
was the first-place recipient of a Woodward was the recipient of a $1500 tbrosio@yahoo.com
$3000 Section scholarship. Section scholarship.
CHICAGO — August meeting attendees included (sitting from left) Anghelina Iftimie, Elisabeth Darnell, Craig Tichelar, and John Hessel-
tine. Standing (from left) are Marty Vondra, Cliff Iftimie, Section Chair Dave Viar, and Jim Greer.

SECTION NEWS
COLORADO
District 15 August 1 District 21
Michael Hanson, director Location: Bailey, Colo. Sam Lindsey, director
(763) 221-5951 Summary: The Section presented an (858) 740-1917
mikhan318@comcast.com award to Mark Stadig. slindsey@sandiego.gov
August 12
Location: Glendale, Colo.
District 16 Summary: The Section hosted a Certi- District 22
fied Welding Inspector (CWI) seminar Robert Purvis, director
Karl Fogleman, director at the Hyatt Place in Glendale, Colo. (916) 599-5561
(402) 677-2490
fogleman3@cox.net purviswelds@gmail.com
District 17
J Jones, director ANNOUNCE YOUR
(832) 506-5986
drtourch@yahoo.com SECTION’S ACTIVITIES
If you would like to submit a calen-
dar notice or recap your Section’s
District 18 in-person or virtual activities, visit
Thomas Holt, director aws.org/membership/page/wj-
(409) 721-5777 submission-form.
tholt@techcorr.com
Please keep in mind the Welding
Journal publication cut-off is usually
the 20th of the month, for two
District 19 months ahead. For example, if you
want to have your activities in the
Shawn McDaniel, director
December Journal, the deadline is
(509) 793-5182
October 20.
shawnm@bigbend.edu
COLORADO — Bob Teusher (left) and

Section Chair Marj Oliver (right) pre-
District 20 sented Mark Stadig with a Section
Denis Clark, director award.
(208) 357-6626
denis.clark.51@gmail.com
COLORADO — CWI seminar attendees are seen with Richard Campbell (far left), welding fellow with Bechtel Construction, and Bob
Teuscher (far right), AWS past president and president of AJAX Industries.

GUIDE TO AWS SERVICES

American Welding Society® Senior Sales Executive, Expositions Program Managers
8669 NW 36 St., #130 Sarah Dickson.. sdickson@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(297)
Miami, FL 33166-6672 Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . .(305)
(800/305) 443-9353 EDUCATION & TRAINING Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining
Phone extensions are in parentheses. Director of Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facil-
Alicia Garcia.. agarcia@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(229) ities Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds,
AWS PRESIDENT Welding in Sanitary Applications
Robert W. Roth..rroth@romanmfg.com
President and CEO, RoMan Manufacturing Inc. INFORMATION SYSTEMS Stephen Borrero.. sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . .(334)
Managing Director Definitions and Symbols, Structural Sub-
John Perry.. jperry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(247) committees on Bridge Welding, Reinforcing
SENIOR LEADERSHIP TEAM Steel and Stainless Steel, Joining of Metals and
Executive Director/Chief Executive Officer Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Gary Konarska II.. gkonarska@aws.org . . . . .(207) ITSA — INTERNATIONAL THERMAL
SPRAY ASSOCIATION Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Chief Financial Officer/ Program Manager Filler Metals and Allied Materials, Interna-
Chief Administrative Officer Alfred Nieves.. anieves@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(467) tional Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment,
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . .(252) Computational Weld Mechanics
RWMA — RESISTANCE WELDING
Senior Vice Presidents MANUFACTURING ALLIANCE and WEMCO — Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(253) ASSOCIATION OF WELDING MANUFACTURERS Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding
Research, Strategy, and Membership Program Manager
Adrian Bustillo.. abustillo@aws.org . . . . . . . .(295) Mario Diaz.. mdiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(310)
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472) Automotive, Resistance Welding, Resistance
Welding & Technology Welding Equipment, Welding and Brazing in
MEMBER SERVICES Aerospace, Friction Welding
EXECUTIVE OFFICE Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Associate Director Kevin Bulger.. kbulger@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(294) Director, Membership Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld In-
Nici Banks.. nbanks@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(270) spection, High-Energy Beam Welding, Welding
Program Administrator, National Awards Serves as a liaison between members and in Marine Construction, Welding of Machinery
Malisa Mercado.. mmercado@aws.org . . . . . .(293) AWS headquarters. and Equipment
Senior Manager, Sections and Student Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . .(308)

HUMAN RESOURCES Chapters Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
Director Darrill Gaschler.. dgaschler@aws.org . . . . . . .(260) Welding, Robotics Welding, Thermal Spraying,
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(209) Welding Iron Castings, Welding Qualification
PUBLISHING & EDITORIAL Welding Handbook Editor

GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(255)
Hugh Webster.. hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, Welding Journal
D.C. (202) 785-9500; Fax: (202) 835-0243 Publisher/Editor AWS FOUNDATION INC.
Monitors federal issues of importance to the Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . .(299) aws.org/w/a/foundation
industry. General Information
Managing Editor (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, jdouglass@aws.org
Kristin Campbell.. kcampbell@aws.org . . . . .(257)
CERTIFICATION SERVICES Chair, Board of Trustees
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273) Society News Editor William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com
Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director Executive Director, Foundation
Denny Smith.. dsmith@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(263) Section News Editor Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(461)
Cindy Weihl.. cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(256)
ACCREDITATION Associate Director, Foundation Services
Senior Manager Inspection Trends Editor John Douglass.. jdouglass@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(212)
Emil Pagoaga.. epagoaga@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(448) Carlos Guzman.. cguzman@aws.org . . . . . . .(348)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
charitable organization established to provide sup-
CONFERENCES & EVENTS STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT port for the educational and scientific endeavors of
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(213) Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340) the American Welding Society. Promote the Founda-
tion’s work with your financial support.
CUSTOMER SERVICE & SUPPORT Director — Standards Development

Customer Service.. customerservice@aws.org(280) Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(311)
Technical Committee Activities, Additive
SALES & CUSTOMER SERVICE Manufacturing, Structural Subcommittee on
Titanium
Senior Sales Executive, Corporate
Sandra Jorgensen.. sjorgensen@aws.org . . . .(254)
Director — International Activities
Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS International Standards Activities, American
Director, Expositions Council of the International Institute of Welding
Matthew Rubin.. mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . .(239)

Personnel Oct 2020.qxp_Layout 1 9/9/20 6:21 PM Page 62
PERSONNEL
Ford Announces President company determine how to reshape sis laboratory. Meduri brings more
and CEO the industry through software plat- than eight years of engineering re-
forms, connectivity, artificial intelli- search and testing experience. He
Ford Motor Co., gence, automation, and new forms of earned his PhD in mechanical engi-
Dearborn, Mich., a propulsion. He was named chief oper- neering at Texas Tech University in
multinational au- ating officer in February. 2019; was a founding member of the
tomaker, has school’s Mechanical Engineering Grad-
named Jim Farley uate Student Association; and organ-
as president and ized scientific workshops for local
CEO effective AEIS Hires Metallurgical youth. He also presented his work at
Oct. 1. He was also Engineer major conferences, including The Min-
elected to Ford’s erals, Metals & Materials Society con-
board of directors. Atlas Evalua- ference in 2019 and 2020; the Materi-
He succeeds Jim tion & Inspection als Research Society conference in
Hackett, who has Services (AEIS), 2018; the National Association of Cor-
J. Farley retired from the South Plainfield, rosion Engineers conference in 2016;
company. Farley N.J., a testing, in- and the American Institute of Aero-
collaborated with Hackett over the spection, and cer- nautics and Astronautics as well as the
past three years to develop and exe- tification compa- American Society of Mechanical Engi-
cute Ford’s Creating Tomorrow To- ny, has appointed neers conferences in 2014. Specializ-
gether plan. He joined the automaker Chandra Sekhar ing in medical devices, he has co-au-
in 2007 as the global head of market- Meduri as lead thored a number of technical papers
ing and sales and went on to lead Lin- metallurgical engi- on material science applications. After
coln, Ford South America, Ford of Eu- neer. This newly finishing his PhD, Meduri was a post-
C. S. Meduri
rope, and all Ford global markets in created role will doctoral researcher at the University
successive roles. In April 2019, he was focus on solving of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Tex.,
chosen to lead new businesses, tech- metallurgical and technical challenges where he worked in the Advanced Ma-
nology and strategy team, helping the and overseeing the firm’s failure analy- terials and Manufacturing Lab. He also

supported a team of seven engineers, from the Manufacturing Institute. The Obituaries
resulting in a U.S. patent and six tech- award recognizes rising female talent
nical publications. Before that, he was currently employed in the manufactur- Suleiman S. Yero
a materials science researcher in the ing industry who have made signifi-
Functional Materials and Devices Lab cant contributions in their careers. Suleiman S. Yero passed away on
at Texas Tech University. Prior to that, Brady began her career at Newport May 27, following an illness. Yero re-
Meduri was a research engineer at News Shipbuilding in June 2016, ceived his bachelor of engineering de-
MetCel, a student-faculty team startup where she supported propulsion plant gree in mechanical engineering at
at Oklahoma State University, where work on aircraft carriers. She also Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria, and
he worked on product development serves as a mentor through a program a master of science degree in welding
for the aerospace, marine, and safety that pairs qualified individuals with el- engineering from Cranfield University,
equipment industries. He also led two ementary school-aged children in low- UK. He began his career in various
joint-venture research projects with income areas. technical positions with offshore con-
equipment manufacturers in the Unit-
ed States, resulting in an expansion of
their product lines.
Hobart Institute of Welding

Technology Adds Instructor
The Hobart In-
stitute of Welding
Technology
(HIWT), Troy,
Ohio, has wel-
comed Benjamin
Gibson as a skill
welding instruc-
tor. Gibson is a
2016 graduate
from HIWT’s com-
bination structur-
B. Gibson
al and pipe weld-
ing program and a
veteran of the U.S. Army. He worked
for General Electric/Unison right after
graduation, where he gained extensive
experience in gas tungsten arc welding
on stainless steel as well as fabrication
and fitup.
Newport News’s Mechanical

Engineer Receives Emerging
Leader Award
Huntington In-
galls Industries,
Newport News,
Va., a military
shipbuilding com-
pany, has an-
nounced Jennifer
Brady, a mechani-
cal engineer in the
Newport News
Shipbuilding divi-
sion, as a recipient
J. Brady of the Emerging
Leader Award

tractors. He first Technologies Conference & Exhibition the company. He spent more than 30
joined Acergy UK 2019 in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Yero years at Foster Wheeler until his retire-
Ltd. in Aberdeen was a passionate welding engineer, a ment in 1993 as its director of welding
as a welding and loving father and husband, and dutiful services. Additionally, he was a member
materials engi- son and brother. of the American Welding Society, join-
neer, where he ing in 1956 and achieving Life Member
was responsible status in 1991. After retirement, Leclair
for technical sup- began studying plein-air oil painting
port for offshore Guy Armand Leclair and gained recognition for his impres-
and onshore proj- sionist renderings of the Genesee Valley
ects. He subse- Guy Armand and the Charlevoix coast of Quebec. He
quently had short Leclair of Fairport, was a member of the All-Weather Gang
S. S. Yero
stints with Subsea N.Y., passed away (a plein-air painting group), the Penfield
7, Aberdeen, UK, peacefully on Au- Art Association, and the Rockport Art
as a senior welding and materials engi- gust 3. He was 92. Association in Massachusetts. He re-
neer, then Technip as a senior welding Leclair was a ceived accolades in numerous juried art
engineer, before returning to Subsea 7 leader and innova- shows. His work is part of the Molson
as the principal welding and materials tor on welding Collection in Canada. Sharing his artis-
engineer in a contract role. He went on technology. Before tic expertise, he volunteered as a docent
to join Saudi Aramco in 2014 as a graduating from at the Memorial Art Gallery in
welding and metallurgical engineer, McGill University Rochester, N.Y. With a strong belief that
working in Saudi Arabia. Yero joined in Montréal, Que- “knowledge is power,” Leclair was espe-
the American Welding Society (AWS) G. A. Leclair bec, in 1951, he cially proud to have attended each of his
in 2007. In 2017, he took over as first gained practical ex- 11 grandchildren’s graduations and was
vice chair of the AWS Saudi Arabia Sec- perience at Noranda Mines. In 1962, he supportive of their pursuits. He is sur-
tion and continued in this office until moved to the United States with his vived by his wife of 67 years, Aline
his passing. He has served in multiple family and began working for Foster Hébert, four children, two sisters,
leadership roles in the Section, includ- Wheeler Energy Corp. as a metallurgical brother-in-law, grandchildren, and
ing technical committee chair for the welding engineer. He was an inventor great-grandchildren. WJ
Materials Performance & Welding on two patents he developed while at

