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The major glands that make up the endocrine system are the:
hypothalamus
pituitary
thyroid
parathyroids
adrenals
pineal body
the ovaries
the testes
· Steroid hormones can easily cross the cell membrane, and bind to
their receptors, which are intracellular or intranuclear. Upon binding to
the receptors, they pair up with another receptor – hormone complex
(dimerize).This dimer can then bind to DNA and alter its transcription.
(Figure 11.18).
·The effect of steroid hormones such as aldosterone, estrogen, FSH are
long lived, as they alter the amount of mRNA and protein in a cell.
·Amino acid derived hormones are derived from one or two aminoacid
with a few additional modifications. Thyroid hormone is synthesised
from tyrosine and includes the addition of several iodine atoms.
Epinephrine an amino acid derivative may function through second
messenger system like peptide hormones or they may actually enter
the cell and function like steroid hormones.
The regulatory molecules epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and
serotonin are in the chemical family known as monoamines. Serotonin
is derived from the amino acid tryptophan. Epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and dopamine are derived from the amino acid
tyrosine and form a subfamily of monoamines called the
catecholamines. Epinephrine (also called adrenaline) is a hormone
secreted by the adrenal gland, not a neurotransmitter, while the closely
related norepinephrine functions both as a hormone and a
neurotransmitter. Like ACh, monoamine neurotransmitters are released
by exocytosis from presynaptic vesicles, diffuse across the synaptic
cleft, and interact with specific receptor proteins in the membrane of
the postsynaptic cell. The stimulatory effects of these monoamines, like
those of ACh, must be quickly inhibited so as to maintain proper neural
control. The inhibition of monoamine action is due to (1) reuptake of
monoamines into the presynaptic neuron endings, (2) enzymatic
degradation of monoamines in the presynaptic neuron endings by
monoamine oxidase (MAO), and (3) the enzymatic degradation of
catecholamines in the postsynaptic neuron by catechol-O-
methyltransferase (COMT). The monoamine neurotransmitters do not
directly cause opening of ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane.
Instead, these neurotransmitters act by means of an intermediate
regulator, known as a second messenger. In the case of some synapses
that use catecholamines for synaptic transmission, this second
messenger is a compound known as cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP).Although other synapses can use other second messengers.
Binding of norepinephrine, for example, with its receptor in the
postsynaptic membrane stimulates the dissociation of the Gprotein
alpha subunit from the others in its complex. This subunit diffuses in
the membrane until it binds to an enzyme known as adenylate cyclase
(also called adenylylcyclase). This enzyme converts ATP to cyclic AMP
(cAMP) and pyrophosphate (two inorganic phosphates) within the
postsynaptic cell cytoplasm. Cyclic AMP in turn activates another
enzyme, protein kinase, which phosphorylates (adds a phosphate group
to) other proteins. Through this action, ion channels are opened in the
postsynaptic membrane.
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