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY superalloy components in next-generation, fossil-fueled

power plants. It will also meet the demand for welders.
— continued from page 13 The deal transferred $500,000 from DOE’s Office of FE
to ARC. NETL will manage the program in partnership with
During the project, Ingalls Shipbuilding cleared and recy- ARC, the federal economic development agency that serves
cled more than 100,000 tons of concrete, which was used to West Virginia and portions of 12 other states in Appalachia,
construct a road base on the east bank. All interior and exte- a region from southern New York to northern Mississippi.
rior lighting on the east bank will use LED technology. Attendees will learn advanced techniques, including gas
In addition, historical features from original east bank fa- tungsten arc welding and technologies for joining cobalt-
cilities were salvaged and incorporated into new structures and nickel-based superalloys, in power plants that operate at
on the property. This includes all of the bricks from a 1930s extreme temperatures and pressure levels. More training
guard house as well as a concrete slab into which Robert In- will focus on robotics and advanced manufacturing skills.
galls Sr., founder of Ingalls Shipbuilding, carved his initials. “There is a need to develop a workforce of welders with
Delbert D. Black departed from Ingalls Shipbuilding in the high-tech skills to use these superalloys so utilities can
early September, sailing to its homeport in Mayport, Fla. produce cleaner electricity from highly efficient coal and gas
power plants that run at extreme temperatures and pressure
levels,” said Briggs White, NETL technology manager for the
Portable Robot Deployed to Make Office of FE’s High Performance Materials program.
For more information, email advancedwelding@arc.gov.
Multipurpose Canister Lid Closure Welds
ITSA Hosts Thermal Spray Webinar
HI-BRIAN, Holtec International’s portable robotic welding unit, ITSA’s first-ever webinar discussed topics such as thermal
welds the lid to the shell of an MPC-89. spray career opportunities. The screenshot above highlights
some of those occupations.
Holtec International, Jupiter, Fla., is marking the suc-

cessful deployment of its portable robotic welding unit, The International Thermal Spray Association (ITSA) held
named HI-BRIAN, designed to reduce the loading crew’s its first-ever webinar on August 13, aimed at providing a
radiation dose during multipurpose canister (MPC) historical and practical overview of the thermal spray indus-
shell-to-lid welding evolutions. To date, three of the compa- try. Titled “Thermal Spray: The Industry, Technology, Appli-
ny’s MPC-89s have been welded using this product at a cations and Careers,” the webinar was moderated by Ameri-
client site. can Welding Society (AWS) Content Manager Trish
A benefit of the portable robotic welding unit includes Claussen. It was hosted by Jim Ryan, ITSA executive com-
hardening the closure weld against vulnerabilities, such as mittee member and director of business development at
stress corrosion cracking, by precisely controlling critical pa- TechMet Alloys LLC, and Daniel C. Hayden, president of
rameters like heat input and travel speed as well as provid- Hayden Corp.
ing flexibility to handle groove geometry variations. The topics covered included an introduction to ITSA and
Holtec’s Director of International Site Services Mike thermal spraying as well as thermal spray uses, processes,
Williams led the robot deployment at the client site. coatings, and applications. The webinar also highlighted the
many careers paths available within the industry.
To watch the recording, as well as other recent AWS
webinars, visit aws.org/webinars.
NETL Supports High-Tech Welding Program
The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Office of Fossil
Energy (FE), the National Energy Technology Laboratory Business New Hampshire Magazine
(NETL), and the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) Honors Hypertherm
are partnering through an agreement that establishes a job-
training program. This move will help create a high-tech Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., a manufacturer of industrial
workforce with advanced welding skills to install and service cutting systems and software, recently announced its selec-

tion as a business of the decade winner by Business New twin-span bridge features eight traffic lanes with shoulders,
Hampshire Magazine and the New Hampshire Association of dedicated bus and emergency vehicle lanes, and one of the
Chamber of Commerce Executives. The company earned the longest bike and pedestrian bridge paths of its kind.
top spot for the manufacturing and technology category. With more than 50 million vehicles utilizing the bridge
“Hypertherm is humbled and honored by this recogni- every year, it’s three miles in length, making it the longest in
tion. It is beyond anything we expected, as we know the cal- the state. The bridge, which contains a cable-stayed span de-
iber of companies who call the Granite State home,” said sign, opened to traffic in 2018 and crosses one of the widest
Evan Smith, Hypertherm’s CEO and president. “As a compa- areas of the Hudson River. AEIS was selected to perform
ny owned by more than a thousand associates working in special inspections on the bridge and provide inspection
New Hampshire, we fully believe that the triple bottom line personnel.
of people, planet, and profit go hand in hand and are ad-
vanced together in our community, especially now as we all
face the challenges brought on by the current pandemic.” Industry Notes
Hypertherm was invited to apply because of its selection
as the magazine’s 2011 Business of the Year. Nearly 50 • The ASTM International Conference on Additive Manu-
judges scored applications through two rounds of competi- facturing (amcoe.org/icam-2020), scheduled to be in Orlan-
tion. They admired the respect the company has in the fabri- do, Fla., on November 16–20, will now be virtual. It’s being
cation industry, its reputation for technological and manu- organized by 60 members of the scientific committee and
facturing excellence, and the depth of its community work. led by co-chairs Nima Shamsaei, director of the National
Center for Additive Manufacturing Excellence, and Moshen
Seifi, ASTM International’s director of global additive manu-
AEIS Completes Inspection and Testing facturing programs. “This year’s event will be the largest
Ventures in New York conference we have held to date and will consist of more
than a dozen tracks and double the number of speakers with
respect to last year’s event,” said Seifi.
• FANUC, Rochester Hills, Mich., a global provider of factory

automation, robots, and more, was named a GM Supplier of
the Year by General Motors, Detroit, Mich., during a virtual
ceremony honoring the recipients of the company’s 28th an-
nual Supplier of the Year awards. The automaker recognized
116 of its best suppliers from 15 countries. The recognition
is for supplier performance in the 2019 calendar year.
• The sixth annual I BUILT THIS! video contest (byf.org/

i-built-this), by NCCER and Build Your Future, Alachua, Fla.,
Pictured is the Governor Mario M. Cuomo Bridge, which is is returning this month. For the first time, the 2020 event
New York’s longest bridge. AEIS helped increase the bridge’s has a special theme: Construction is Everywhere! Students
safety and quality. (Courtesy: New York State Thruway may share projects they built at home or another safe envi-
Authority.) ronment during 2020. In keeping with social distancing,
there are no group categories. First-place and runner-up
Atlas Evaluation & Inspection Services (AEIS), South winners will be selected from secondary and postsecondary
Plainfield, N.J., has completed testing and inspection on La- categories. The people’s choice category will be selected by
Guardia Airport’s new Terminal B Headhouse. The 840,000- popular vote.
sq-ft, four-story facility replaces the Central Terminal Build-
ing and a former parking garage. As part of the airport’s $8-
billion redevelopment program, the $4-billion Terminal B • The Vermeer Podcast (vermeer.com/na/podcasts) is deliv-
will serve as an easily navigable entry point for passengers. ering a series of content on continuous improvement tips
“As the new Terminal B at LaGuardia Airport is trans- and best practices. Hosted by Vermeer Chair of the Board
formed into a world-class transportation hub, safety and Mary Andringa, as well as the company’s continuous im-
quality are of utmost importance to ensure the project’s provement experts Gary Coppock and Louis Norton,
long-term success,” said Nagesh Goel, president and co- this series draws on the agricultural equipment manufactur-
founder of AEIS. er’s journey.
The company’s work included inspections on deep foun-
dation piles, soil, steel, concrete, masonry, fireproofing, fire
stopping, and mechanical, plumbing, and electrical aspects. • Sarcos Robotics, Salt Lake City, Utah, and MFE Rentals,
Led by AEIS Vice President Manan Shah, a team of more Dripping Springs, Tex., have announced a partnership giving
than 75 engineers/inspectors did special inspections and MFE Rentals customers access to the Guardian® S robotic
testing. crawler system. The remote visual inspection tool is de-
In addition, AEIS has completed testing and inspection signed to traverse challenging terrain while maintaining
on the Governor Mario M. Cuomo Bridge. The $3.98-billion, real-time, two-way video, voice, and data communication. WJ

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Kou 2019115 SuppLayout.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 10:14 AM Page 255
WELDING RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, OCTOBER 2020
Sponsored by the American Welding Society
Solidification Cracking Susceptibility of

Stainless Steels: New Test and Explanation
The susceptibility was evaluated by the Transverse Motion Weldability test
and explained based on the continuity of the grain-boundary liquid
BY K. LIU, P. YU, AND S. KOU
ABSTRACT Introduction
The susceptibility of austenitic, ferritic, and duplex stain-
Stainless steels are widely used in chemical and power
less steels to solidification cracking was evaluated by the industries. Numerous investigations have shown they are
new Transverse Motion Weldability (TMW) test. The focus susceptible to cracking during solidification (Refs. 1–9).
was on austenitic stainless steels. 304L and 316L were Austenitic stainless steels that are more resistant to solidifica-
least susceptible, 321 was significantly more susceptible, tion cracking tend to have a fusion-zone microstructure that
and 310 was much more susceptible. However, some 321 is not fully austenite . They also contain a small but signifi-
welds were even less susceptible than 304L welds. These cant amount (≥ 5%) of lacy or skeletal -ferrite (Refs. 1–3).
321 welds were found to have much finer grains to better Consequently, it has been widely accepted for decades that
resist solidification cracking. Quenching 321 during welding the lacy/skeletal  structure resists solidification cracking.
revealed spontaneous grain refining could occur by hetero- Depending on its composition, when a liquid austenitic
geneous nucleation. For 304L, 316L, and 310, a new explana-
tion for the susceptibility was proposed based on the con-
stainless steel is cooled to solidify, the primary solidification
tinuity of the liquid between columnar dendrites; a discon- phase (the dendrites that form from the liquid) can be either
tinuous, isolated liquid allows bonding between dendrites -ferrite, which is body-centered cubic (bcc), or austenite ,
to occur early to better resist cracking. In 304L and 316L, which is face-centered cubic (fcc). Usually, if the primary solidi-
the dendrite-boundary liquid was discontinuous and isolat- fication phase is , the resultant fusion zone is almost fully 
ed, as revealed by quenching. The liquid was likely depleted with little . However, if the primary solidification phase is ,
by both fast back diffusion into -dendrites (body-centered the resultant fusion zone tends to show a lacy/skeletal  struc-
cubic) and the L +  +  reaction, which consumed L while ture at room temperature. Thus, austenitic stainless steels that
forming . In 310, however, the dendrites were separated by solidify with primary  tend to be significantly less susceptible
a continuous liquid that prevented early bonding between to solidification cracking than those that solidify with primary
them. Back diffusion into -dendrites (face-centered cubic)
was much slower, and the L +  +  reaction formed little .
, as shown by Masumoto et al. (Ref. 4).
Quenching also revealed skeletal/lacy  formed in 304L and Shankar et al. (Ref. 3) summarized many factors that
316L well after solidification ended; thus, skeletal/lacy  have been proposed to explain the benefits of having a
did not resist solidification cracking, as had been widely small, but significant, amount of -ferrite in the  matrix
believed for decades. The TMW test further demonstrated (Refs. 10–16). For instance, the irregular crack path caused
that both more sulfur and slower welding can increase sus- by the presence of skeletal/lacy  in the  matrix can arrest
ceptibility. cracks. The lower interface energy of / than that of either
/ or / can resist cracking. The skeletal/lacy  refines 
and thus resists cracking. The large / interface area dis-
KEYWORDS perses sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P). The    transforma-
• Transverse Motion Weldability Test • Stainless Steels
tion reduces tensile stresses. Much more S and P can dis-
• Solidification Cracking • Welding • Austenitic • Ferritic solve in , and less S and P are thus present at grain bound-
• Duplex • 304 • 310 • 316 • 321 • 430 • 2205 aries to cause cracking. Thermal stresses are reduced be-
cause  is more ductile than  and because the thermal ex-
pansion of  is less than that of . Homogenization of S and
https://doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.024
OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 255-s

WELDING RESEARCH
A
A B
Fig. 1 — Two options of the TMW test: A — One-speed test for B

assessing susceptibility to crack initiation; B — two-speed
test for assessing susceptibility to crack propagation.
P is faster because of faster diffusion in  bcc than in  fcc.

Yu et al. (Ref. 17) quenched 304 stainless steel with
Wood’s metal (at 75C) during welding. In the mushy zone,
the primary solidification phase  and the  between  were
identified by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Opti-
cal microscopy showed the lacy/skeletal  structure did not
exist in the mushy zone but in the fusion zone far behind
the mushy zone.
Soysal and Kou (Refs. 18–20) recently developed the
Transverse Motion Weldability (TMW) test to evaluate the
susceptibility of Al alloys to solidification cracking. This is a
simple lap welding process in which the lower sheet moves
slowly in the transverse direction of welding to cause trans-
verse tension in the mushy zone and hence solidification
cracking. In the most widely used Varestraint test (Ref. 21),
the workpiece is bent suddenly during welding to induce
tension. Unlike the Varestraint test, the TMW test (Refs. 2, Fig. 2 — Example of a weld illustrating the TMW test: A —
18, 19) can do the following: 1) allows the use of filler met- Schematic (top motion guides not shown) (Refs. 18, 19); B —
als to evaluate their significant effect on solidification crack- 304L stainless steel after being tested at 0.4 mm/s lower-
ing; 2) imposes deformation on the mushy zone alone in- sheet speed (initially 0.7 mm/s).
stead of the whole workpiece; 3) imposes slow, instead of
sudden, deformation (more realistic for welding); 4) sepa- positions are shown in Table 1. Stainless steel 304L-A was
rates crack initiation from crack propagation; 5) avoids li- higher in sulfur (0.014 wt-%) than 304L-B, 304L-C, and 304-D
quation cracking and hence its interference with solidifica- (0.002 or 0.003 wt-%). The 321 was a stabilized-grade stain-
tion cracking; 6) significantly reduces the cost of the appara- less steel with Ti added to form TiC instead of Cr23C6, which
tus; and 7) significantly reduces the amount of workpiece can lead to Cr depletion and hence corrosion along the grain
material required for testing. boundaries in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) (Refs. 1, 2).
The first purpose of the present study was to assess the The upper sheet was 3.2 mm (1⁄8 in.) thick, 25.4 mm (1 in.)
susceptibility of various stainless steels to solidification wide, and 127 mm (5 in.) long. The lower sheet was 3.2 mm
cracking using the new TMW test. This is because the test (1⁄8 in.) thick, 76.2 mm (3 in.) wide, and 76.2 mm (3 in.) long.
has not yet been used for stainless steels, and it has several Before welding, the leading edge of the lower sheet stuck out
significant advantages over the most widely used Vare- beyond the upper sheet by 10 mm. The surfaces near the ex-
straint test. The second purpose was to explain why some pected welding path were polished to remove oxides and
austenitic stainless steels are more susceptible than others. then cleaned with acetone.
To evaluate the susceptibility to solidification cracking,
Experimental Procedure the TMW test (Refs. 18–20) was used. In the TMW test, a
stationary upper sheet was lap welded to a lower sheet that
The stainless steels used in the present study included moved slowly in the transverse direction of welding to in-
austenitic stainless steels 304L, 316L, 321, and 310; ferritic duce transverse tension in the mushy zone and hence so-
stainless steel 430; and duplex stainless steel 2205. Their com- lidification cracking. To evaluate the susceptibility to crack
256-s WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020, VOL. 99

WELDING RESEARCH
Table 1 — Compositions of Stainless Steels in wt-%
C Si Mn P S Ni Cr N Cu Mo Co Ti Fe Creq/Nieq
304L-A 0.025 0.54 1.74 0.025 0.014 8.06 18.06 0.063 0.25 balance 1.761
304L-B 0.022 0.42 1.33 0.035 0.003 8.070 18.11 0.037 balance 1.890
304L-C 0.024 0.48 1.05 0.020 0.002 8.060 18.13 0.050 balance 1.831
304L-D 0.022 0.43 1.10 0.026 0.003 8.090 18.32 0.053 balance 1.847
310 0.050 0.580 1.76 0.020 0.001 19.10 24.1 0.03 0.08 0.11 balance 1.128
316L 0.024 0.4 1.55 0.029 0.002 10.04 16.71 0.031 0.29 2.03 balance 1.619
321A 0.033 0.49 1.01 0.031 0.001 9.0 17.10 0.013 0.32 0.30 0.3 balance 1.658
321B 0.013 0.49 1.76 0.027 0.001 9.2 17.14 0.016 0.49 0.46 0.2 balance 1.743
321C 0.014 0.50 1.82 0.025 0.0001 9.26 17.35 0.01 0.29 0.36 0.16 balance 1.767
430 0.160 0.287 0.45 0.030 0.0044 0.319 16.05 0.043 balance 2.719
2205 0.016 0.390 1.39 0.028 0.001 5.790 22.27 0.170 0.25 3.13 0.19 balance 2.589
initiation, the one-speed option of the TMW test was used austenitic stainless steels 304L, 310, 316L, and 321 were
as illustrated in Fig. 1A. The lower sheet moved at a single, quenched with Wood’s metal (75C) during bead-on-plate
constant speed (V) throughout the test. If the weld did not welding. The workpiece was 102 mm (4 in.) long, 51 mm (2
crack, the experiment was repeated at a higher V to see if in.) wide, and 1.6 mm (11⁄ 6 in.) thick. It was welded along the
cracking would occur. To evaluate the susceptibility to centerline in the length direction. This thinner workpiece al-
crack propagation, however, the two-speed option was lowed for more effective quenching than the workpiece for lap
used as illustrated in Fig. 1B. The first speed of the lower welding. DCEN was used with Ar shielding. The torch travel
sheet was set higher at 0.7 mm/s to ensure crack initiation. speed was 1.35 to 1.48 mm/s (3.2 to 3.5 in./min), the welding
After a short weld length of about 14 mm, the lower sheet current was 48 to 55 A, and the voltage was 7.8 to 10 V. The
was suddenly slowed down to a second speed (e.g., 0.2 arc length was initially set at 2.3 mm.
mm/s). If the crack did not propagate, the experiment was The resultant welds were cut, polished, and etched (Ref.
repeated at the same first speed and a higher second speed 17). 304L and 316L were electrochemically etched with a so-
to see if the crack would propagate. A servo motor was pro- lution consisting of 60 g of oxalic acid in 600 mL of water.
grammed with the help of a computer to move an Al plate The voltage was 10 V and the etching time was 15 s. 310 was
along a sliding stage and push the lower sheet. etched with mixed acids consisting of 10 mL HNO3, 20 mL
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) was conducted under HCl, and 30 mL H2O. The etched samples were examined by
the following conditions: 110-A welding current with the di- optical microscopy — with or without differential interfer-
rect current electrode negative (DCEN) polarity, 10- to 11-V ence contrast (DIC) — and scanning electron microscopy
arc, 1.27-mm/s (3-in./min) welding speed (torch travel (SEM). EBSD was used to identify the phases present in the
speed), 3.15 × 10–4 m3/s (40 ft3/h) Ar gas flow rate, and 3.2- microstructure.
mm-diameter tungsten electrode with a 15-deg electrode-tip
angle. The torch was inclined 20 deg toward the joint. Results
To initiate the TMW test, the servo motor was turned on
to push the lower sheet, the arc was initiated 2 s afterward, Figure 2 shows an example of 304L after the TMW test. A
the torch carriage was turned on 4 s afterward, the arc was schematic sketch of the TMW test (Refs. 18, 19) is also includ-
extinguished 30 s afterward, and the carriage and the motor ed as a reference. Figure 3 shows examples of the workpiece af-
were then turned off to end the experiment. ter the one-speed TMW test for crack initiation. For 316L, no
The crack length was measured after each experiment. cracking occurred at the lower-sheet speed of 0.25 mm/s, but
The normalized crack length was plotted against the lower- cracking occurred all the way to the end at 0.30 mm/s. For
sheet speed V. In the one-speed test, the normalized crack 310, full cracking occurred even at the relatively low speed of
length equaled the crack length divided by the weld length. 0.15 mm/s, which indicated a higher crack susceptibility than
On the other hand, in the two-speed test, the normalized 316L. On the other hand, for 304L, no cracking occurred even
crack length equaled the crack length under the second at 0.30 mm/s, thus indicating a lower crack susceptibility than
speed divided by the weld length under the second speed. 316L. Thus, Fig. 3 suggests the crack susceptibility decreased
A transition range of the lower-sheet speed V was identi- in the order of 310 > 316L > 304L.
fied, over which the normalized crack length increased Figure 4 shows examples of the 310 workpiece after the
from 0 (no crack) to 1 (full crack). one- and two-speed TMW tests. The one-speed test in Fig.
To help explain the results of the crack susceptibility tests, 4A shows a crack that stopped shortly after initiation. The

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
A B
C D
C D
Fig. 3 — Top views of the workpiece after the one-speed TMW

test at various levels of lower-sheet speed V: A — 316L not
cracked at 0.25 mm/s; B — 316L cracked at 0.30 mm/s; C — 310
cracked at 0.15 mm/s; D — 304L-D not cracked at 0.30 mm/s.
two-speed test in Fig. 4B shows a crack that stopped shortly

after crack propagation had started. In both cases, the nor-
malized crack length Lcrack/Lweld < 1. In both the one-speed
test in Fig. 4C and the two-speed test in Fig. 4D, the normal- Fig. 4 — Close-up views of tested 310 welds showing normal-
ized crack length Lcrack/Lweld = 1. The crack in the crater was ized crack lengths: A — Partial crack after the one-speed
excluded from Lcrack or Lweld. test at 0.075 mm/s; B — partial crack after the two-speed
Figure 5 shows the SEM image of the fracture surface of test at 0.7 and then 0.035 mm/s; C — full crack after the one-
304-C after the two-speed test. The first speed was 0.7 speed test at 0.2 mm/s; D — full crack after the two-speed
mm/s and the second speed was 0.4 mm/s. The dendritic test at 0.7 and then 0.2 mm/s.
fracture surface confirmed the crack had been caused by so-
lidification cracking (Ref. 2). In making this weld, an addi- in the order of 304L, 316L, and 310. The V levels of the transi-
tional Ar shielding at 4.72 × 10–4 m3/s (60 ft3/h) behind the tion ranges of 304L and 316L were significantly higher than
torch was used. This helped to clearly reveal the fracture that of 310, suggesting that both 304L and 316L resist solidifi-
surface by keeping it from becoming oxidized. cation cracking significantly better than 310.
The results of the two-speed TMW test of 304L, 316L, and Figure 7 shows the results of the two-speed TMW tests of
310 are shown in Fig. 6A–C, with the normalized crack length ferritic stainless steel 430 and duplex stainless steel 2205. The
plotted against the lower-sheet speed V. As shown, a transi- transition range of 430 appeared to be at a V level slightly high-
tion range of V existed between no cracking and full cracking. er than that of 2205, suggesting 430 resists solidification
The level of V at which the transition range existed decreased cracking slightly better than 2205.

WELDING RESEARCH
Discussion
Consistency with Varestraint Test Results
In the TMW test, the lower the V level of the transition
range, the easier it was for the motion of the lower sheet to
cause solidification cracking and hence the higher the crack
susceptibility became. The two-speed TMW test results shown
in Figs. 6 and 7 are summarized in Fig. 8. V was plotted upside
down so the highest crack susceptibility was near the top of
the plot just like the highest crack length was near the top for
the most crack-susceptible alloy in the Varestraint test. Figure
8 shows the transition range was at the lowest V level for 310
and highest for 304L and 316L, i.e., the crack susceptibility
was the highest for 310 and lowest for 304L and 316L. The
crack susceptibility decreased in the order of 310 > 2205 > 430
> 316L > 304L-C.
Based on the WRC-1992 diagram (Ref. 22), the Cr equiva-
lent was defined as Creq = wt-% Cr + wt-% Mo + 0.7 (wt-%
Nb). The Ni equivalent was defined as Nieq = wt-% Ni + 35 Fig. 5 — SEM image showing the dendritic fracture surface of
304L-C, which confirms solidification cracking.
(wt-% C) + 20 (wt-% N) + 0.25 (wt-% Cu). In Table 1, the
Creq/Nieq ratio was calculated using these formulas for each
stainless steel based on its composition. In Fig. 9, the transi- mm/s. When the one-speed TMW test was to be conducted
tion range of V for each stainless steel in Fig. 8 was plotted for comparison, 321A was already used up. The additional
against its Creq/Nieq ratio. The curve of the crack susceptibili- material available, i.e., 321B, differed from 321A slightly in
ty vs. Creq/Nieq based on the Varestraint data (Ref. 1) was also composition. As shown in Table 1, 321A contained 0.013
included in Fig. 9 for comparison. As shown, the relative wt-% N and 0.3 wt-% Ti, and 321B contained 0.016 wt-%
crack susceptibility based on the transition range of V in the N and 0.2 wt-% Ti. The slightly higher Ti content of 321A
TMW test for crack propagation was consistent with the rela- was probably required to match its slightly higher C con-
tive crack susceptibility based on the Varestraint test data. tent, i.e., to tie up C in the HAZ as TiC so that no Cr23C6
This suggests the TMW test can be applied to stainless steels would form to cause grain-boundary corrosion (Refs. 1, 2).
to evaluate their susceptibility to solidification cracking. As Figure 10B shows the results of the one-speed TMW test of
mentioned previously, however, the TMW test has several 321B. The transition range of V was 0.34–0.35 mm/s,
significant advantages over the Varestraint test (Ref. 21). which was much higher than that of 321A (0.13–0.20
mm/s) and, in fact, even higher than that of 304LC
321 Microstructure and Crack Resistance (0.27–0.325 mm/s, as shown previously in Fig. 6A). Thus,
the crack susceptibility of 321B was much lower than that
Figure 10A shows the results of the two-speed TMW of 321A and even lower than that of 304LC, as shown in
test on 321A. The transition range of V was 0.13–0.20 Figs. 10C–D and 8. These results were surprising.
A B C
Fig. 6 — Results of the TMW two-speed tests of austenitic stainless steels: A — 304L; B — 316L; C — 310.

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 7 — Results of the two-speed TMW test: A — Ferritic stainless steel 430; B — duplex stainless steel 2205.
Although 321A was tested with the two-speed TMW better rearrange the grains to accommodate tensile strains
test and 321B was tested with the one-speed TMW, the without cracking (Ref. 23). It can also have a greater grain-
test results shown in Fig. 10 were not believed to be affect- boundary area to distribute and dilute harmful impurities (S
ed significantly by the difference between the two versions and P) or low-melting segregates (Ref. 2). However, it is un-
of the TMW test. As will be shown later in this research, clear how fine grains formed in 321B. To answer the question,
the results of the one-speed test were similar to those of quenching was conducted during welding. A 1.6-mm-thick
the two-speed test. Thus, the much lower crack susceptibil- sheet was selected because quenching can be effective in bead-
ity of 321B than 321A was likely to be real. As shown in on-plate welding of a thin sheet. Additionally, the weld pool
Table 1, Creq/Nieq = 1.658 for 321A and 1.743 for 321B. As can be pushed out and the sheet can be rapidly cooled by liquid
indicated by the Varestraint test curve in Fig. 9, the crack Wood’s metal. The material 321C contained 0.01 wt-% N and
susceptibility did not change much between Creq/Nieq = 1.5 0.16 wt-% Ti, as shown in Table 1. It had a Creq/Nieq = 1.767,
and Creq/Nieq = 2.0. Thus, the small difference between which is very close to that of Creq/Nieq = 1.743 for 321B.
Creq/Nieq = 1.658 for 321A and Creq/Nieq = 1.743 for 321B Figure 11 shows the evidence of equiaxed dendritic
could not be the reason for the much lower crack suscepti- grains growing in the mushy zone of 321C. Particles ap-
bility of 321B. peared to be present within the equiaxed grains (indicated
To find out why 321B was much less susceptible to so- by arrows). They are likely TiN particles. Equiaxed grains
lidification cracking than 321A, their lap welds were cut have been shown to nucleate from TiN particles in GTAW
vertically along the welding direction near the centerlines of ferritic stainless steels containing N and Ti (Refs. 24,
of the welds. The welds made without moving the lower 25). For instance, Koseki et al. (Ref. 25) showed (by
sheet were selected because the longitudinal vertical cross quenching with liquid Sn during welding) equiaxed grains
sections could be prepared without interference from grew from the TiN nuclei in a Fe-19Cr-2Mo-0.19Ti-
cracks. 0.0162N ferritic stainless steel. They showed coarse
The fusion-zone microstructure of 321A is shown in Fig. columnar grains in GTAW of Fe-17Cr-0.007Ti-0.0097N but
10E. Coarse, long, columnar grains grew along the welding fine equiaxed grains in Fe-17Cr-0.3Ti-0.0092N.
direction and upward toward the top of the weld. As shown In this study, an attempt was made to measure the com-
in Fig. 10F, fine equiaxed grains were present in the fusion position of the particles, such as those inside the equiaxed
zone of 321B, much finer than those in 321A. The enlarged grains in Fig. 11B. However, no significant Ti was found be-
micrographs in Fig. 10G and F again show the striking mi- cause TiN particles already dissolved in the acid solution
crostructural difference between the two 321 stainless during etching. Only larger particles that still remained
steels. Both lacy  and skeletal  were visible in the fusion showed significant Ti.
zone, the latter of which was easier to see in 321A. To still verify that TiN can form in 321B, its solidifica-
To sum up, significant grain refining was evident in 321B, tion path was calculated based on its exact composition in
and it significantly reduced the crack susceptibility. Grain re- Table 1. The thermodynamics software Pandat™ 2019 (Ref.
fining is known to reduce the susceptibility to solidification 26), the iron-alloy database PanFe 2019 (Ref. 27), and the
cracking (Ref. 2). A semisolid with fine equiaxed grains can Scheil solidification model (Ref. 2) were used. As shown in

Kou 2019115 SuppLayout.qxp_Layout 1 9/11/20 3:31 PM Page 261
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 — Summary of the two-speed TMW test results in Figs.

6 and 7. 310 is most susceptible because even a very slow V
(e.g., 0.05 mm/s) can make it crack. The transition range of V
increases; hence, crack susceptibility decreases in the order
of 310 > 2205 > 430 > 316L > 304L-C. Fig. 9 — Susceptibility of stainless steels as a function of
Creq/Nieq with Cr equivalent Creq and Ni equivalent Nieq defined
by WRC-1992 (Ref. 22). The curve is based on data from the
Fig. 12A, TiN precipitated from the liquid, which can serve Varestraint test (Ref. 1).
as the heterogeneous nuclei for -ferrite to nucleate and
grow into equiaxed grains. The solidification path was also than that of 304L though still not close to that of 310. This
calculated for 321B without N, as shown in Fig. 12B. There is likely because the Ni content in 316L was significantly
were no solid precipitates from the liquid before  started higher in the study of Arata et al. (Ref. 28), i.e., 15.1 wt-%,
to form. and in the study of Senda et al. (Ref. 29), i.e., 13.0 wt-%,
It seems reasonable to expect grain refining in 321 when than in the present study (10.0 wt-%).
there are more N and Ti available to form TiN precipitates as
potential nucleation sites. However, grain refining may de- New Explanation for Susceptibility
pend not only on the chemical composition but also the
welding conditions. For instance, grain refining did not oc- A new explanation for the susceptibility of austenitic stain-
cur in lap welding of 3.2-mm-thick 321A, but it occurred in less steels to solidification cracking is proposed as follows
bead-on-plate welding of 1.6-mm-thick 321C even though N based on the continuity of the liquid between columnar den-
and Ti were both less in 321C. drites in the mushy zone. If the liquid is continuous, colum-
nar dendrites are separated from each other everywhere;
Crack Initiation and Propagation thus, it is easy for tension (induced by welding) to pull them
apart to cause solidification cracking. However, if the liquid is
The results of the one-speed test of 304L-D, 316L, and 310 depleted to become discontinuous and isolated, columnar
are shown in Fig. 13. As shown in Table 1, 304L-C and 304L-D dendrites can bond to each other early to resist cracking at lo-
were very close in composition. The transition range increased cations where no liquid exists. No matter if the bonding is -
in the order of 310, 316L, and 304L-D, with 304L-D and 316L to-, -to-, or -to-, a solid bridge between dendrites is
being significantly higher than 310. The one- and two-speed much stronger than a liquid bridge. Thus, the susceptibility
TMW test results of 310, 316L, and 304L in Figs. 6 and 13 are can be much lower if the liquid between columnar dendrites is
summarized in Fig. 14. It shows the one-speed test results depleted to become discontinuous and isolated. As shown in
were similar to the two-speed test results. This suggests the the next three sections, this depletion of dendrite-boundary
susceptibility of these austenitic stainless steels to the initia- liquid can be more significant in primary- solidification,
tion of solidification cracking is similar to that of the propaga- such as with 304L and 316L, than in primary- solidification,
tion of solidification cracking. Both tests showed the crack sus- such as with 310.
ceptibility decreased in the order of 310 > 316L > 304L, which
is consistent with the results of Arata et al. (Ref. 28) and Senda 304L Microstructure and Crack Resistance
et al. (Ref. 29) based on the Varestraint test.
316 stainless steel is known to cover a fairly wide range To reveal the liquid along the boundaries between colum-
of the Ni content; the more Ni that is present, the higher nar dendrites in the mushy zone, quenching during bead-
the solidification cracking susceptibility tends to be. As can on-plate welding was conducted on a single 1.6-mm sheet as
be seen in Fig. 14A and B, both the one- and two-speed previously described. Quenching can reveal the elevated-
TMW tests showed the crack susceptibility of 304L and temperature microstructure during welding. The vast major-
316L were much lower than that of 310. In Fig. 14C, howev- ity of studies on solidification cracking in stainless steels
er, the crack susceptibility of 316L was significantly higher were based on the room-temperature microstructure of the

WELDING RESEARCH
A B A
C
D
E F
G H
Fig. 11 — Equiaxed dendritic solidification mode of 321-C: A —

Longitudinal horizontal optical micrograph at the top surface
of the mushy zone near its centerline behind the weld pool;
B — boxed area in A enlarged and photographed with DIC. Ar-
Fig. 10 — Comparison between the two heats of 321: A, C, E, rows indicate likely heterogenous nucleation sites.
G — 321-A; B, D, F, H — 321-B. A–D show the TMW test results
and crack susceptibility. E–H show the longitudinal vertical
optical micrographs near the centerlines of the welds. rate encountered in arc welding. That is, the columnar den-
drites in Fig. 15B are -ferrite. This is confirmed by the
EBSD phase map in Fig. 15C, which shows the dendrites as
fusion zone, which may not exist at elevated temperatures bcc and the interdendritic regions as fcc. In the previous
during welding. study from Yu et al. (Ref. 17), EBSD was also used for phase
Figure 15 shows the results of 304L quenched during identification. However, the location of EBSD analysis was
welding. The liquid along the boundaries between -den- well behind the pool boundary and near the end of the
drites appeared discontinuous and isolated. The liquid was mushy zone, where the secondary dendrite arms were no
likely depleted by both fast back diffusion into bcc (-den- longer clear to help distinguish dendrites from interdendrit-
drites) and significant L +  +  reaction, which consumed ic regions. Consequently, the EBSD only revealed alternating
L while forming . This is further explained as follows. bands of  and . Thus, Fig. 15C provides further confirma-
Figure 15A illustrates the vertical section of the Fe-Cr-Ni tion of the primary -dendrites in the mushy zone of 304L.
phase diagram at 74 wt-% Fe (Ref. 30), showing the solidifi- As can be seen in Fig. 15B, the secondary arms of the -
cation of Fe-18Cr-8Ni, which is essentially 304. The optical dendrites were clear near the pool boundary but vague just
micrograph in Fig. 15B was taken near the centerline of the slightly behind it. That is, the secondary dendrite arms
top surface of the mushy zone. Most of the weld pool had coarsened very quickly during solidification. This was a
been pushed out by liquid Wood’s metal during quenching, clear indication of fast diffusion in -ferrite, which was
but a small amount of the quenched weld pool can still be consistent with its bcc structure. Diffusion is much faster
seen near the pool boundary, i.e., the front of the mushy in a bcc solid such as -ferrite than in a fcc solid such as
zone. Columnar dendrites growing in the welding direction austenite  (Refs. 31, 32). Back diffusion can be expected
are visible. to be much faster in -dendrites than in -dendrites. Fast
In view of Fig. 15A, 304 (~ Fe-18Cr-8Ni) can be expected back diffusion causes the interdendritic liquid to diminish
to solidify as primary -ferrite under the normal cooling quickly during solidification (Ref. 23). This has been

WELDING RESEARCH
shown in Al alloys (Refs. 33-36), which leads to discontinu-

ous dendrite-boundary liquid and hence early bonding of
Al-rich dendrites to each other to better resist solidifica-
A
tion cracking (Refs. 37, 38).
Figure 15D shows the SEM images of the upper boxed
area in Fig. 15B. The boundary between two columnar -
dendrites is visible. The smooth phase that exists continu-
ously along the dendrite boundary is the  that has formed
by the L +  +  three-phase reaction during solidification. As
can be seen in the vertical section for 304 in Fig. 15A, the
apex of the L +  +  three-phase triangle was only slightly
below the liquidus temperature of 304. Thus, the three-
phase reaction may occur shortly after solidification starts,
i.e., shortly behind the pool boundary. The liquid that still
existed in the mushy zone was quenched. During elec-
troetching, the quenched residual liquid L dissolved in the B
etching solution and left behind holes and grooves. A similar
microstructure is shown in Fig. 15E, which is the SEM image
of the lower boxed area in Fig. 15B. In the SEM image of a
304 stainless steel quenched during directional solidifica-
tion and electroetched with oxalic acid,  also appeared
smooth and the quenched residual liquid was also etched
out as holes or grooves (Refs. 39–41).
It is worth pausing here to point out that, in austenitic
stainless steels, an L +  +  reaction may occur by the peri-
tectic reaction L +   , which consumes both L and  to
form . The reaction may also occur by the eutectic reaction
L   + , which consumes L to form both  and . It seems
that a clear composite-like eutectic of  +  has not been re-
Fig. 12 — Solidification paths of 321-B: A — With the exact
ported. In fact, it is still unclear now which reaction occurs composition of 321-B used (including 0.016 wt-% N and 0.2
in 304 stainless steel. wt-% Ti) and showing precipitation of TiN from the liquid be-
Thus, the liquid along the boundaries between -dendrites fore solidification starts; B — with the same composition ex-
was depleted to become discontinuous and isolated by both cept with no N and showing no precipitation.
fast back diffusion into bcc (dendrites of ) and significant
L +  +  reaction, which consumed L while forming  along the
boundaries. This explained the low susceptibility of 304L. The freezing temperature range during welding can also be diffi-
recent study of Yu et al. (Ref. 17) was the first to attribute the cult to measure accurately.
low susceptibility of 304 to the L +  +  reaction.
According to Fig. 15A, the    solid-state transforma- 316L Microstructure and Crack Resistance
tion can occur when the  +  two-phase region is reached
during cooling. In Fig. 15B, the broken horizontal line indi- Figure 16 is the microstructure of 316L quenched during
cates the onset of the    transformation. The amount of welding, shown near the centerline of the top surface of the
 decreased with increasing distance behind the line. Far be- mushy zone. Figure 16A shows an optical micrograph taken
hind this line, as shown in Fig. 15F, only thin residual  was with DIC. According to the phase diagram, calculated based
left in the -matrix of the fusion zone. Lacy -ferrite can be on the composition of 316L shown in Table 1 using the ther-
seen on the left half and skeletal -ferrite in the right half. modynamics software Pandat (Ref. 26) and the database
Thus, it is clear that the lacy/skeletal  structure cannot re- PanFe (Ref. 27), 316L should solidify as primary -ferrite.
sist solidification cracking as widely believed because it does Thus, -dendrites can be expected to grow in the mushy zone.
not even exist in the mushy zone, where solidification cracking Figure 16B and C is, respectively, the SEM images of the
occurs. It exists in the fusion zone far behind the mushy zone. upper and lower boxed areas in Fig. 16A. Figure 16C is locat-
It is worth mentioning that, for austenitic stainless ed at the boundary between two columnar grains growing in
steels, the calculated freezing temperature range may not two different directions, where much liquid was trapped
necessarily correlate well with the crack susceptibility. When when one grain impinged upon the other at an angle during
back diffusion is significant, the calculated freezing temper- solidification. As mentioned previously, the smooth phase
ature range may be too wide if the Scheil solidification mod- that existed continuously along the dendrite boundary was
el (Ref. 23) is used because the model does not consider back the  that formed by the L +  +  reaction during solidifica-
diffusion. To consider back diffusion, a kinetics model is also tion. The holes and grooves were left by the quenched resid-
needed, and the shape of dendrites needs to be assumed as ual liquid that dissolved in the etching solution during elec-
an approximation (e.g., planar, cylindrical, or spherical). The tro etching. Thus, as in the case of 304L (Fig. 15), the low
diffusion coefficients may not be readily available for multi- crack susceptibility of 316L can be attributed to the deple-
component alloys, such as austenitic stainless steels. The tion of the dendrite-boundary liquid by fast back diffusion

WELDING RESEARCH
A B C
Fig. 13 — Results of the TMW one-speed tests of austenitic stainless steels: A — 304L; B — 316L; C — 310.
into -dendrites (bcc) and the L +  +  reaction that con- back diffusion in fcc (); 2) insignificant L +  +  reaction; and
sumed L while forming . 3) long, straight -dendrite boundaries.
As in 304L, lacy or skeletal  formed not in the mushy
zone but in the fusion zone far behind it, as shown in Fig. Sulfur Increases Crack Susceptibility
16D. This, again, indicates that the lacy/skeletal  structure
cannot resist solidification cracking as was widely believed. To show that the TMW test can correctly determine the ef-
fect of sulfur on solidification cracking, additional TMW test-
310 Microstructure and Crack Resistance ing was conducted using 304L-B as the lower sheet, which con-
tained 0.003 wt-% S, and 304L-A as the upper sheet, which
Figure 17A is the vertical section of the Fe-Cr-Ni phase contained significantly more S, i.e., 0.014 wt-% S. The trans-
diagram at 55 wt-% Fe (Ref. 42). It shows Fe-25Cr-20Ni, verse cross section of the lap weld showed it consisted of 37%
which is close to 310, should solidify as primary austenite . of the upper sheet and 63% of the lower sheet. Assuming good
Figure 17B displays the microstructure of quenched 310. mixing in the weld pool, the weld S content (S%)weld = 0.37
Columnar -dendrites grew in the mushy zone. As shown, (0.014%) + 0.63 (0.003%) = 0.007%. The results of the one-
310 (~ Fe-25Cr-20Ni) should solidify as primary . This has speed TMW test are shown in Fig. 18, with those of 304L-D
been confirmed by EBSD (Ref. 17). As displayed in Fig. 17C, (Fig. 13A) included for comparison. As shown, the crack sus-
deep into the mushy zone, the -dendrites were still separat- ceptibility at 0.007 wt-% S was higher than that at 0.003 wt-%
ed by continuous liquid films. The L +  +  reaction formed S. This is consistent with the well-known fact that S increases
particles of , as can be seen in Fig. 17D. However, overall, the susceptibility of stainless steels to solidification cracking
the L +  +  reaction did not significantly form  in 310 and (Refs. 1, 2).
did not significantly consume liquid. As mentioned previ-
ously, back diffusion is much slower in fcc solids than in bcc Slower Welding Speed Increases Crack
solids. Thus, the liquid along the boundaries of -dendrites
was not significantly depleted either by back diffusion nor Susceptibility
by the L +  +  reaction. Consequently, columnar -den-
drites were separated from each by continuous liquid films To determine the effect of the welding speed (torch travel
and could thus be easily pulled apart under tension to cause speed) on solidification cracking, 304L-C was welded at
solidification cracking. 0.635 mm/s in the two-speed TMW test and compared to
The long, straight boundaries between -dendrites can be that welded at 1.27 mm/s. As shown in Fig. 19, the crack
another problem for 310. As can be seen in Fig. 17B, the - susceptibility was higher at the lower welding speed. When
dendrites often have thick primary arms with relatively short the welding speed was reduced under the same welding cur-
secondary arms. In fact, the macrographs of 310 welds show rent and voltage, the mushy zone became larger, thus
coarse, straight grains in the fusion zone (Ref. 17). On a long, widening the region vulnerable to solidification cracking.
straight boundary between -dendrites, even a very small
amount of liquid may be enough to form a continuous film, as Accuracy of Test Results
shown in Fig. 17C. A long, straight boundary is also an easy
path for crack initiation and propagation. To sum up, 310 re- The transition range is shown as the average ± error in
sists cracking poorly because thin continuous liquid films per- Figs. 6, 7, 10, 13, 18, and 19. The average was taken as the
sist along -dendrite boundaries due to the following: 1) slow centerline of the range, and the error was taken as the half

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
C
Fig. 14 — Crack susceptibility ranking of 310 > 316L > 304L: A — Based on the one-speed test (Fig. 13); B — based on the two-speed
test (Fig. 6); C — based on the Varestraint test. In A and B, the higher the transition range of V needed to cause full cracking, the
lower the susceptibility. Susceptibility ranking in A and B is consistent with that in C.
width of the range. Below the range, the normalized crack (Ref. 28), and Senda et al. (Ref. 29).
length was always zero. Above the range, it was always 1.0. When the welding conditions and the sample size are
The accuracy or repeatability of the test results is further changed, the test results are expected to be affected. Howev-
discussed as follows. er, if reasonable changes are made to all stainless steels be-
First, in each of the 12 different cases tested, a distinct ing tested, the resultant relative crack susceptibility should
transition range was observed. Second, an average of ten welds be similar. This is true with other test methods as well, such
were made in each case to determine the transition range. The as Varestraint testing.
error in the location of the transition range was mostly from
± 0.005 to ± 0.030 mm/s. In three cases, the error was larger at Strain Rates
± 0.050 mm/s. The first case involved ferritic stainless steel
430 (Fig. 7A), which is known for its severe grain growth in the It has been recognized that the strain rate plays an impor-
HAZ. The coarse HAZ grains could affect the fusion-zone grain tant role in solidification cracking (Refs. 37, 38, 43). It is obvi-
structure significantly, and this effect might vary from weld to ous that a significant amount of strain may not necessarily
weld, thus widening the error. cause solidification cracking if it is applied so slowly that solid-
The second case was duplex stainless steel 2205 (Fig. 7B). ification already ends while the strain is still increasing.
The amount of austenite and ferrite relative to each other In the Varestraint test, the global strain and the strain rate
and their distributions might vary somewhat from work- in the workpiece can be very different from the local strain and
piece to workpiece, thus widening the error. The last case in- strain rate in the mushy zone, where solidification cracking oc-
volved welding two sheets of different S contents (Fig. 18B). curs (Refs. 44, 45). Coniglio (Ref. 44) pointed out that, in Vare-
The relative amounts of the upper sheet (0.014 wt-% S) and straint testing, the weld metal shows significantly higher
the lower sheet (0.003 wt-% S) in the weld might vary some- strains (more than 2%) and strain rates (more than 100%/s)
what from weld to weld, thus causing more error. In any than the applied strain (0.5%), and the strain rate (40%/s) on
case, making more than ten welds may change the width of the workpiece surface was calculated based on  = H/(2R + H)
the transition range somewhat, but the location (the center- × 100%.  is strain, H is workpiece thickness, and R is the ra-
line of the width) of the transition range on the V-axis dius of the bending block. So, in the Varestaint test, the self-
should change less. Since the crack susceptibility is deter- induced strain is not necessarily minimized so that the exter-
mined by the location of the transition range, not the width, nally applied strain alone can be used as the crack-susceptibili-
the test results are expected to be accurate. The accuracy of ty index. This seems to be also true with other tests. Bakir et
the test results has also been shown by their consistency al. (Ref. 46) showed in the controlled tensile weldability test of
with the data from Lippold and Kotecki (Ref. 1), Arata et al. 304 stainless steel by laser beam welding that the local strain

WELDING RESEARCH
B A B A
D
C
E
D
C
F
Fig. 16 — Microstructure near the centerline of the top sur-
face of the 316L weld quenched during welding: A — Behind
the weld pool (DIC); B — SEM image of the upper boxed area
in A; C — lower boxed area in A; D — lacy/skeletal  far
behind A (DIC).
less steels during welding.

Fig. 15 — 304L quenched during welding: A — Vertical section Before quenching is applied during welding, phase trans-
of the Fe-Cr-Ni phase diagram showing Fe-18Cr-8Ni (close to formations and changes in phase fractions in the L +  and
304) solidifies as primary ferrite  (Ref. 32); B — microstructure  +  regions have already occurred under normal welding
near the centerline of the weld top surface behind the weld without quenching. The extents of the transformations in-
pool; C — phase map showing bcc dendrites and fcc interden- crease with increasing distance behind the pool boundary. Far
dritic regions; D — SEM image of upper boxed area in B; E — behind the pool boundary, transformations are nearly com-
lower boxed area in B; F — lacy/skeletal  far behind B. plete. These extents can be “frozen-in” or “captured” by
quenching because rapid cooling allows hardly any time for
rate near the crack (e.g., 18%/s) can be much higher than the diffusion to change them any further. Thus, the fractions of ,
global strain rate (e.g., 4%/s). In the TMW test of 6061 Al by , and L during normal solidification can be “frozen-in” by
GTAW, the local strain rate near the crack (e.g., 8%/s) can also quenching. This is why quenching is used both in directional
be higher than the global strain rate across the top width of solidification (Refs. 39–41) and welding (Refs. 7, 17, 25,
the weld (e.g., 0.7%/s nominal, i.e., without including the cur- 48–51).
vature effect of the weld top surface) (Ref. 47). Brooks et al. (Ref. 51) quenched stainless steel with liquid
Sn during welding. Microsegregation in the transverse direc-
Effect of Quenching tion across the dendrites was clearer near the pool boundary
and gradually faded away from the pool boundary. Liu et al.
Liquid-metal quenching during welding has been used to (Ref. 36) quenched 2014 Al (~ Al-4.4Cu) and 5086 Al (~ Al-
study solidification and phase transformations in stainless 4Mg) with liquid Wood’s metal during welding. In both cases,
steel welds (Refs. 7, 25, 48–51) since Kou and Le (Ref. 48) the dendrite arms were finer, and microsegregation was clear-
first demonstrated liquid-Sn quenching. Liu et al. (Ref. 36) er near the pool boundary and gradually coarsened and faded,
used liquid Wood’s metal to quench Al alloys during welding. respectively, away from the pool boundary. These are exam-
Yu et al. (Ref. 17) used liquid Wood’s metal to quench stain- ples showing the use of quenching to “freeze-in” the evolution

WELDING RESEARCH
A A B
B
C D
D
Fig. 18 — Effect of sulfur content on solidification cracking
susceptibility shown by the one-speed TMW test: A, C —
304L-D with 0.003 wt-% S; B, D — 304L-A (0.014 wt-% S)
welded to 304L-B (0.003 wt-% S).
cur under fast cooling during quenching. Since this is a sol-

id-state transformation that takes place after solidification
ends, it cannot affect solidification cracking. Thus, the non-
equilibrium kinetics caused by quenching-induced fast cool-
ing, whether it is the rapid solidification of the interdendrit-
Fig. 17 — 310 quenched during welding: A — Vertical section of ic liquid in the mushy zone into the metastable phase  or
the Fe-Cr-Ni phase diagram showing Fe-25Cr-20Ni (close to 310) the possible massive transformation of some -dendrites in
solidifies as primary austenite  (Ref. 42); B — microstructure the mushy zone into , do not affect the discussion on the
near the centerline of the weld top surface behind the weld crack susceptibility.
pool; C — SEM image of the small boxed area in B; D — big
boxed area in B. Wide mushy zone (~ 350 m) and coarse
grains further reduce crack resistance. Summary and Conclusions
of microstructure and microsegregation in normal welding. The new TMW test, which has several significant advan-
With primary- solidification such as in 310, the inter- tages over the most widely used Varestraint test, was utilized
dendritic liquid solidifies into  as expected. With primary- to evaluate the susceptibility of stainless steels to solidifica-
solidification such as in 304L, however, the interdendritic tion cracking. Although this study focused on austenitic
liquid solidifies into the metastable phase  (fcc) instead of grades, ferritic and duplex grades were also tested. The sus-
the equilibrium phase  (bcc). This has been confirmed by ceptibility differences among the tested austenitic grades
EBSD and is caused by fast cooling during quenching. This is were analyzed with the help of quenching during welding.
consistent with the well-known primary- solidification of Spontaneous grain refining was found to occur in some welds
304 in laser beam welding, where the cooling rate is very high. and greatly reduced their susceptibility. Furthermore, a new
At the pool boundary, as shown in Fig. 20, the solidification explanation for the susceptibility was proposed based on the
structure of the interdendritic liquid was fine cells of  for 310 continuity of the liquid along the boundaries between colum-
as well as 304L. The fine cellular solidification structure was nar dendrites and the reduction of the continuity due to the
caused by the fast cooling rate during solidification. For 304L, depletion of the liquid caused by fast back diffusion and sig-
the  cells between the dendrites were confirmed by EBSD. nificant L +  +  reaction. The TMW test further demonstrat-
Inside the 304L mushy zone, the -dendrites remained as ed the significant effect of the sulfur content and the welding
dendrites during quenching. Perhaps after the mushy zone speed on the susceptibility. The present study represents a
was solidified completely and continued to cool during significant extension beyond the recent study by Yu et al.
quenching, some -dendrites might transform into . It is (Ref. 17) on 304 and 310 without susceptibility testing. Their
still being investigated if massive transformation could oc- new explanation for the much lower susceptibility of 304

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
C D
Fig. 19 — Effect of welding speed on solidification cracking

susceptibility shown by the two-speed TMW test: A, C — 1.27
mm/s; B, D — 0.635 mm/s.
than 310 was based on the L +  +  reaction, which is includ-

Fig. 20 — Rapid solidification of the interdendritic liquid near
ed as part of the new explanation in the present study.
dendrite tips into very fine cells of : A — 304L; B — 310.
The conclusions of the present study are as follows: Boxed areas are enlarged.  (fcc) is confirmed by EBSD.
1) The new TMW test was used to evaluate the suscepti-
bility of stainless steels to solidification cracking, including
austenitic, ferritic, and duplex stainless steels. The relative 5) In 304L and 316L, the liquid between -dendrites was
crack susceptibility of 304L, 310, 316L, 430, and 2205 was discontinuous and isolated as revealed by quenching. Back
consistent with the Varestraint test data. diffusion was fast in bcc (-dendrites), and the L +  +  reac-
2) The TMW test can evaluate the crack susceptibility based tion consumed L while forming . In 310, however, the liq-
on either crack initiation or crack propagation, as demonstrat- uid between -dendrites was continuous. Back diffusion was
ed using 304L, 310, and 316L. Both tests showed that the sus- much slower in fcc (-dendrites) than bcc, and the L +  + 
ceptibility decreased in the order of 310 > 316L > 304L. reaction formed little .
3) The TMW test showed the susceptibility of 321 can 6) The much lower susceptibility of 304L and 316L than
vary significantly, from being significantly more susceptible 310 shown by the TMW test cannot be explained based on the
than 304L to less. The low-susceptibility 321 welds were fusion-zone microstructure of lacy/skeletal  in a  matrix. As
found to have very fine equiaxed grains in the fusion zone, revealed by quenching, this microstructure forms far behind
which are known to help resist solidification cracking. the mushy zones of 304L and 316L, well after solidification
Quenching 321 during welding confirmed that fine equiaxed ends. Thus, the lacy/skeletal  structure is unlikely to resist so-
grains formed in the mushy zone, most likely by heteroge- lidification cracking, as was widely believed for decades.
neous nucleation on TiN particles, as shown by thermody- 7) Increasing the S content and decreasing the welding
namic calculations. Thus, grain refining by TiN may occur in speed both tend to increase the solidification cracking suscep-
321 with sufficient Ti and N and under favorable welding tibility, as demonstrated by further TMW testing on 304L.
conditions.
4) A new explanation for crack susceptibility has been
proposed. The susceptibility is high if the liquid along the Acknowledgments
boundaries between columnar dendrites is continuous be-
cause the dendrites can be easily separated under tension.
However, it could be much lower if the liquid is depleted by This work was supported by the National Science Founda-
fast back diffusion and a significant L +  +  reaction, mak- tion under Grant No. DMR1904503. Kun Liu was a visiting
ing the liquid discontinuous and isolated and allowing the graduate student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison,
dendrites to bond to each other early to resist cracking supported by the China Scholarship Council under Grant No.
wherever the liquid is absent. 201706220201. The author, Sindo Kou, would like to thank

WELDING RESEARCH
Toshihiko Koseki, Department of Materials Engineering, The 21. Savage, W. F., and Lundin, C. D. 1965. The Varestraint test.
University of Tokyo, Japan, for helpful discussions. Welding Journal 44(10): 433-s to 442-s.
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Zou Part II-Supplement Layout.qxp_Layout 1 9/10/20 10:39 AM Page 271
WELDING RESEARCH
Effects of Filler Wire Intervention

on Gas Tungsten Arc: Part II —
Dynamic Behaviors of Liquid Droplets
A novel sensing method for monitoring and controlling weld quality was tested by
studying droplet behavior and its effect on the arc
BY S. ZOU, Z. WANG, S. HU, G. ZHAO, W. WANG, AND Y. CHEN
technique. It is well known that the stability of metal fabri-

ABSTRACT cation with electric arc as the heat source is affected by
many factors under harsh working conditions, and the tradi-
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), the filler wire in-
tional open-loop, constant-parameter automated GTAW
creases the deposition efficiency and influences the weld-
ing stability. Its interactions with the gas tungsten arc (GTA) usually does not possess intelligent perception, nor can it
are significant to better understand the welding process correct the welding process in real time to make it advance
and to monitor and control weld quality. In view of this, the toward the ideal direction. Therefore, real-time monitoring
first part of the work, Effects of Filler Wire Intervention on and controlling of the welding process is significant to en-
Gas Tungsten Arc: Part I — Mechanism, explained the inter- sure weld quality.
action mechanisms between the filler wire and the gas A feasible proposal for the monitoring and controlling of
tungsten arc based on the proposed arc-sensing method of weld quality is often based on some particular understanding
detecting probe voltage (i.e., the voltage signal between the of the welding process. Prior to putting forth such a proposal,
filler wire and the tungsten electrode/workpiece). In this it is critical to mine the characteristic information directly or
second part of the work, experiments were designed to
indirectly related to the state of the welding process based on a
make the filler wire melt in different areas of the arc to
study the dynamic behaviors of the droplet and its effect specific sensing method. This information may provide useful
on the arc. Typical metal transfer modes are discussed, and clues or can be used as the input for feedback control of weld
droplet oscillation is geometrically characterized through quality. Over the years, physical information accompanying
image processing and then analyzed in the time domain the welding process, such as spectral (Ref. 1), infrared thermal
and time-frequency domain. The results show that the liq- (Ref. 2), acoustic (Ref. 3), and electrical (Ref. 4), has received
uid droplet affects the arc through its transfer to the weld extensive academic attention. Researchers have also obtained
pool, its oscillation, and occupying the arc space. Informa- some valuable information by virtue of the physical properties
tion about these dynamic behaviors can be easily reflected inherent in the arc welding process, such as analyzing the dy-
in the probe voltage, which would be a valuable signal to namic behaviors of the weld pool based on the principle of liq-
monitor the process stability in GTAW with filler wire. This
uid surface specular reflection (Ref. 5).
work shows the potential of the proposed sensing method
for monitoring and controlling weld quality in all welding po- Although diverse potential information and mechanisms
sitions, GTA-based additive manufacturing, etc. have been found, researchers have devoted more attention
to the weld pool status than the influence of the liquid met-
al generated from the filler wire on the welding process. For
KEYWORDS GTAW, the employment of filler wire can not only form a
reasonable convex shape on both sides of the weld bead, but
• Arc Voltage • Droplet Oscillation • Metal Transfer it can also improve the weld strength and help to optimize
• Filler Wire • Arc Sensing • Gas Tungsten Arc Welding the weld composition with the addition of diverse alloying
(GTAW) elements. However, as part of the welding process, the filler
wire tends to increase the instability of the process, thus af-
fecting the weld quality. Given all of this information, the
Introduction goal of this work is to analyze the effects of filler wire inter-
vention on the gas tungsten arc (GTA). To this end, an inno-
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), a conventional metal vative but simple sensing method of detecting the probe
fabrication technique, has been widely used in various in- voltage (i.e., the voltage signal between the filler wire and
dustrial fields to produce high value-added products. Under tungsten electrode/workpiece) was proposed to help the
the traction of information technology, it is a recent trend analysis. This method is expected to have potential for the
to further improve the automation and intelligence of this condition monitoring of the welding process.
https://doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.025

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 1 — Experimental system: A — Schematic diagram; B — actual system.
Fig. 1A, the overall system was composed of the following

parts: a welding system consisting of a Fronius MagicWave
4000 GTAW power source (constant-current mode), welding
torch, a CK Worldwide WF-3 wire feeder, and SWHT-1A-2C
welding workbench; a visual sensing system, including an
Acuteye high-speed camera and a xenon lamp used to illumi-
nate the field of interest; and an electrical signal acquisition
system, where data acquisition was achieved by Hall sensors,
USB-4711A data acquisition card, and computer MATLAB
programming. The actual overall system is shown in Fig. 1B.
Experimental Design
Fig. 2 — Schematic diagram of the experimental design. The workpieces were Q235 mild steel plates with a
dimension of 300 × 60 × 4 mm. ER70S-6 filler wire with a
In the first part of this work (Ref. 6), the interaction mech- diameter of 1.2 mm was used as filler material. Pure argon
anisms between the GTA and the filler wire as a metal conduc- of 99.99% was used as shielding gas with a flow rate of 10
tor were clarified, where a tungsten probe was employed to re- L/min. The tungsten electrode was 2.4 mm in diameter
place the filler wire and to interact with the arc, while the dy- and was placed with a protruding length of 5 mm from
namic behaviors of the liquid metal generated at the end of the the nozzle. Bead-on-plate welding was done in the flat
filler wire were avoided. Therefore, in this second part of the position.
work, the metal transfer and the behavior of pendant droplets, As illustrated in Fig. 2, the experiments designed in this
as well as their effects on the arc, are thoroughly discussed. part of the work had the end of the filler wire melt in dif-
This work helps to understand the dynamic behaviors of the ferent spatial areas of the arc column to study the dynamic
liquid droplet and paves the way for real-time control of weld behaviors of the liquid metal generated at the end of the
quality based on the proposed sensing method. filler wire. In all experiments from #1 to #5, filler wire was
employed and fed from the front of the weld pool, and the
ratio of the welding speed (v) to wire feed speed (vf) was
Experimental Setup and Design constant. The height of the filler wire was changed by ad-
justing the electrode tip to workpiece distance (ETWD) so
Experimental Setup that its end could be melted at different heights and the
filler wire could also be melted at different horizontal posi-
Figure 1 shows the experimental system. As presented in tions by changing vf. The specific experimental parameters
Table 1 — Experimental Parameters
Experiment I (A) v (cm/min) ETWD* (mm) ETFWD** (mm) vf (cm/min)

#1 150 5.25 5.5 3 76.2
#2 150 5.25 8.5 3 76.2
#3 150 3.5 7.5 3 50.8
#4 150 5.25 7.5 3 76.2
#5 150 7 7.5 3 101.6
*Note: ETWD means electrode tip to workpiece distance; **Note: ETFWD means electrode tip to filler wire distance.

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 — Arc shapes of GTAW with filler wire: A — Bridging transfer (ETWD = 6 mm); B — free-flight transfer (ETWD = 9 mm).
are shown in Table 1, and these experiments were conduct- transfer modes. After the filler wire was inserted into the arc
ed with the welding torch in the stationary position while column, the arc shape was indeed disturbed to various de-
the welding workbench was moving. grees. As the melting of the filler wire generated a more dy-
As in the first part of the work (Ref. 6), the probe volt- namic liquid droplet, the arc shape also changed dynamical-
age (Upa, i.e., the voltage between the filler wire and the ly. Similar to the effect of the metal probe on the arc shape
workpiece) and the arc voltage (U, i.e., the voltage between in the first part of this work (Ref. 6), the deflection of the
the tungsten electrode and the workpiece) were collected arc shape and its cross-section change can also be observed
simultaneously at a frequency of 1024 Hz. The electrical after the filler wire was introduced.
signal data was then filtered by a 12th-order Butterworth For the interrupted bridging transfer in Fig. 3A, when
low-pass filter with a passband frequency of 100 Hz and a there was a liquid bridge between the weld pool and the
40 dB attenuation at a cutoff frequency of 150 Hz. In addi- filler wire (at 73.24 and 75.20 ms), the arc was attracted by
tion, the measured welding current was used to ensure the filler wire, otherwise the arc would be repelled by the
that the voltage fluctuations were not caused by the cur- filler wire (at 0 and 81.05 ms). This can be judged by the de-
rent fluctuations. gree of deflection on the left side of the arc. For the free-
flight transfer in Fig. 3B, the filler wire repelled the arc the
entire time due to the absence of the liquid bridge. This is
Results and Discussion because the liquid bridge integrated the filler wire and the
weld pool, so the filler wire was no longer suspended alone
Metal Transfer in the arc column but became part of the anode, which
changed the main conductive path of the arc.
In GTAW with filler wire, the metal transfer modes were Critical metal transfer modes were realized in Experi-
generally divided into bridging transfer and free-flight ments #1 and #2, and the corresponding electrical signals
transfer. During the bridging transfer, a short-circuit liquid are respectively shown in Figs. 4 and 5. In Fig. 4, the unin-
bridge was formed between the end of the filler wire and the terrupted bridging transfer was maintained for a period of
weld pool. While in free-flight transfer, the liquid droplet time as shown in I1. U was relatively stable, and Upa was
could not immediately contact the weld pool after it left the nearly zero due to the short circuiting between the weld
end of the filler wire. Apparently, the metal transfer mode is pool and filler wire. During this time, the filler wire had sta-
related to the distance of the filler wire from the weld pool. ble effects on the arc just like a static metal probe, while also
Figure 3 shows the arc shapes in these two typical metal attracting the arc. However, the voltage signal was not as

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 — Electrical signals in Experiment #1 (ETWD = 5.5 mm).
Fig. 5 — Electrical signals in Experiment #2 (ETWD = 8.5 mm).
stable during interrupted bridge transfer as it was during In Fig. 5, the liquid metal is in a hybrid mode of interrupted
uninterrupted bridge transfer. From I2 to I3, the liquid bridging transfer (I1–I3) and free-flight transfer (I4–I5). It is
bridge suddenly broke, contributing to a moderate increase conspicuous that the trends of voltage signals under the inter-
in U and a steep rise in Upa, and it displayed the opposite rupted bridging transfer mode shown in Figs. 4 and 5 are dif-
rule for the process from I4 to I5. This is because the liquid ferent. The short-circuit liquid bridge only existed for a very
bridge brought the anode closer to the cathode, which short- short time during the bridging transfer at the ETWD in Fig. 5,
ed the travel of the electron flow and made U smaller. which caused the voltage signals to stay at a higher value for a
The formation and breaking of the liquid bridge also longer time and generate significant pulse-like fluctuations.
caused the changes in both U and Upa, while its effect on Upa The frequency of metal transfer was also lower, which reduced
was more significant. In the practical welding process, it also the frequency of the arc being periodically attracted and re-
caused a flickering arc and a series of crack sounds. When pelled by the filler wire. Moreover, the arc voltage, after each
the filler wire was close to the workpiece, the interrupted metal transfer, was almost lower than before each metal trans-
bridging transfer with the above phenomenon easily to oc- fer because the liquid metal that originally occupied the local
curred at a fast metal transfer frequency. arc space was transferred to the weld pool and the influence of

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 — Flow chart of the image processing algorithm. Fig. 7 — Schematic diagram of image processing.
the filler wire on the arc voltage was reduced. It could be in-
ferred that the difference in arc voltage before and after the
metal transfer was related to the amount of metal transferred
each time. As for free-flight transfer, the arc voltage will only
drop in moderation due to the absence of the liquid bridge.
Furthermore, once the droplet is separated from the end of
the filler wire, the distance between the filler wire and the weld
pool will suddenly increase and the space occupied by the
droplet will be released in a short time, so Upa will rise immedi-
ately. Besides, after metal transfer, the droplet will sometimes
oscillate (e.g., I6–I10), which will cause diverse degrees of fluc-
tuations in both U and Upa, just like the dynamic effects of the
metal probe on the arc in the first part of the work (Ref. 6).
From the above, Upa could be used to conveniently moni- Fig. 8 — Schematic diagram of tracking the feature point.
tor the status of the metal transfer. The information, such
as the mode and frequency of metal transfer and the exis-
point of the fitted line segment was selected as a starting
tence time of the short-circuit liquid bridge, could be more
point to track the feature point along the edge of the droplet
clearly reflected in Upa than in U.
(as demonstrated in ROI2 in Fig. 7). During the tracking
procedure, if an edge point of the droplet was detected in
Characterization of Droplet Behavior the left neighborhood of the current point (as shown in Fig.
8), the detected point would become a new current point,
As shown in Fig. 5, the liquid droplet can oscillate back otherwise the current point was the feature point. D can be
and forth at the end of the filler wire before it enters the derived by calculating the distance from this feature point to
weld pool. To characterize this dynamic behavior, an image the symmetry axis of the electrode, which can then be used
processing algorithm was developed to calculate the distance to geometrically characterize the dynamic behavior of the
between the edge of the droplet and the symmetry axis of liquid droplet in the time domain.
the tungsten electrode (D). Its processing flow and schemat- The behaviors of pendant droplets were studied based
ic diagram are respectively shown in Figs. 6 and 7. on Experiments #3, #4, and #5, where different wire feed
Figure 7 shows two regions of interest (ROIs), the tung- speeds were employed. Experimental results at different
sten electrode (ROI1) and the filler wire (ROI2), were seg- wire feed speeds are shown in Fig. 9. In Fig. 9A, within a
mented from the original image, and their edge points were period of time after the last metal transfer, the pendant
extracted by a Sobel operator. For ROI1, the position of the droplet remaining at the end of the filler wire was too
symmetry axis of the electrode was obtained by calculating small to oscillate significantly (I1 and I2), and D and U
the average horizontal coordinate of electrode edge points. kept the downward and upward trends, respectively, which
For ROI2, Hough transformation was used for linear fitting showed that the end of the filler wire was getting closer
of the wire edges, and then the distance (number of pixels) and closer to the arc axis during this period. Once the liq-
between the two fitted line segments was calculated to ob- uid droplet contacted the weld pool, it quickly transferred
tain the actual width of one pixel based on the actual diame- from the filler wire to the weld pool under the influence of
ter of filler wire. To locate the feature point of the droplet surface tension and gravity. Since the amount of filler wire
edge closest to the symmetry axis of the electrode, one end- melted in a short time was less than the amount of liquid

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 — Experimental results at different wire feed speeds: A — Experiment #3 (vf = 50.8 cm/min); B — Experiment #4 (vf = 76.2
cm/min); C — Experiment #5 (vf = 101.6 cm/min).
metal entering the weld pool, the end of the filler wire was ment (as shown in I2). Such a trend gradually became less
far away from the symmetry axis of the tungsten electrode pronounced with increasing wire feed speed, as shown in
(as shown in I1) when the droplet transfer was just com- Fig. 9B and C.
pleted. Moreover, the further the filler wire was from the As the melting rate of the filler wire gradually stabilized
arc, the slower the melting rate, so the end of the filler and the size of the droplet increased, the oscillation of the
wire approached the arc again at a decaying rate of move- pendant droplet gradually became apparent. It can be ob-

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
served in Fig. 9A that the curve of D gradually changed from C

decreasing to fluctuating up and down after a metal trans-
fer, which shows that the liquid droplet was gradually oscil-
lating back and forth. This is because the liquid droplet has a
free surface and it hangs in the arc space. Any random initial
disturbance and uneven forces can easily trigger its oscilla-
tion. In Fig. 9A, I3 to I5 show the cases where a droplet with
a volume oscillated around the end of the filler wire under
the action of gravity and arc force as well as the blowing
force of shielding gas, and its shape was constantly chang-
ing. As the wire feed speed increased, the metal transfer fre-
quency increased, and because the droplet volume can only
increase to a limited extent, its oscillation amplitude also
decreased relatively, as presented in Fig. 9B and C.
A small enough droplet will not cause a large fluctuation
in the voltage signals even if it oscillates. As the droplet
grew, the area of the arc space it occupied gradually in-
creased and its influence on the arc also increased, so the Fig. 10 — Spectrogram of continuous wavelet transform in Ex-
droplet oscillation could be reflected in the voltage signals. periment #3 (vf = 50.8 cm/min): A — D; B — Upa; C — U.
The droplet oscillation followed a similar mechanism to the
dynamic disturbance of the arc space by the metal probe that as time increased, the oscillation frequency of the droplet
used in the first part of this work (Ref. 6), which also caused had a continuous downward trend from about 30 Hz to less
the voltage signals to oscillate regularly. If the wire feed than 20 Hz, and then remained stable. The same trend also ap-
speed is too slow, the end of the filler wire will be in the edge peared in U and Upa. As the wire feed speed increased, this con-
area of the arc, and then the droplet oscillation will cause a tinuous downward trend gradually became inconspicuous and
significant change in the probe voltage but will not be easily the droplet oscillation frequency in the initial stage shifted to a
captured by the arc voltage, which also corresponds to an lower frequency band, as presented in Fig. 11. When the wire
unstable melting of the filler wire. If the wire feed speed is feed speed was further increased, as shown in Fig. 12, the ini-
too fast, its interference with the arc will be aggravated, tial oscillation frequency of the droplet directly appeared at
which will be detrimental to the stability of the arc. about 20 Hz and then remained relatively stable. It can be seen
from the above analysis that the initial oscillation frequency
Time-Frequency Characteristics of Droplet was affected by the wire feed speed. This is because the in-
Oscillation crease in the wire feed speed brouht the droplet closer to the
symmetry axis of the electrode, which weakened the asymme-
To further clarify the frequency characteristics of the try of the force on the left and right of the droplet. Although
droplet oscillation and its effect on the electrical signals, the the droplet can oscillate at a lower frequency when the wire
data of Experiments #3, #4, and #5 (the data processed was feed speed increases, its magnitude is not as large as the mag-
taken between two bridge transfers) was converted from the nitude at the same oscillation frequency when the wire feed
time domain to the time-frequency domain for analysis us- speed is smaller.
ing continuous wavelet transform. The selected mother It can be further observed that no matter how the oscilla-
wavelet was the complex Morlet wavelet with a bandwidth tion frequency of the droplet changes, the oscillation frequen-
parameter of 3 Hz and a center frequency of 3 Hz. cy of the voltage signals U and Upa can follow the change,
The results of continuous wavelet transform are shown in which means that the voltage signal can indeed be used as a
Figs. 10–12. It can be observed from the change of D in Fig. 10 characteristic electrical signal to describe the droplet oscilla-

WELDING RESEARCH
A A
B B
C C
Fig. 11 — Spectrogram of continuous wavelet transform in Ex- Fig. 12 — Spectrogram of continuous wavelet transform in Ex-
periment #4 (vf = 76.2 cm/min): A — D; B — Upa; C — U. periment #5 (vf = 101.6 cm/min): A — D; B — Upa; C — U.
tion. Furthermore, the influence of droplet oscillation on Upa Conclusions

is greater than that on U because the fluctuation magnitude
of Upa was greater, and in the early stage of droplet oscillation, This part of the work analyzed the dynamic behaviors of
when U had not noticeable fluctuations, Upa had been able to droplets in cold-wire GTAW based on the proposed local arc-
reflect the droplet oscillation. It can thus be concluded that sensing method of detecting probe voltage. The following
Upa can more clearly characterize the droplet oscillation than main conclusions can be drawn:
U, and when the droplet size is not large enough, it can detect 1) The dynamic behaviors of the droplets affecting the GTA
droplet oscillation more sensitively than U. Therefore, Upa can can be roughly divided into the following: the droplet transfer
be considered for use in monitoring droplet oscillation. to the weld pool, occupying the original arc space with differ-

WELDING RESEARCH
ent volumes, and the dynamic oscillation in different areas of and Regional Demonstration Project of Marine Economic
the arc column. Information about these dynamic behaviors Innovation and Development (Grant No.: BHSF2017-10).
can be easily reflected in the probe voltage (Upa).
2) For the bridging transfer, the formation and breaking
of the liquid bridge will cause the changes in both Upa and References
arc voltage (U), while its effect on Upa is more significant. For
free-flight transfer, once the droplet is separated from the 1. Huang, Y. M., Wu, D., Zhang, Z. F., Chen, H. B., and Chen, S.
filler wire, Upa will also respond immediately. Thus, Upa can B. 2017. EMD-based pulsed TIG welding process porosity defect
be used to conveniently monitor the metal transfer. detection and defect diagnosis using GA-SVM. Journal of Materials
3) Due to the asymmetrical force, the droplet is liable to Processing Technology 239: 92–102. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatpro-
oscillate, and will cause the voltage signals to oscillate after tec.2016.07.015
having a volume. The increase in the wire feed speed will 2. Chokkalingham, S., Chandrasekhar, N., and Vasudevan, M.
bring the droplet closer to the arc axis and weaken the asym- 2012. Predicting weld bead width and depth of penetration from
metry of the force, thus tending to reduce the initial oscilla- infrared thermal image of weld pool using artificial neural net-
tion frequency. Besides, Upa can more clearly characterize the work. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing 23(5): 1995–2001. DOI:
droplet oscillation than U. 10.1784/insi.2012.54.5.272
3. Wang, H., and Kovacevic, R. 2002. Feasibility study of
In the practical GTAW process, a stable and reasonable acoustic sensing for the welding pool mode in variable-polarity
metal transfer may not always be guaranteed because of the plasma arc welding. Proceeding of the Institute of Mechanical En-
dynamic time variation of this process and other random gineers, Part B. Journal of Engineering Manufacture 216(10):
factors, such as unstable wire feeding, the subsidence of the 1355–1366. DOI:10.1243/095440502320405449
weld pool during the welding of butt joints, and the varia- 4. Wang, Z. J., Zhang, Y. M., and Wu, L. 2010. Measurement
tion of the deposited layer height caused by heat accumula- and estimation of weld pool surface depth and weld penetration in
tion during GTA-based additive manufacturing. Thus, it pulsed gas metal arc welding. Welding Journal 89(6): 117-s to 126-s.
makes sense to introduce in-process monitoring and even 5. Chen, J. S., Chen, J., Zhang, K., Feng, Z., and Zhang, Y. M.
feedback control of quality stability. In light of this, the 2018. Dynamic reflection behaviors of weld pool surface in pulsed
probe voltage may be a good indicator of characterizing the GTAW. Welding Journal 97(6): 191-s to 206-s. DOI: 10.29391/
2018.97.017
droplet behaviors and would be a candidate signal to moni- 6. Zou, S. Y., Wang, Z. J., Hu, S. S., Zhao, G. C., Wang, W. D., and
tor the process stability. From this perspective, the sensing Chen, Y. Q. 2020. Effects of filler wire intervention on gas tungsten
method proposed in this work paves the way for real-time arc: Part I — Mechanism. Welding Journal 99(9): 246-s to 254-s.
control of the weld quality for joining, such as orbital weld- DOI: 10.29391/2020.99.023
ing or welding in all positions, as well as the quality of GTA-
based additive manufacturing.
SHUANGYANG ZOU, ZHIJIANG WANG (wangzj@tju.edu.cn), SHENG-
Acknowledgments SUN HU, GUANCHENG ZHAO, and WANDONG WANG are with the
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Advanced Joining Technology, School
of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin,
China. YOUQUAN CHEN is with the Department of Mechanical
This study is supported by the National Natural Science Engineering, College of Humanities & Information, Changchun
Foundation of China (Grant No.: 51505326), Natural Sci- University of Technology, Changchun, China.
ence Foundation of Tianjin (Grant No.: 16JCQNJC04300),
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October 2020 Cover 2.

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October 2020 • Volume 99 • Number 10 CONTENTS

32 Cobot Welding Offers the Spark to Overcome

38 Understanding Fixed Automation Welding

42 Programming Your Robot is Easier Than You Think

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

OFFICERS WELDING JOURNAL

4 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

The AWS Foundation Supports Future Welders

6 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

PRESS TIME NEWS

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 7

8 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

10 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 11

12 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

• AWS has certified LTC as an ATF (aws.org/

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 13

Metal Artists Raise Their Torches to Recreate the

The artists are joining forces from a distance, each work-

Join the Journey

The Statue of Liberty stands tall in the New York Harbor,

Lighting the Way from Across the Miles

14 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

Fig. 2 — Hoffman (top) looks on as Barbie jokingly shares her

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 15

Q: I have put together a quiz that

16 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 17

Q: We use brazing paste for our

A: Refrigeration of brazing paste is

18 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

controlled rooms, rather than out on

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 19

Welding Robotics and Automation Take Center Stage at

The college offers a range of programs from apprentice-

Manufacturing Engineering Technology —

A student programs an arc welding robot at Conestoga College.

Conestoga College, a polytechnic college based in Kitchen-

20 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

Table 1 — Welding Robotics and Automation Equipment List

Welding Robotics Technicians

Fig. 2 — A pencil holder 3D printed on a standard arc welding

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 21

22 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 23

PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT Showcasing Automation and Robotics

24 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

Kit Automates CNC Milling

The Mill Application Kit for Univer-

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 25

Catalog Highlights Two

The MIG Welding Guns & Consum-

26 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

zles, and diffusers as well as a consum-

OCTOBER 2020 / WELDING JOURNAL 27

28 WELDING JOURNAL / OCTOBER 2020

Welding Automation Technologies

together to create an adaptive welding process